Transmission line parameters

1. What are the different types of conductors?

a) Solid conductors
b) Stranded conductors
c) Composite stranded conductors (upto 200KV)
d) Bundle conductors ( above 400KV )
2. Why all overhead lines use ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced)
conductors?
ACSR conductors comprises of hard drawn aluminium wires stranded around a core of single
or multiple strand galvanized steel wire. They provide the necessary conductivity while the
steel provides the necessary mechanical strength and it has less corona loss.

3. What is a bundle conductor and mention the advantages of using bundled conductors?
It is a conductor made up of 2 or more sub conductors and is used as one phase
conductors.
Advantages of bundle conductors:
a) Reduced reactance
b) Reduced voltage gradient
c) Reduced corona loss
d) Reduced Interference.
4. What is the necessity of Double circuit lines and List out the advantages of double
Circuit lines?
Necessity of Double circuit lines is to enhance the power handling capacity
Advantages of double circuit lines:
a) Half of the load is shared by the other line
b) The increase in load current can be easily handled
c) In case of power failure in one circuit, the power will be supplied by the other lines.
5. What is skin effect?
The steady current when flowing through the conductor, does not distribute uniformly, rather
it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. This phenomenon is
called skin effect
6. Why Skin effect is absent in dc system?
The steady current when flowing through a conductor distributes itself uniformly over the
whole cross section of the conductor .That is why skin effect is absent in DC system.
7. On what factors the skin effect depend?
Nature of the material,Diameter of the wire, Frequency and shape of the wire.
8. Define proximity effect?
The alternating magnetic flux in a conductor caused by the current flowing in a neighboring
conductor gives rise to a circulating current which cause an apparent increase in the resistance
of the conductor. This phenomenon is called as proximity effect.
9. What is the effect of proximity effect?
It results in the non uniform distribution of current in the cross section, and the increase of
resistance.
10. What is meant by transposition of line conductors and advantages of transposition?
Transposition of conductors is defined as the interchanging the positions of the line
conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies the original
position of every other conductor at an equal distance.

Advantages of transposition:
a) Elimination of interference by using Transposition of lines
b) Average Inductance is same in each section of the line. i.e G.M.Ds are equal for each
section
11. Define Self GMD and Mutual GMD?
SelfGMD(GMR) :The Self-GMD means self geometrical mean distance .It reduces the
complexity of Inductance calculation
GMR = 0.7788r =
1
r
Mutual GMD: The mutual GMD is the geometrical mean of the distances from one
Conductor to the other.
12. What is meant by Inductive Interference?
Usually, common lines are run along the power lines, in such cases, these lines are run on the
same support and the same route. Under such conditions the power lines are likely to
interfere with the communication lines. The interference is mainly due to electromagnetic
and electrostatic fields. This can be eliminated by using transposition of lines.
13. Define Symmetrical spacing and Unsymmetrical spacing?
In 3-phase system when the line conductors are equidistant from each other then it is called
Symmetrical spacing.
Ex:

When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the conductor spacing is
said to be Unsymmetrical spacing.
Ex:

14. Write the expressions for the inductance and capacitance of a 3-ph,3-wire lines?
Inductance /ph =
H/m ln 10 2
7
|
.
|

\
|

GMR
GMD

| + |
+ | |
C , L , r
C , L , d
If
If
Capacitance/Ph =
F/m
r
GMD
ln
2
0
|
.
|

\
|
tc

If it is Symmetrical configauration, GMD =D (distance between the conductors) and
Unsymmetrical configuration, GMD =
3
3 2 1
.....
n
d d d d
15. What is the effect of capacitance on earth?

m F
h
d
C
ab
/
4
1 r
d
ln
2
2
0
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
H
=
c
+ |
ab
C , h If i.e
h
ab
C
1
o


Transmission line theory and Mechanical design
1. Define voltage regulation and transmission efficiency?
Voltage regulation is defined as the difference in voltage at the receiving end of
transmission line between conditions of no load and full load is called Voltage regulation and
is expressed as a percentage of the receiving end voltage.
100 Re %
0

=
Vr
Vr Vr
g
Where
0
Vr Receiving end voltage at no is load and Vr is Receiving end voltage at load
Transmission Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power delivered at the receiving end to the
power sent from the sending end.

100
r
P
% =
s
P
q

2. Classify the lines as per line length?
Short lines (80Km < L)
Medium lines (80Km -160Km)
Long lines (160Km >L)
3. What are the values of A, B, C, D constants in T, and short lines?
If AD-BC =1, Then network is called symmetrical network
If A=D, Then network is called Reciprocal network
A B C D
Short line 1 Z 0 1
Nominal-T 1+ Z(1+ ) Y 1+
Nominal- 1+ Z Y(1+ ) 1+
4. What are the units of ABCD (Generalized) constants of a transmission line?
A and D dimensionless
B is in Ohms and
C is in Siemens (mhos)

5. Mention the limitation of nominal-T and nominal- methods in the line problems?
Generally the capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line .But for
easy calculations the capacitance is concentrated at one or two points. Due to these effects
there are error in the calculations.
6. What is end condenser method?
It is a method used for obtaining the performance calculations of medium lines .Here the
capacitance of the line is lumped or concentrated at the receiving end.

7. Define Ferranti effect and what is the reason for Ferranti effect?
The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving end of the open circuited or lightly loaded
line is called Ferranti effect. Reason for Ferranti effect is capacitance associated with the line
generates more reactive power than the reactive power which is absorbed
8. Define surge impedance?
The characteristic impedance of a lossless line is called as surge impedance

C
L
Y
Z
= =
C
Z
9. What is surge impedance loading and Mention the significance of surge impedance
loading?
The unity power factor load that can be delivered by a line of negligible resistance is called
the surge impedance loading.
Significance:
No reactive power is generated or absorbed at the line ends. The total reactive power
absorbed by the line inductance is equal to the total reactive power generated by line
capacitance.
10. What is meant by Infinite line?
If the receiving end voltage and current are numerically equal to the corresponding sending
end values , i.e |V
S
|=|V
R
| and | I
S
|=| I
R
| ,then such a line is called Infinite line or flat line.

11. What is corona?
The ionization of insulating material(air),near the surface of the conductor at certain
Points is called corona
(Or)
The complete disruption of dielectric strength of Insulating material(air) near the surface
of the conductor at certain points.
12. Define Critical disruptive voltage and Visual critical voltage?
Critical disruptive voltage is minimum phase voltage at which corona occurs.
Visual critical voltage is minimum voltage at which corona appears along the line conductors
13. What are the various factors which affect corona?
i) Atmosphere
ii) Conductor size and shape
iii) Spacing between conductors
iv) Line voltage.
14. What are the various factors which affect corona loss?

( )
voltage disruptive Critical is
d
V
factor density Air is Where / /
2
25
5
10 241 Km ph KW
d
V
p
V
d
r f
P
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
o

The factors affecting corona loss are system frequency, system voltage, air density, conductor
diameter, profile of the conductor, conductor surface condition, atmospheric conditions and load
current .
15. What are the adverse effects of corona?
i) Power loss but not very important except under abnormal weather conditions
ii) Corrosion due to production of Ozone gas
iii) Interference with neighbouring communication lines.
16. What are the identifications of corona?
i) A violet glow is observed around the conductor
ii) It produces a hissing noise
iii) It is accompanied by a power loss-the wattmeter connected in the electric circuit will
show a reading.
iv) Occurance of beds and tufts.
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of corona?
Advantages:
Corona acts as a safety valve to the transmission line conductor against direct lightening
strokes.
Disadvantages:
a) There is a some real power loss apart from the ohmic loss
b) Corona causes an interference with the neighboring communication lines (even though
lines are in symmetrical configuration)
18. How can the Corona effect be minimized?
Corona effect can be minimized in a transmission line by using
a) Larger diameter conductors
b) Hollow conductors
c) ACSR conductors or bundled conductors
19. Define Sag of a line and mention the factors that affect sag in the transmission line ?
The difference in level between the points of supports and the lowest point of the conductor
is called as sag.

Weight of the conductor, length of the span, working tensile strength and the temperature.
20. What is meant by receiving-end power circle diagram?
The circle diagram drawn with receiving-end true and reactive power components as the
horizontal and vertical ordinates is called the receiving-end power circle diagram.
21. What is stringing chart?
These are graphical curves, which will provide the variation of Sag w.r.to temp and Tension
of the conductor .Stringing chart gives the data for sag and tension to be allowed at a
particular temperature .It is very useful while erecting the transmission line conductors for
adjusting the sag and tension properly.


22. What is the shape of Sag-Span curve?
The shape of the sag-span curve is a catenary (Y=k coshx ).But if the span is long and the
sag is small ,the sag-span curve approaches parabola (Y=kx
2
)
23. What is the use of Sag templates?
Main purpose of Sag templates is to locate the center point of the Tower w.r.to other Tower
Distribution and Mechanical design
1. Define Kelvins law and Mention any two limitations of Kelvins law?
The annual expenditure on the variable part of the transmission system should be equal to the
annual cost of energy wasted in the conductor.
i.e
a
P
a P
3
2
=
Limitations:
i) It is difficult to estimate accurately the annual charge on the capital outlay
ii) It does not give the exact economical size of the conductor
2. What are the different types of distributors?
i) Based on nature of current
a) DC distributor
b) AC distributor
ii) Based on construction
a) Overhead distribution system
b) Underground distribution system
iii) Based on scheme
a) Radial distributor
b) Ring main distributor
c) Interconnected distributor
3. Why transmission lines are 3 phase 3 wire circuits while distribution lines are 3 phase
4-wire circuits ?
A balanced 3 phase circuits does not require the neutral conductor,as the instantaneous sum
of the 3 line currents are zero .Therefore the transmission lines and feeders are 3 phase 3 wire
circuits .The distributors are 3 phase 4-wire circuits because a neutral wire is necessary to
supply the 1-phase loads of domestic and commercial load.
4. What is a ring main distributor and advantages of ring main distributor?
A ring main distributor is a distributor which is arranged to form a closed circuit and is fed
at one or more than one circuit.
Advantages:
1. Less voltage fluctuations at consumers terminals
2. Less copper is required as each part of the ring carries less current than in radial system
3. Better flexibility and voltage regulation.
5. What are the factors on which choice of transmission voltage depends?
The choice of transmission line voltage mainly depends on the following factors
1. Length of transmission line
2. Amount of power to be transmitted
3. Percentage Voltage regulation required
4. Cost of Switchgear, terminal equipment and conductor material
6. What are the advantages of a 3-wire dc distribution system over a 2-wire
dc distribution system?
If 3 wire system is used to transmit the same amount of power over the same distance with
same efficiency with same consumer voltage, we require 0.3125 times copper as required in
2-wire system.
7. Mention the differences between 3-phase, 3-wire and 3 phase,4-wire distribution
system?
i) 3 phase, 3 wire is employed for balance loads, but 3-phase 4 wire is employed for
unbalanced loads.
ii) 3 phase 3-wire is used for transmission but 3 phase 4 wire is used for distribution of
power to consumers
8. What is the difference between Distributor ,feeder and Service mains ?
Feeder: It is one which the magnitude of current is same throughout its length
Distributor: In this magnitude of current is varies throughout its length.
Servicemain: These are the conductors, which connects the distributor to the consumers
mains.

9. What are the main parts of a distribution system?
The main parts of a distribution system are
a) Secondary substation .33/11KV
b) Primary distribution line (or feeder) 11KV
c) Distribution substation 11KV/400V
d) Secondary distribution line (or distributor) ...400V and 230V
10. What are the apparatus in a substation?
A substation usually contains the following major apparatus : 1.Transformers 2.Circuit
breakers 3.Horn-gap switches 4.Disconnect switches 5.Grounding switches 6.Surge
arresters 7.Current limiting reactors 8.Instrument transformers
11. Mention any two comparisons between indoor and outdoor substations?
Indoor: Space required and clearances between the conductors are less. Time required for
erection and possibility of faults are more
Outdoor: Space required and clearances between conductors are more. Time required for
erection and possibility of faults are less.
12. State the various types of substations according to its service requirements?
Transformer substation
Switching substation
Power factor correction substation
Frequency changer substation
Converting substation
Industrial substation
13. What is the fundamental basis for the selection of conductor size for a feeder?
The fundamental basis for the selection of conductor size for a feeder is the current carrying
capacity .Voltage drop consideration is not important in a feeder .It is because there are no
consumers tapped off from a feeder and the receiving end voltage can be raised to the
desired value.
14. What is the fundamental basis for the selection of conductor size for a distributor?
The fundamental basis for the selection of conductor size for a distributor is the voltage drop.
It is because according to Indian Electricity Rules ,the consumers voltage must be kept
within 6% of the declared voltage.
15. Why transmission lines are 3-phase 3-wire circuits while distribution lines are 3
phase 4 wire circuits?
A Balanced 3-phase circuit does not require the neutral conductor,as the instantaneous sum
of the 3 line currents are zero. Therefore the transmission lines and feeders are 3 phase 3 wire
circuits .The distributors are 3- phase 4-wire circuits because a neutral wire in necessary to
supply the 1-phase loads of domestic and commercial consumers.
16. What are the advantages of adopting EHV/UHV for transmission of ac electrical
power?
Reduced line losses, High transmission efficiency, Improved regulation and reduced
conductor material requirement.
17. Mention the limitations of using very high transmission voltage?
i) The increased cost of insulating the conductor
ii) The increased cost of transformers, switch gears and other terminal apparatus
Insulators, Grading of Insulators and Underground cables
1. What are the different types of Insulators based on shape?
a) Pin type Insulators
b) Shackle Insulators
c) String Or Suspension type Insulators
d) Strain Or Tension Insulators
2. What is the purpose of Arcing horn?
It fixed at the top end of the string serves the purpose of arcing shield and protects the
insulator string from flashover whenever over-voltage appears between the tower structure
and the line conductor.
3. What are the two functions that are performed by grading ring?
The grading ring performs two functions i.e equalizes the voltage distribution across the
insulator units and when used in conjunction with arcing horn fixed at the top end of the
string serves the purpose of arcing shield and protects the insulator string from flashover
4. Define String efficiency of the insulators?
The ratio of voltage across the whole string and the product of the number of units and units
and voltage across the unit nearest to the line conductor is known as the string efficiency .
unit most lower the across Voltage n
string the across Voltage
efficiency String i.e

=

5. Why is string efficiency for a D.C system 100%?
If D.C Voltage is applied across a string of suspension insulators, then voltage across each
unit will be the same .It is because insulator capacitances are ineffective for D.C. Therefore,
String efficiency for a D.C system is 100%
6. What is the purpose of surge absorber?
The device, which reduces the steepness of the wave front of a particular surge and thus
minimizes the danger due to overvoltages, is known as surge modifier or surge absorber.
7. Mention any two methods of testing of Insulators?
i) Power frequency Dry Flash over Test
ii) Power Frequency Wet Flash-over Test
iii)Impulse Frequency Flash over Test
8. Explain dielectric loss briefly?
The energy losses occurring in the dielectric of cables are due to leakage and so called
dielectric hysteresis .The former loss ,is due to passing of current by conduction through the
resistance of dielectric ,and is independent of supply frequency and therefore it occurs both
D.C and A.C .The leakage current is proportional to the applied voltage and ,therefore ,the
loss is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
9. How cables are classified?
i) Based on Voltage :
a) LV cables (1KV)
b) HV cables (upto 11KV)
c) Super voltage cables (22KV-33KV)
d) EHV cables (33KV-66KV)
e) Extra super high voltage cable (132 Kv and above)
ii) Based on no of cores
a) 1-core cables
b) 3-core cables
c) 3.5-core cables
10. Write an expression for insulation resistance?

ohms
r
R
l
R
i
ln
2t

=
It is noted that where as resistance of the core of the cable is directly proportional to the
length of the cable but leakage resistance is inversely proportional to the length of the cable.
11. Why the capacitance of the cable is very high than the capacitance of the overhead
lines?
The distance between the conductors are small .The distance between the cores and the
earthed sheath is also small .The permittivity of the cable insulation is 3 to 5 times greater
than that of air insulation.
12. What is meant by grading of cables?
The method of equalizing the stress in the dielectric of the cable is called the grading of
cables.
13. What are the methods, that are used for improving string efficiency?
Various methods used for improving string efficiency are by using insulators with larger
discs or by providing each insulator unit with a metal cap, by using longer cross-arms ,by
capacitance grading or by static shielding .
14. For what purpose metalic sheath is provided in underground cables?

(i) ARMOURING: (Galvonized steel material is used for armouring)
To protect the cable against external stress
(ii) BEDDING : (Jute material is used for bedding)
a) Prevent the corrosion on sheath
b) Suppress mechanical stress
(iii) SHEATH : (aluminium foils are used for sheath)
To prevent the entry of moisture into Insulation
(iv) INSULATION: (vulcanized rubber, impregnated paper are used for insulation).
To prevent the leakage current from the surface of the core to the ground
Prepared by,
P.VENKATESH,
Lecturer,
V R Siddhartha Engineering College,Vijayawada.