Bangladesh: An Unfinished Revolution? Author(s): Talukder Maniruzzaman Reviewed work(s): Source: The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.

34, No. 4 (Aug., 1975), pp. 891-911 Published by: Association for Asian Studies Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2054506 . Accessed: 26/11/2011 05:25
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VOL. XXXIV, No. 4

JOURNAL OF ASIAN STUDIES

AUGUST 1975

Bangladesh: Unfinished An Revolution?

TALUKDER MANIRUZZAMAN

EVOLUTIONARY mass upheavalgenerally weakensthe people'srespect for authority, law, and discipline;and it bringsin its wake social,economic, and politicaldisorders, facilitating establishment an authoritarian the of regime.The FrenchRevolution was based on the ideals of liberty, equality,and fraternity; but thedestruction theold socialand political of fabric, thefailure institutionalize and to the new ideas,led Frenchmen searchfor"the man of geniusdestined once to to at carryon and to abolishthe revolution." The Russian Revolution IgI7 was also of followed severalyearsof civilwar,whichled to theestablishment theruthless by of totalitarian regimeof Stalin, itselfreminiscent the Thermidorian of Reaction.In Algeria,Cuba, China, and NorthVietnam,successful mass armedrevolutions have been consolidated onlybecauseof their one-party dictatorships. In Bangladesh,the nationalist revolution also foundering. is Groups that were unitedby thewar againstPakistanare now splintered alongpersonal and ideological lines; and theAwami League itself fullof factions. is Even theideology Mujibba'd of ("Mujibism") cannotkeep thefactions together, although seniormembers the the of government will not vie openlywith one anotheras long as Mujib is alive. The appearanceof stability given b!ythe Awami League's overwhelming in victory the is I973 elections belied by the need forrepressive specialpowersand the establishment of the Rakhi Bahini, the government-armed who oppose anyone vigilantes not supporting Awami League or its associated the parties. What are theforces that will shapethepolitics Bangladesh thenearfuture? of in Will there stability; be will the oft-proclaimed goals of nationalism, be socialism,secularism, and democracy achieved?The bulk of thisessaypresents detailsthatwill allow thereaderto assess Bengalipolitics himself. fewremarks theauthor's for on A own viewsare appended.' HistoricalBackground2 The jubilationexperienced the people of Bangladeshat the formalsurrender by of the Pakistanforces the Indian Armyon DecemberI6, Ig7I was tempered to by fearof a bitter powerstruggle among the manyleadersof the revolution-guerillas, and communists, Awami League workers. of However,the prospect a prolonged periodof anarchy Bangladeshwas relieved therapidreturn SheikhMujibur in of by
Talukder Maniruzzaman Professor Head was and evaluation of the currentpolitical situation is of the Department PoliticalScienceat Rajshahi presented of section. onlyin theconcluding BiographiUniversity the timehe wrotethisarticle. is at cal noteson prominent are He politicians givenin the now Professor Political of Scienceat Dacca Univer- Appendix. sity.Much of the materialcontainedhere is not 2 For a detailed discussionof the Bangladesh availablefrom othersources. The Editors grate- revolution I97I, see T. Maniruzzaman, "Radical are of fulto theauthor permission editand abridge Politics in for to and theEmergence Bangladesh" P. R. of his original in manuscript, to Susan Hadden for Brass and M. F. Franda (eds.), Radical Politics and carrying thistask. out South Asia (Cambridge:The MIT Press, I973), 1 In thepresent of version thispaper,theauthor's pp. 223-277.

891

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TALUKDER MANIRUZZAMAN

Rahman-known as theFatherof theNation-fromhis prisonin West Pakistanon January I972.3 In an impressive show of loyalty, variousguerrillaunits of the io, theMuktiBahini (the Liberation Army)surrendered armsat ceremonies throughout Bangladeshwithinthe ten-day limitset by SheikhMujib. It was, of course,-widely suspected thata largeportion their of armsand ammunition been keptback by had the many guerrillagroups.But the supportof the nationclearlybelongedto the Awami League government underMujib. Most of thepopularguerrilla leaders. were the loyal to him; moreover, legend of Sheikh Mujib, his.charismatic. appeal, and his hypnotic hold over the masses were enormousassetsforthe government. The extent Mujib's success establishing authority overBangladesh indicated of in his all is by the withdrawal all Indian troopsfrom country March I2, I 972. of the by On the day following arrivalin Dacca, SheikhMujibur Rahman-as Presihis for dentof Bangladesh-promulgated Provisional a Order providing Constitutional a parliamentary formof government Bangladesh.He then steppeddown from in the office president. of Justice Abu Sayeed Choudhury, former a judge of theDacca High Court and Vice-Chancellor Dacca University, of became the new President. A twelve-member of whichincludedthefive. members theexilegovernment cabinet, in Calcutta,was swornin on the same day,withMujib as PrimeMinister.4 Bangladeshrequireda formalconstitution; Sheikh Mujib acted quicklyto and facilitate framing one. Presidential the of Order22 was promulgated March23; on it provided theestablishment a Constituent for of Assembly made up of themembers formerly elected theNationalAssembly Pakistanand to theProvincial to of Assembly of East Pakistanin theelections held in I970. The Constituent Assembly enactedthe Constitution sevenmonths only later.6 The Constitution for providesfor a unitary parliamentary government Bangdemocladesh.Its preambledeclaresthat"the high ideals of nationalism, socialism, racy,and secularism whichinspired heroicpeopleto dedicatethemselves and our to, theirlives in, the nationalliberation shall be the fundamental to sacrifice struggle, the of The to principles the Constitution." Constitution attempts facilitate transition the to socialismthrough For parliamentary democracy. example,it affirms rightto hold privateproperty subjectto restrictions imposed by law, and. allows for nain of whichcannotbe challenged a court tionalization and requisitioning property, of law.6
on 3Sheikh MujiburRahman was arrested the nightof 25 March 1971. He was taken to West in prison Pakistanand keptin detention a solitary cell in a district town. Later he was triedby a specialmilitary courtfor "wagingwar againstthe activiPakistanGovernment othertreasonable and The sentence ties' and given the death sentence. was approvedby General Yahya Khan, as Chief but the Martial Law Administrator; before sentence could be carriedout, GeneralYahya was replaced Ali as and by Zulfikar Bhutto President ChiefMarof tial Law Administrator Pakistan. Bhutto released SheikhMujib and senthim to London by a special plane; from therehe flew to Bangladesh of via India. See the proceedings the pressconference of Sheikh Mujib in London on 8 January in News (Dacca), 9 I972, published the Morning
4The Cabinetwas later expandedto 23 members. Of these,8 were in theirearly 5o's, 13 in their40's, and one in his 30's in age. The oldest was Minister, the only Hindu in the Cabinet, and 4 of 70. The groupconsisted 13 lawyers, businessa politicians, collegeprofessor, men,3 professional PakistanArmyofficer. and a former a landholder, of One was a relative SheikhMujib. All but four were associatedwith the Awami of the Ministers of sketches League since the I950's. Biographical were publishedin The Bangladesh the Ministers of Observer and otherdaily newspapers Dacca on and I4 and I5 April I972. 20 and 29 January 5 For a detailed discussion the constitutionof see makingin Bangladesh, A. F. Huq, "Constitution-Making Bangladesh,"PacificAfairs, Vol. in 46 (I, I973), pp. 59-76. 6 SectionI of Article in Part III. 42

January 1972.

BANGLADESH:

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893

Principles StatePolicy, of deals withtheFundamental Part II of the Constitution of Rights.Part II statesthatthe basic responsibility and Part III withFundamental healthcare,jobs, and social shelter, education, the stateis to obtainfood,clothing, declared No law thatis expressly plannedgrowth. security its citizensthrough for can this by Parliament implement basicresponsibility be declaredunconstitutional to listedin Part III.7 Thus the rights withthe fundamental simply becauseit conflicts As to are needsof theindividual subordinated thoseof thestate. Tajuddin Ahmedprovides the Constitution Assembly, now Finance Minister-toldthe Constituent elected by a politically democratically the mechanismby which the Parliament, on priorities the basis of the objectiveconditions consciouspeople, can determine with in themconsistent phase and implement at obtaining the country a particular socialism and thewishesof the people.8 on The new Constitution went into effect Decemberi6, I972. Generalelections were called forMarch 7, I973. As can be seen in Table I, the Awami League-the had said Its overwhelmingly.9 manifesto partyof independence-wonthe elections the as on principles thatit wouldregard elections a referendum thefourfundamental by and democracy, secularism-endorsed the of statepolicy-nationalism, socialism, Mujib would be takenas a mandatefo,r and thatan Awami League victory party, of (The platforms the other to build the new stateon the basis of thoseprinciples. campartiesare discussedin detail below.) Because of Mujib's appeal,his vigorous and the Awami League's assopaigningin all the townsand citiesof Bangladesh,
TABLE I-RESULTS OF THE FIRST GENERAL ELECTIONS MARCH 7, 1973a HELD IN BANGLADESH:

NameoftheParty Awami League Awami Party National (pro-Moscow) Dal Jatio Samajtantrik Socialist Party) (National National Awami Party (Bhashani) and Independent Others

of Number Seats Contested 300

of Number Seats Won 292

of Percentage Votes Secured 73.17

223
236 1
-

8.59
6.48

169
159 1087

5.42
6 6.34 100

299b

a from constituencythe werecounted of of wonandpercentage votessecured eachparty The number seats by in Observer, 9, 10, 11 March1973. 8, wiseresults published TheBangladesh bThe electionin one constituency postponed, to thedeathof one of thecandidates. seat was This due was laterwonbyan AL candidate.

AssemblyDebates, 30 See the Constituent OctoberI972, publishedin The BangladeshObserver, October1972. 31

8

7 Articles and 47. 42

9 According the ElectionCommission, the of to voters,nearly55 pertotal 33,787,638 registered held on 7 March I973. cent votedin the elections

894

TALUKDER

MANIRUZZAMAN

was reallya foregone the movement, party'svictory ciation with the nationalist "SheikhMujiburRahmanwould have won wrote, journalist One foreign conclusion. -by even if the electionhad been conducted the United Nations and handsomely by supervised theRed Cross." by mandatewas compromised some zealous of But the legitimacy the electoral methodsand false ballots,in to who resorted strong-arm Awami League workers constituencies, theirdesireto win all of the seats.In some of the closelycontested beforethey candidateswere kidnappedby AL workers opposition the prospective in papers.In severalconstituencies Barisal,Tangail, and could filetheirnomination the were leadingduringthe voting, countcandidates whereoppostion Chittagong, with fake ing of ballotswas suddenlyhalted while the ballot boxes were stuffed eyes of AL papers and AL candidateswere declaredelectedunder the watchful volunteers.10 or The electionsdid not bring about any major changesin the executive the Sangsad (Parliament)electedon of of Two-thirds themembers theJatio legislature. Parliamentalso reAssembly. of members the Constituent March 7 were former One new CabinetMemberwas unopposed. as Choudhury President, electedJustice Dr. pro-western Kamal Hussain-who had been and the reportedly designated, moved for pattern the new Constitution-was the for responsible selecting British He to the Ministry ForeignAffairs. replacedAbdus Samad-known to be partial of In of to the socialist bloc-who in turnwas giventheportfolio Agriculture. October, with the same sortsof profeswere appointed, fourteen additionalState Ministers as sional backgrounds the Cabinet." to can A numberof accomplishments be attributed the Awami League regime, First,a Conand theeconomy. to stability the polity all of whichhelpedto restore were and stitution was framedwithinnine monthsof independence, freeelections faminewas avoided in a held six monthslater.In the economicsphere, large-scale of operations the with the help of the massiverelief occupationwere rehabilitated, agencies.'2 UNROB and other international about 300 railwaybridgesand 274 were restored repairing 'by Communications road bridgesand six airportsdamaged during the war; Chittagongharborwas The textile, jute, withthehelp of ii Russianwarships. clearedof minesand wrecks, companies; along withbanksand insurance and sugarindustries were nationalized,
10 See, for example, Walter Schwarz, "How Bangladesh Lost its Political Virginity," Guardian (London), reprinted in The Wave (Dacca), 3I March I973; Sirajul Hossain Khan, "Electoral Democracy Buried," Holiday (Dacca), I8 March I 973. 1 Nine were in their 40's, and 5 in their 30's; all had been long associated with the AL. Seven were lawyers, 2 journalists, 2 college professors, one a doctor, and one a landholder. 12 As of 3I December I973, Bangladesh had received food assistance worth I73 million dollars and multilateral aid worth 350 million dollars through UNROB and other international agencies. In addition, friendlycountries provided a total of 85o million dollars as grants and credits during the same period. The credits and grants assistance, in-

1972

the to peoplewho had migrated Indiaduring and 1973, and thetenmillion

the was cludingUNROB operations, possibly highcountry est ever receivedby any underdeveloped duringsuch a shortperiod in recenttimes. [The thatprovidedcreditand grantsincluded countries Denmark,the U. K., the U. S., West Germany, NetherCanada,Belgium, India,U.S.S.R.,Australia, Among and Hungary, others.] lands,East Germany, the these countries, United States topped the list I32 million dollars as grantson a by offering basis. This does not includethe assistance bilateral UNROB. The figures by rendered theU. S. through grantsand creditswere reassistance, of foreign and Commission Planning leasedby theBangladesh 26 publishedin The BangladeshObserver, March 1974.

BANGLADESH:

AN UNFINISHED

REVOLUTION?

895

were limitedto ioo bighas (i bigha and landholdings 1/3 acre) per family.13 the given by elections, CabinetreappointHowever,the appearanceof stability as thatis best understood hid ments,and economicachievements a politicalreality rise hundredpercent in due is civil war. Discontent widespread, to the three-to-four in the prices of all essentialconsumergoods, the decline in production the naand jute to India. smugglingof foodgrains and large-scale tionalizedindustries, of and the growth a class of noveauxrichesamong the Awami League Corruption have completed senseof disillusionpatronage the workers who receivegovernment ment. Violence is rampant.The newspaperscarry daily reportsof secret killings, According to government "suicides,"hijackings,dacoities,and mob lynchings. killings,337 1972 and June I973, therewere 2035 secret betweenJanuary figures, 4925 personslost theirlives I90 and another kidnappings, rapes,and 49o7 dacoities, periodin 1973, sixtypolice stations In at the hands of "miscreants." a five-month to elections theUnion were lootedforarms.Finally,in the courseof thetwelve-day Councils in December 1973, about a scoreof people-includingsome candidatesin had to be postponed and theelections wereinjured, werekilled,about ioo others and thegenerallawlessin some fivehundredcenters."4 problems the economy The which hold that the ness are being exploitedby a numberof oppositionparties, It revolution. is the part of a two-stage Awami League represents only the first to are thattheseparties trying hasten. secondrevolution The LeftOpposition Parties parties, of in The opposition Bangladeshconsists a large numberof splintered parties-includThe Islamicnationalist to the the running gamutfrom right theleft. of the ing the Jama'at-i-Islami, severalfactions the Muslim League, the Pakistan at and Democratic Party, Nizam-i-Islam, the Jamiat-e-Ulama-e-Islam-werefirst the banned.Later,howand were therefore held to be collaborators withthe Pakistanis has of was declaredformembers theseparties;and an attempt been ever,amnesty of Mujib's pardonof made by theirleadersto founda new, secularparty the right. of to a has 195 Pakistaniwar prisoners created climateconducive thegrowth such a party. the Of theother in thatcontested theFirstGeneralElections, pro-Moscow parties National Awami Party followsthe lead of the Awami League in almost every antiby The NAP (Bhashani) is distinguished its more aggressively particular. for This makesit suitable infiltration stands. and Indian,anti-Russian, anti-American Dal (National SocialistParty) is parties.The JatioSamajtantrik by more extreme to through a trueparty the left, it of although, does attempt workforthe revolution institutions. parliamentary existing parties However,thislist does not even beginto includethe manyunderground The revolutionary by and theirfront partiesare characterized ideoorganizations. so incompatibilities, thatno lessthaneightgroupsof importance logicaland personal
13 Mustafa Sarwar, "Why you should vote for Awami League," in the special supplement on "Election and the Awami League," The Bangladesh 3 Observer, March I973.

7 July I973; the statementof the State Minister for Information and Broadcasting in Parliament, 28 January I974, reported in Banglar Bani (Dacca), and The Ittfaq (Dacca), I De29 January I974; '14 For these figures, The Bangladesh see Observer, cemberI 973.

896

TALUKDER

MANIRUZZAMAN

by of This chaoticsceneis compounded the existence various can be distinguished. of parties, and the formation student, of labor, alliancesbetweenfactions different groups for severalof the parties.In addition,the peasant,and other supporting who want to cooperate Awami League itselfcontainsa numberof dissidents with someof theopposition parties. Dissidence within the Awami League (AL.) was initiallya major source of of politics. SincetheearlyI960's, somemembers theAL stuin opposition Bangladesh Bangsocialist an independent for League, had beenarguing dentwing,theStudents' This group-undertheleaderagainstWest Pakistan. ladeshand forarmedrebellion ship of Serajul Alam Khan, A. S. M. Abdur Rab, and Sahjahan Siraj-continued of afterthe elections 1970; it took the lead in for agitating a people's movement, the after Yahya Khan postponed National Bangladeshto be independent, declaring

campus on March 2; and underthe famousbanyantreeon the Dacca University of in of day,Siraj read a proclamation independence thepresence a on thefollowing Mujib that included Sheikh Mujib.15The group continuedto pressure gathering with Yahya Khan beand to declareBangladeshindependent, to stop negotiating struggle, During theliberation cause thiswas thwarting popularwill to revolt.16 the membersof the Mujib Bahini (a Rab, Siraj, and S. A. Khan were high-ranking loyal to Mujib); but theywere not at all sectionof the Mukti Bahini especially insteadthat aroundhim,preferring about the personalcult developing enthusiastic government devotedto theruleof peasantsand workers. he lead a revolutionary The othergroup of the Students'League-led by Nur-e-AlamSiddiqui, then to President the League-advocated transition socialismthroughparliamentary of loyal to SheikhMujib means underMujibism.Althoughboth groupswere at first the he them),eventually choseto support Siddiqui group. (and he triedto reconcile of the At the same timethathe was inaugurating annual conference the Students' League underSiddiqui at theRamna Race Course,theRab-Sirajgroupwas holding and comsociety a its annual conference the Paltan Maidan, proclaiming classless at quo.17 to mitment armedstruggle changethestatus to The splitin the AL student was soon followedby a splitin the AL labor front of Association FreedomFighters(Mukti Juddha front, also in the AL-affiliated and of in SangramParishadwas formed support the Sangsad). The JatioMukti-Juddha as rebel student was established well, under the group; and soon a peasantfront on 31, Haq. Finally, October 1972 a Malekand Ahsanul of leadership Khandoker new partywas set up, with A.S.M. Abdur Rab and Major M. A. Jalil as joint of respectively, the and President, They were electedGeneral Secretary convenors. who was on Dal new party, Samajtanitrik (JSD). Jalil, whichcalled itself Jatio the leave fromthe Pakistan Army when the crackdowntook place in March 1971, and in againstthe military severaldistricts was chiefof one of organizedresistance theguerillasectors. he by liberation, was arrested theAwamiLeague,reportedly After He forhis attempt resist transfer armsleftby Pakistanto Indian forces. is of the to
15 This banyan tree was destroyed by the Pakistan Army on the night of 25 March I97I. A new sapling was implanted in the same place by Senator Edward Kennedy, when he visited Bangladesh soon afterliberation. 16 See Ghoshona Patra (Manifesto), Bangladesh Chatra (Students) League, published by Mohammad Ekramul Huq-Publicity Secretary,Bangladesh Chatra League, July I972, pp. 9-IO. 17 See Holiday (Dacca), 23 JulyI 972.

Assembly MarchI, on

1971.

Bangladesh raised flagof independent the Rab first

BANGLADESH:

AN UNFINISHED

REVOLUTION?

897

the only leader of the JSD who was not a leaderof the Workers'League or the Students' League of theAL; at 38, he is amongtheolderJSD leaders. The JSD, whichbelieves thattheBangladeshliberation was stopped war justas it was about to becomea real people'swar, opposesthe nationalist leadership, who it says represent only 8 percentof the people but own 85 percentof the national wealth.'8It considers itself be the supporting to force(or mass front)of a "correct" proletarian organization-the BangladeshCommunist League. The BCL is an undergroundpartyled by the former StudentLeague leader,Sarajul Alam Khan. He managed to get mostof his followers trainedin guerillawarfare duringthe independencewar, and has since workedbehindthe scenesto bringabout the splitsin theAwami League groupsthatled to theformation theJSD. The BCL publishes of a daily newspaper, Gonokantha(Voice of the People), which is editedby a wellknownradicalpoet,Al-Mahmud. The platform the BCL deals with the same questionsas most of the other of revolutionary parties, whichit will serveas an example.The platform made for was public as the annual report the BangladeshChatraLeague, whichis the student of front the BCL.'9 As do the documents otherBangladeshcommunist of of groups, the report analyzesthe politicalsituation terms its inherent in of contradictions, and thenputsforward strategies whichthe revolution end thecontradictions. the by will The BCL sees threestagesin the struggle socialism, whichthe first for of two were achievedby the end of the 1971 liberation war. Remaining, however, the third is stage,in whichthe contradiction betweenthe rulingelite-the Awami League and otheragentsof imperialism-andtheproletariat be resolved a violent will by revolution. Parliamentary politicsis seen as a means of perpetuating rule of the exthe ploitingclasses,includingfeudal elements, intermediaries, the risingmiddle and class. Beforethe secondrevolution, people will be exploited the fromthe outsideas well,sincetheAwami League is willingto allow Bangladeshto again be made subject to imperialism-especially the United States, the formof foreign by in aid, but also by Russia,and by India, through exploitative an economicrelationship exemplifiedby theestablishment theheadquarters theIndo-Bangladesh of of Jute Exporting in Corporation Delhi rather thanin Dacca. The BCL hopes thatat a certainstage,China will come to sympathize withits revolution, but it resistsfollowingany communist international line. There is a friendly tenor in its attitudetoward pro-Chinese Parties. It is Marxist-Leninist to attempting expand its membership, is supposedto have recruited most of and the companycommanders the Mukti Bahini,and the district of and subdivisional commanders the Mujib Bahini.The members beingformed of intocells,joined are byan underground Lal newspaper, Ishtehar (Red Bulletin). The JSD, BCL, and JatioSramikLeague (the JSD's labor front)jointlycalled fora generalstrike January I974 to protest on 20, American, Indian,and Sovietinon fluence the Bangladesheconomy and polity;to call forhigherwages forteachers and industrial of workers;and to seek redress inequitiesin Bangladeshsociety18 See Preface, Ghoshona Chatra Patra, Bangladesh League, I972; GhoshonaPatra,latio Samajtantrik Dal, publishedby SultanuddinAhmad-Publicity Jatio Secretary, Samajtantrik January Dal, pp. I973, 7-I I, I 4; "Political Resolution adoptedin the NationalConvention theJatio of SramikLeague" held

on i6 January1974, published in Gonokantha 1974. (Dacca), i8 January '19See A. F. M. MahbubulHuq, Barshik Kariobiborini, 1972-73 (Annual Report, I972-73) pubBangladeshChatra lished by CentralCommittee, League, I973, pp. I, 4, 6, 7.

898

TALUKDER MANIRUZZAMAN

primarily Awami to corruption, Special PowersAct, and the givingof permits the by a League workers. The government triedto prevent strike imposing ban on the meetings the JSD and affiliated of organizations, the ban was violatedalmost but on 8 everywhere the country. secondcall fora generalstrike February was a in A if demandswereno,t complete success. The JSD also threatened ghe-rao its29-point a acceptedby the government March r420; and on March 17, the Home Minister by by foundhimself confined his houseby theJSD. The gheraowas broken a police to of firing, whichkilledthreeand injuredeighteen, by thearrest 40 otherdemonand strators.21 Within a few days, anotherseveralhundredJSD workersthroughout of Bangladeshwere arrested;JSD offices were sacked and burned; and the office AlthoughMajo,r was sacked,preventing publication a fortnight. its for Gonokantha the leaders Jalil, AbdurRab, and other officers theJSD werearrested, underground of the -including Serajul Alam Khan-escaped and have been intensifying activities of the BC.L.22 Communist Party-Leninbadi Another radicalopposition party theBangladesher is with This party originated (theCommunist Party Bangladesh-Leninist--BCP(L)). of (confour thefive of groupsof pro-Chinese communists made up theSomonnoy that i) sultative)Committee formedin Calcuttaduringthe period of liberation: The 2) Coordination Committee theCommunist of Revolutionaries; East PakistanCommunist Party(Marxist-Leninist)-EPCP(M-L), led byAmal Sen and Nazrul Islam; 3) some Communists Khulna, led by Drs. MaroofHossain and SayeddurDahar; of and 4) some Communists led by Nasim Ali Khan. The leadersof these groups thought thatthe existence so manycommunist of partiesin East Pakistanhad preand of ventedthe leftfromplayingthe leading role in the liberation Bangladesh, "truncated revolution."23 country's they issueda call forunification complete to their In orderto achievethisgoal, they the formed new party, BCP(L). a The BCP(L) adopted the strategy workingpartlyas an open organization of and partlyas a secretparty.The open sectionof the partyis led by Amal Sen, a Nazrul Islam,Nasim Ali Khan, and others. The BCP(L) has also formed student Students' Union), and front (the BangladeshBiplobiChatraUnion-Revolutionary a laborfront (the Bangla SramikFederation-BengalLabor Federation); and some of its members workingthrough National Awami Party(Bhashani group) the are and its peasantorganization, well. The namesof the leadersof the underground as
20 See thetext the29-point of charter demands Party), published by Bangladesh Communist Sanof issuedby JSD published Gonokantha, January ghati Kendra (Solidarity Center of Bangladesh Comin 9

See The Bangladesh Obsevrer, MarchI974. I8 According the JSD pressreleaseon the nightof to 17 March,300 JSD leadersand workers, including 45 women,were woundedby a policelathi-charge and firing opened by the Rakhi Bahinion the occasion of peacefulgher of the Home Minister's ao residence. The number persons of arrested given is as 250. See, BanglarBani, i8 March 1974. 22 See theSpecialReport Banglar in Bani, I April
21

1974-

led by munists), February 1972 (EPCP(M-L), this Center Amal Sen andl Nazrul Islam, formned (Strugsoon afterliberation.); Party Gorar Sangramn gle to Build a Party), published by Coordination Committee of Communist Revolutionaries, April
I972;

'974.

23 See Ekti Monolithic Communist ty Gore Par Tulttn (Build up One Monolithic Communist

Hotlon (Communists of Bangladesh Unite), published by Communist Karmi Sanga (Communist 1972 (The ComWorkers' Association), Novenmber munists of Khulna, led by Dr. Maroof Hossain and Dr. Sayeddur Dahar, formed the Communist Workers' Association.).

Bangladesher Communistra Oikkobadha

BANGLADESH: AN UNFINISHED REVOLUTION?

899

cells in threesectorof the partyare not known,but it is said to have established fourths Bangladesh's of districts.24 The ideologyof the BCP(L) has much in commonwiththatof the BCL. Both becausethe bourgeoisie were in believethatthe revolution Bangladeshis unfinished that Russian communism is of the nationalist struggle, able to assume leadership and thatIndia is also in revisionist Russia'sintentions Bangladeshimperialistic, and a potential imperialist power.However,the BCP(L) opposesviolencesuch as that becausetheyare so anti-Leninist used by the Naxalitesin India, whom it considers such as the JSD, and its undisciplined.25 BCP(L) does not have a mass front The student are and labor fronts weak; so it has not had the appeal of the Communist League. in Despite the factthat the BCP(L) was formed orderto unifythe left,it is of as experiencing conflict withinits own ranks, well as withthosefactions the East Partythatdid not choose Bengal Communist Partyand East PakistanCommunist place. Within the BCP(L), thereis to unite with the othergroups in the first dissension betweenthose who choose to work withinthe National Awami Party with and (Bhashani) and its peasantorganization, thosewho feelthisis consorting the enemy.The conflict betweenthe communists who work in the NAP(B) and has also paralyzedthe workingof thatparty.In the the non-communist members 1974, the two groupsclashedand Bhashaniwas forced councilmeeting February of then to postpone sessionand to dissolve CentralCommittee.26 (Both factions the the to agreedto ask Bhashanito appointmembers the CentralCommittee.) but The fifth groupthathad belongedto theoriginalSomonnoy Committee, did led notjoin theBCP(L), was theEast Bengal Communist Party(Marxist-Leninist), of they agreedwiththemanifesto the by Deven Sikdarand Abdul Bashar.Although For of points,therewere a few differences emphasis. BCP(L) on most important group saw the oppressionof Bangladesh by West example, the Sikdar-Bashar withinthe position India as moredominant of Pakistanas more direct, present the leaderof Bangladesh's as and Party morea potential country, theChineseCommunist group-now called than do the BCP(L) members.27 The Sikdar-Bashar struggles the Banglar CommunistParty (CommunistPartyof Bengal, BCP)-also has an it a and parsection, student front, a laborfront; regards open and an underground
24 Interview with Nasim Ali Khan on 2I February 1974. 25 See Ghoshona ComBangladesher (Manifesto), munistParty (Leninbadi), publishedby Comrade Amal Sen-SecretaryBCP(L), 1972, pp. 11-12,

munists(n.d.); Biplobi PartyGore Tulun (Build by Party),published BCP, Janup a Revolutionary PartirBartaman uary 1972; "Banglar Communist Karjobali" (PresentPolitical RajnitikSanghatanik Party Worksof theCommunist and Organizational of Bengal) in Mukti Shapath (LiberationVow), 25-33, 34-5, and 38-44; also Bangladesher CommunistParty LeninbadirAhban (Appeal of the Vol. I (I, 1972), pp. 3-6; "China Veto Proyog pub- Prashange"(About the Chineseuse of the Veto), CommunistParty of Bangladesh-Leninist), pp. I2-I3. lished by ComradeAmal Sen-General Secretary, ibid. Vol. I (5, I972), MuktiShapath is the organof the open branchof the BCP. Also CentralCommittee, I974. BCP(L), February PartirNirbachaniGhosee, Banglar Communist 26 See "Who will win in NAP," Holiday, I7 Party of shlona(ElectionManifesto the Communist February I974. by 27 For the arguments on and counter-arguments of Bengal), published Deven Sikdarand Abdul MarxI973; and "Bangladesher these issues put forwardby the BCP (Leninist) Bashar,February Abedon badier Oikko Proshange"(On the Unity of the Partir and theBCP, see BanglarCommunist Shapath,Vol. I (Appeal to the Communist Partyof Bengal), pub- Marxistsof Bangladesh),Murkti by Centre of BangladeshCom- (2, 1972), p. 4. lishedI Solidarity

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TALUKDER MANIRUZZAMAN

in ticipation parliamentary politicsas a strategy rather than a matter basic prinof ciple.The leadership theBCP comesfrom of peasantand working-class families and is without much formaleducation;thisis in starkcontrast the BCP(L) leaders, to who are generally upper-class university-educated. thesedifferences backand in It is groundand attitudes leadersand cadresthatdifferentiate twoparties, their of the not minorideologicalincompatibilities. The BangladeshCommunist League, the BCP(L), and the BCP have adopted the tactics working of through bothparty cells and mass front organizations. However,thereare fourmorerevolutionary partiesthatworkonlythrough theirundergroundcells and underground armedfronts. these,two are factions a group Of of thatjoined the SomonnoyCommittee-theEast PakistanCommunist Party;one is a faction the East Bengal Communist of PartyfromwhichSikdarand Basharsplit to formthe BCP, and one is apparently quite separatein its originsfromany of these. The latteris the SarboharaParty(Purba Bangla SarboharaParty, East Bengal Communist and is Party),whichgrewout of the East Bengal Workers'Movement led by Siraj Sikdar,an engineer. The leadership the SarboharaPartyis generally of whichmay accountin partforthe factthatthe partyhas been university-educated, themostprolific all Bangladesh's of in revolutionary parties publishing partyliterature.In additionto Lal Jhadna(Red Flag) and Sangbad Bulletin(News Bulletin), the partyregularly publishesthe proceedings the meetings its CentralComof of mittee and numerous otherpamphlets-mostly written Sikdarhimself. The wideby spreadavailability thesepamphlets of indicates efficiency theSarbohara the of Party's communications network. The SarboharaPartyagreeswiththe others was thatthe BangladeshRevolution stopped soon,withtheAwami League serving a puppetgovernment India, too as of which has plunderedEast Bengal28 and has maintained military there its presence the and through arming, training, even clothing vigilante group-the Rakhi Bahini. Russianand American Thus eventhenationalist imperialism also seenas threats. are revolution not been completed; JSD is held to be makinga Trotskyist has the error in trying complete socialist before nationalist one.29However, to the revolution the
28 The Sarbohara Party theoreticians use the name East Bengal instead of Bangladesh.Bangladesh,in its literary connotation, means the land of Bengalisand thusincludesWest Bengal.Sarbohara leadersargue thatEast Bengalis-withintheir own territory with theirown language,&oand nomicand social system, and distinctive culturehave evolvedhistorically a distinct as nationdifferent from other nationalities the Indian subof continent. So, their land should be called East Bengal rather than Bangladesh. PurboBanglar See AshomaptoJatio Gonotantrik Biplob Somponno Korar Kormosuchi (Programto Completethe Unfinished National DemocraticRevolutionof East Purbo Bengal), publishedby CentralCommittee, BanglaSarbohara Party (n.d.), pp. 1-3. 29 Some of the recent of publications the SarboShreni hara Partyare: Siraj Sikdar, Samaitantra Sangram0 Samajik BiplobPrasange(On Socialism, Class Struggle, and Social Revolution);Bibhinna

Akritir Songsodhonbad Prashange Keokti Rochona (A Few Articles the VariousKinds of Revoluon tion); BibhinnaDhormabolombi Jatigoto Ebong Bhashabhashi lonnoPurboBanglaSarbolonogoner hara Partir Kormosuchi (The Program the East of BengalSarbohara Party Regarding VariousRelithe gious, National,and Linguistic Minorities); Purbo Ghoshona Patra0 KorBanglar latio MuktiFronter mosuchi (Manifesto Program theEast Bengal and of NationalLiberation Front);PurboBanglarAntorikbhabeSarbohara ModdheOikkoProtistha Biplobider Samparke Purbo Bangla SarboharaPartir I No. Bibriti (Number I Statement the Sarbohara of Party Regarding Establishment Unity the of Among the Sincere CommunistRevolutionaries East of Bengal); Purbo BanglarSarboharaPartirProthom Jatio Congresse Prodhotta Report(ReportPresented to the FirstNationalCongress the East Bengal of Sarbohara Party); BortomanParisthitiProsange Koekti Dalil (Some Documents Regarding the

BANGLADESH:

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901

as of the bourgeoisleadership the Awami League cannotbe trulynationalist, they onlytheparty countries; powersand semi-feudal from imperialist drawtheirsupport the In correctly. orderto accomplish can pursue the revolution of the proletariat Frontincluding a the revolution, SarboharaPartyhas formed National Liberation peasants, workers,and oppressed linguisticand national minorities-including of Biharisand members theChakmaand Santaltribes. on Because Bangladeshis surrounded threesides by India, the Sarboharatheothat thatno outsidehelp will be availablefortherevolution, are convinced reticians So on its own resources. it has launcheda Frontwill have to d'epend the Liberation sources. frompro-government fundsand arms forcibly "liberation war," procuring in Sikdar'sefforts thisrespect.30 The NationalAwami Party(Bhashani) is supporting to fromits heavylossesof fighters both the The partyappears to have recovered for PakistanArmyand the Mujib Bahini; and it claimsresponsibility mostof the sinceliberation. perpetrated dacoities and lootings, bank robberies, river policestation smugglers, It also claimsto have takenthe livesof severalAwami League workers, and some Hindus who were said to be stilloppressing of betrayers partysecrets, Muslims.The guerillaunitslie low duringthe winterand are most activeduring disadvantage. troopsare at the greatest the rainyseason,when government underground is Party East Bengal (Marxist-Leninist) another of The Communist known as the Sammobadi Dal. It is led by more commonly revolutionary party, Mohammad Toaha and Sukhendu Dastidar,who broughtabout the split in the wing.31 its Partyin i968 and formed pro-Peking originalEast PakistanCommunist boththe PakistanArmyand the a Toaha collected numberof red guerillasto fight and were unable to by Mukti Bahini,but thesewere decimated the opposingforces set up theirprojectedPeople's DemocraticRepublic of Bangladesh.After indeto (People's Strength)-beganto subscribe their newspaper-GonoShactti pendence, but beenliberated was headedbya thecommon that had notreally theory Bangladesh to to responsible India and thus indirectly Moscow. Like the puppet government an SarboharaParty,the Sammobadi Dal regardsthe Rakhi Bahini as essentially from Indiangovernthe armsand ammunition Indian armyin Bangladesh, receiving ment and taking directaid fromIndian armed forcesto suppressrebels in the Party, Hill Tractsand otherareasin MarchI972. Also like theSarbohara Chittagong and underitsdirection, a front a the SammobadiDal has formed nationalliberation Theirmain activities freedom fighters. recruited from amongfrustrated guerillaforce Faridpur, and of centerin the districts Rajshahi, Pabna, Dacca, Mymensingh, Noakhali.32 Some of the differences among the partiescan be seen fromthe ways in which the The SammobadiDal criticizes BCP(L) and theBCP for criticize each other. they
Present Situation);Purbo Bangla SarboharaPartir Bijoy Anibarjo(The Triumphof the East Bengal Sarbohara Party Inevitable). also Gonojudhar is See Patobhumi(Backgroundof Peoples' War) (publishedby Iqbal Ahmad,October1973); and Siraj Sikdar, SomajiantraShreni Songram 0 Samaiik and BiplobProshange (On Socialism, Class-struggle, Socialist Revolution), (n.p., n.d.), pp. 9-I2. 30Maulana Bhashanir Bibriti (Maulana Bha2 shani'sStatement), DecemberI973 (n.p.). 31 For a detaileddiscussion the I966 EPCP of leftists, and pro-Peking split betweenpro-Moscow amongthe of and thelatergrowth severalfactions op. see leftists, Maniruzzaman, cit. pro-Peking 32 See PtorboBanglar Paristhitir Upor Purbo Bangla Sammobadi Dal (Marxbadi-Leninbadir) Dvitio latio CongressGrihitoSiddhanta (Resoluof tionsReachedat the Second NationalCongress the CommunistParty of East-Bengal [Marxistin the Leninist]Concerning Situation East Bengal), Vol. II (4, 5, & 8, 1973).
I7
I973 January (n.p.),pp. 2-5; andGono Shakti,

902

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MANIRUZZAMAN

giventheir have supposedly two parties sincethe latter theirstandson imperialism, on thatit was "dependent" India rather supportto the Awami League by saying as The it thanterming a "puppetgovernment." SarboharaPartyis dismissed a mere contradicSikdarintoseeingthemostimportant misledbytheupstart terrorist group, than betweensocialist and antition as thatbetweenEast Bengal and India rather thatthe SarboharaParty For thisreason,the SammobadiDal thinks socialist forces. terrorist force, patronized the U.S.33 by mightbe actingas a counter-revolutionary to Bangladesh. Similarly, JSD, which the in itsattempt oustDelhi and Moscow from is is regardedas a mere fallingout over patronageamong junior AL members, to by thought be supported India as a counterweight keep Mujib's puppetgovernto mentunderstrict control.34 While most of the members the East Pakistan CommunistParty (Marxistof Leninist) formedthe SammobadiDal under Toaha and Dastidar,a small section the underAbdul Haq retained old name of the partyand a separateorganization. struggle;it of This group is the most extreme its interpretation the liberation in to does not recognizethe existence Bangladeshat all, preferring see the war for of now as a colonyof as moveby India, and the country independence an expansionist launchedits own people's war againstthe India. The EPCP(M-L) has therefore However, because of its East Pakistan.35 to forces, resurrect counterrevolutionary use continued of the name "East Pakistan,"it has been the subjectof the strongest action,and most of its cadreshave been killed or jailed. Abdul Haq government remainsat large. The East Bengal CommunistParty (Marxist-Leninist)-EBCP(M-L)-is the parties.It is itselfsplitinto threegroups,one of whichlast of the underground to the group led by Sikdar and Bashar-joined the SomonnoyCommittee formthe as struggle a BCL. A secondgroup,led by Matin and Alauddin,saw the liberation fightbetweentwo "bourgeoisdogs," and adopted the line of killingall the class feudallandlordsto the Mukti Bahini. enemies-fromthe PakistanArmy through Decemberi6, This group thencame underheavyattackby the Mukti Bahini after 1971; and it fledfromPabna to Attrai, which was at thattime under the control the of of Ohidur Rahman. He was persuadedto admitthe error supporting Mukti led activities to Bahini,and his groupwas recruited theEBCP(M-L). Their terrorist both Matin and battles, to reprisals the government; a seriesof hard-fought in by publication Alauddin, who escaped,is continuing Ohidur Rahman were ca-ptured. ofPurboBangla (East Bengal), theparty's newspaper. is situation simiThe EBCP(M-L) theoreticians' of political analysis Bangladesh's on put lar to thatof theSammobadiDal; but theformer moreemphasis thecontrabe cannot achieved nationalism claiming and peasants feudalelements, diction between
33 See Bortoman Purba BanglarSamParisthite mabadiDal (Marxbadi-Leninbadi) Chai (What Ki does theCommunist Party[Marxist-Leninist] Want in the PresentSituation?),October I973 (n.p.); "Ek Bhuiphor BiplobiSamparke"(On an Upstart Gono Shakti, Vol. II (2, 1973), Revolutionary),

PP. 4-28.

35 See the editorial "ShashastraJatio Biplobi Juddher Parichalak-Ispath Kadin Sramik Srenir

and 5, I973), pp. 6-32.

34See "Jasod" Vol. (JSD), Gono Shakti, II (4

BiplobiPartikeGore Tulun" (Build up the SteelParty of the Workers-the like Revolutionary War) in Leader of ArmedNationalRevolutionary JonoJuddho[Peoples' War], No. 7 (I973), p. 7. Juno Juddho-the undergroundpaper of the EPCP(M-L)-is edited by Abdul Haq. Also see Shashastra latio Biplobi luddhoke Egie Neey NationalLiberathe Chalun(Take Forward Armed tion War), publishedby the EPCP(M-L), 24 December1972.

BANGLADESH:

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without classstruggle well.36 a as Theyalso seekcollaboration therevolutionwith in aries India,especially Naxalites, aredistrusted theother the who by revolutionary parties Bangladesh. EBCP(M-L) is active Attrai, in parts Rajshahi, of The in and of Pabna, Kushtia and Districts. Dinajpur, The left revolutionary ofBangladesh all agreed thewarfor parties are that independence therevolution left unfinished. Some believe thatthenextstepmustbe classwar; others think thateventhenationalist phaseis notcomplete whilethe AwamiLeaguegovernment allows economy Bangladesh be dominated the of to by India,Russia, and/or United the States. However, ideological the differences among them notexplain large do the number parties, why BCL's attempt unify of nor the to therevolutionary was so unsuccessful. important left Some differencesstyle of and emphasis be traced theclassorigins themembers their can to of or levels educaof tion. Mostofthefactionalism appears be theresult personal to of animosities, desire forpersonal aggrandizement, accidents geography history thegroups' or of of or in encounters thePakistan with Army theMukti and Bahini. The radical parties themselves notworried are abouttheexistence several of communist organizations, however, citing caseof Russiabefore the 1917,whendozensof communist parties coexisted. party byLeninwith correct The led the revolutionary ultimately theory led therevolution fruition. so willtheparty Bangladesh to Just in espousing correct the theory command take during revolution overcome theother the and all parties. Government Response theLeft to its Despite overwhelming victory thepolls, is clearthat AwamiLeague at it the facessharpchallenges from left. also feared Islamicnationalist the It the parties, banning themshortly after independence setting specialtribunals try to and up "collaborators." About40,000peoplewerearrested undera special order allowing of suspected collaborators be arrested to a because the without warrant. H-owever, strong pressure from left the revolutionaries, AwamiLeaguedecided co-opt the to theIslamicnationalists; November I9.73, a general on to 30, amnesty granted was collaborators, theexception those with of or whowerecharged withmurder, rape, arson.37 leaders theIslamic The of for constitution a parties haveprepared draft a newparty basedon secularism thewelfare and of state. recognitionBangladesh The by Pakistan and the granting clemency I95 Pakistani of have to war prisoners further improved for right. conditions the The government also co-opted less radical(pro-Moscow) in its has the left, to attempt widenitsbaseof support. After split theEPCP in I968, theprothe in Moscow grouphad sought coalition section a withother parties, thepro-Soviet as oftheNational AwamiParty donein thegeneral and had of elections 1970. During after liberation the these struggle, groups to gave fullsupport theAL, confining their criticism it to comments of on and aboutitscorruption favoritism. However, January I973, a march theAmerican I, on in the Center Dacca,to protest bombing ofNorth The Vietnam, organized moderately parties affiliates. march was by left and wasbroken bya police up firing killed that two.The pro-Moscow then camp opened
36 See Editorial, PurboBangla,Vol. IV (2, I973), pp. 2-3; and SadhanKarmokar (probably pseuda onym of one of the leadersof the EBCP(M-L), "Bharater BiplobiSangrameChinerNirobata:'Ke

Dhekhe'" (China's Silenceon the Kon Drishtithe in Struggle India: "Who Sees From Revolutionary What Angle") in Ibid., pp. 6-8. 37 Bangladesh I Observer, DecemberI973.

904

TALUKDER MANIRUZZAMAN

the whichled the government have the offices to a campaignvilifying government, of Moni Singh,President theCentral Union attacked. of theNAP and theStudents' Party(Moscow), apologizedto the govof Committee the BangladeshCommunist the AL formed People's UnityFront the Finally,in October, beleaguered ernment. (GOJ, forGono Oikkay Jote) withthe NAP and the BCP (Moscow); representacomof is tion on the CentralCommittee in proportions II:5:3. Similartripartite levels.The main aim of the and subdivisional were formedat the district mittees as "anti-state which theydescribe "miscreants," GOJ is to fightthe radical parties, to powerswho are not reconciled the and (ironically)"agentsof foreign elements," of independence Bangladesh."38 along withthe Islamic have the Of course, leftrevolutionaries not been co-opted as Shortlyafterhis inauguration Prime or nationalists the pro-Moscowleftists. Sheikh Mujib warned publiclythat "Naxalites" would be shot dead. A Minister, the to of number specialordinances facilitate war againstthelefthave been promulgated by Mujib or passed by the JatioSangsad (Parliament). These include the such as to exclusively tryoffences of following:I) Establishment special tribunals for in of, storing, possession use of,or membership organizations acquirconcealing, withthe to Incitement interfere or ing arms and ammunition explosivesubstances. of 2) law or administration the law is also cause for prosecution. Arrestwithout 3) the on picion of havingcommitted above offences. Removal of any warrant sus statedreasonand withwithout police-fromservice, officer-including government unconstitutionality.Exof of out right appeal.4) Exemption theabove laws from 5) 6o of sittings theJatioSangsad from to I20 tension thepermitted of periodbetween laws. 6) Giving the President may promulgate days,duringwhich the President or when the security economiclife of power to declarea Proclamation Emergency by is or any part thereof threatened externalwar or internaldisof Bangladesh and are not remainsuspended rights fundamental turbance. During thisEmergency, or Rakhi Bahini to arrest of in 7) enforceable any court.39 Enablingthe officers the 8) or searchwithout warrant cause,withno appeal againsttheseactions. Empowerunionsand of to ing the government suspendthe activities associations-including are if politicalparties-fora periodnot exceedingsix months, theiractivities "prejudicial to the nationalinterest." Detentionof a personto preventhim from 9) committing "prejudicialact." io) No actionstaken under the Special Powers any to 8 provisions and 9.above), or puirporting have beenso taken, Act of I974 (covering or are subjectto prosecution questionin any court.40
38 See BanglarBani, I5 OctoberI973; and the of of report the meeting the CentralCommittee of Observer, OctoberI973. 23 the GOJ in Bangladesh I973 and 24 Also see BanglarBani, 2i November March I974; and Gonokantha, DecemberI973. I3 39 The fundamental in rights-defined Articles as 36, 37, 39, 40, and 42-include the following imposedby law restrictions "subjectto reasonable in the public interest":freedomsof movement, press, association, speechand expression, assembly, to For and profession, rights property. theselaws, of see proceedings the JatioSangsad publishedin the BangladeshObserver, JulyI973. I9 40 See the BangladeshObserver, and 30 Jan29 of uary, 2 and 6 FebruaryI974 for proceedings

these laws. (Italics the JatioSangsad concerning Abu Sayeed added.) On December24, I973 Justice of of fromthe office President resigned Choudhury the People's Republicof Bangladesh.Immediately Special Representative he thereafter, was appointed versionof the resignaThe official of Bangladesh. wantedto be more Choudhury tionwas thatJustice active in serviceto the nation than was possible head" of the state. (See Bangas the "dignified the 25 ladesh Observer, DecemberI973.) However, Awami stated(and informed newspapers opposition to League circleslaterconfirmed thisauthor) that had been unhappyabout the Choudhury Justice methodsused by the Awami Leaguestrong-arm Union League in the Students' Students' affiliated

BANGLADESH:

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905

has As if thesewere not enough,the government raiseda specialsecurity force, known as the Rakhi Bahini. Its recruits come the JatioRakhi Bahini, generally members the Mujib Bahini, the Mukti Bahini, and other of mainlyfromformer to organizations affiliated the Awami League. By the middle of 1972, the Home Its about Io,ooo men to the force. budgethas risenfrom Department had recruited oustsanyonenotcompletely in Rakhi Bahiniare trained India; and theorganization to Mujib has also threatened arm other accepting Awami League government. the League, and Workers' branches the AL-including the Youth League, Students' of miscreants." the League-to fight "armed anti-state has Using its specialpowersand theRakhi Bahini,thegovernment been attemptand miscreants." JulyI973, about 200 ultraIn ing to comb out all "extremists againstthe in leftists were arrested and a largestoreof armsrecovered an operation SammobadiDal and the EBCP(M-L) in Rajshahi District;again in December a reported resulted killingover ioo communists. in government operation Gonokantha thattheAL has killed werekilledin Sirajganj;and theJSD asserts that500 workers The about 86,oooin the two yearssince liberation.42 AL about 6o,oooand arrested fromhalf of Bangladesh's claims,on its side, to have wiped out armedmiscreants AL reported actually are i8 districts; it saysthatmostof the victims killings of and to workers.43 Reportsof violencecontinue appear dailyin the press. has Clearly,the government not been able to meet the challengeof the revolueither withspecialpowersor withviolence;and a stateof near civil tionary leftists, the colonialcountries, solution As war obtainsin Bangladesh. in mostof theformer leader (e.g., aroundone nationalist a ideologycentered has been to offer makeshift the of Tito, Nasser,or Nkrumah). In Bangladesh, course, leaderis Mujib; and the by ideologyis Mujibism. First formulated Mujib's nephew,Sheikh Fazlul Huq volume war,Mujibbad reachedits peak in the687-page Moni, duringthe liberation of leftist the Moscow persuasion.44 by KhandokarMohammadIlias, a former ideologythat can Mujibism is a progressive Accordingto this interpretation, Bengali bloodshed.Unlike fascism, bringsocialismto Bangladeshwithoutfurther force, whichhas alreadydestroyed and anti-imperialist nationalism a democratic is Since Bengalis foughtfor democracy class cleavagesand religiouscommunalism. to and self-representation against Pakistan,theyprefer obtain socialismgradually
elections Dacca University, promulgation in and of Presidential Ordersand enactment various"speof cial powersActs" thatnegatethe principle due of processof law. Since the government not pay did any heed to his advice on thesematters, President Choudhury resigned. See Gonokantha, Decem25 ber I973; Holiday,30 December I973. As provided by the constitution, Muhammadullah-the Speaker of the latio Sangsad-became the ActingPresident and in January was formally elected I974 President unopposed. Muhammadullah, educatedin Cal52, cuttaand Dacca Universities, a trainedlawyer. is One of the closestassociatesof Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,Muhammadullah was Office Secretary of the East PakistanAwami League from I953 to
I97I. 41

in Taka 74.4 million 1972-3 to Taka

I50

of million 1973-4.41 The officers the in

I974. Observer, February 43Bangladesh 9 44 See Banglar Bani, Io and I6 May; 4 June; Io, I6, and I7 July;2, 20, 24, and 30 August; I972. and I2, 23, 27, and30 September; 6 October IshteNirbachani Awami Leagtuer Also Bangladesh har (Election Manifestoof Bangladesh Awami League), publishedby Sardar Amjad HossainBangladesh Awami League, PublicitySecretary, Ilias, Mohammad p. 6; and Khandokar I973, Dacca: NationalPublications, Mujibbad(Mujibism),
I972.

I973. I9 Gonokantha, and 26 December

force, border-security was only Taka 8o millionin 30 the budgetforI973-74. (See Gonokantha, June I973.) I9 42 The Bangladesh Observer, JulyI973; and

The allocationfor the BangladesliRifles,a

906

TALUKDER

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little thatis new,especially This their electedrepresentatives. ideology through offers Nationalism,socialism, secularism, to the intelligentsia. and democracy have long of in been part of the Congressplatform India. On the otherhand, the majority ideology.The and see intellectuals Mujibbad as a personality-cult an anti-socialist about have graduallybecome less enthusiastic Awami League leaders themselves Mujibbad and have been takinga less ideologicalapproachto the nation'smany problems. of in The weaknessof Mujibismas an ideologyis reflected the factionalism the partyof the AL, Tajuddin Ahmed (the Awami League. In the parliamentary aid of Minister Finance) leads a groupthatopposesaccepting fromthe "imperialist pro-Indian by is nations,"althoughits anti-Americanism contradicted a generally mixed economyshould The group believesthatthe present stance. and pro-Soviet of one, sincethe nationalization industries be abandonedin favorof a pure socialist has system created the distribution of the tradewithout nationalization and foreign group, under Syed Another parliamentary and inflation. economic uncertainty Nazrul Islam (MinisterforIndustries)and KhandokerMustaq Ahmad (Minister and for Foreign Trade and Commerce) is less anti-American is willingto accept the aid foreign as well as to continue mixedeconomy. are the Despite thesedifferences, seniorCabinetmembers stillbound by loyalty The divisions movement. in commonexperiences theliberation to Mujib and bytheir as is partymembers more serious, forexamplethe splitin the among the younger of Students'League that led to the establishment the JSD. Anothercleavage has whichis made up almost withinthe Awami League WorkingCommittee, occurred sincethe olderpartyleadersare in the Cabinet. of exclusively men in theirthirties, of Abdur Razzak (Organizing Secretary the Awami League) and Tofael Ahmad witha large following to (Political Secretary the PrimeMinister)lead one faction, of in the Students'League affiliate the AL; the otheris led by Mujib's nephew, SheikhFazlul Huq Moni, who foundedthe rivalJubo(Youth) League. In March elements I974, the Razzak-Ahmadgroup launcheda campaignagainstthe "corrupt in of and exploiters society," referring Moni and his associates the JuboLeague. to on in Tensions betweenthe two groupsresulted the killingof seven students the closingof theuniversity campusin April I974, and the subsequent Dacca University in also Universities resulted at Incidents Rajshahi and Chittagong for two months. their closing.95 In addition to the intellectual hollownessof Mujibism, and the factionalism to the withinthe party, Awami League has been able neither steadythe economy has The government nationalized85 nor to effect any real stepstowardssocialism. of overgo percent the its and est-ablished control of industries percent Bangladesh's and of trade; but the distribution both locally-produced imported country's foreign goods is carriedon by licensed"dealers."Most of theselicenseesare AL workers at merchants to theysell theirpermits professional rather traders; than professional In very high prices.46 addition,about sixtythousandhouses abandoned by non45 For an accountof this split,see Ittefaq,31 inciMarch and I April 1974. For the university dents, BanglarBani April6, 1974; and Holiday, see April 7, 1974. publishedin the pro-govern46See the reports and mentBanglarBani,30 September Ia2 November of the total 25,000 import permit holders, about 3 See Gonokantha, I5,ooo are "fake" importers.

to and 3 March 1974. According 1973, 3 January Minister, the A. H. M. Kamruzzaman, Commerce January1974. Most of the permitsfor opening have also been given to AL workfirms indenting

BANGLADESH:

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by Bengalis have been appropriated the Awami League.47In the nationalizedinare of about 8o percent the administrators eitherAwami League members dustries, ownerswho have factory or who lack knowledgeof economicmanagement, former The resultis the growthof a class of conspicuous become League supporters. in than investing it, and havingthe rather livingoffthe economy nouveauxriches, in influence the AL. Pakistan's22 familieshave become Bangladesh's controlling transformation of for providethe leadership a socialist Such people can hardly 2200. theBengalieconomy.48 the As the partyof nationalism, AL drew into its fold all thosewho soughtan was made to train war, no effort Bangladesh.During the liberation independent reliedupon Mujib's charisma ideology;theleadership in thefreedom fighters socialist Mujibismwas unrewarding; the to maintain unityafter war ended.As an ideology, and houses. such as licenses withperquisites have had to be enticed and AL workers who AL even dissatisfaction amongformer supporters, are has This, in turn, created The violent arguments. and now fragmented, has providedfuel for revolutionary powersthe governof of suppression opponents the regime,and the extraordinary alienated many have further this suppression ment has granted itselfto effect Bengalicitizens. ordinary movementunleashedforcesof revolution In sum, Bangladesh'sindependence Withintwo yearsof the emergence withmereindependence. thatwere not content of of Bangladeshas a separatenation,therehas been a polarization politics-with on supporters theone hand,and theseveral and rightist the AL and its pro-Moscow partieson the other.Althoughthe leftparties communist open and underground is they are themselves fragmented, all agreethatBengal'srevolution presently highly kill to guerrillas sabotagecommunications, armed incomplete; and all are training to and finally take overfromthe AL AL workers and otherenemiesof revolution, living of the The failureof the economyto revive,the ostentatious government. proAL licensees, repressive laws, and the generalarmingof any apparently the of potential the society, citizens-all serveto increasethe revolutionary government have been able to exploit. parties a potential thatthe variouscommunist for What then are the prospects Bangladesh,and who will win the struggle is to The economy unlikely turn forces? betweenthe centrist the revolutionary and ceased, around soon enough to help the Awami League. Foreign aid has virtually of althoughthe FirstFive-YearPlan (1973-78) countson about 39 percent its total of outlaycomingfromoutsideaid.49The performance the nationalizedindustries
The ers and sympathizers. "easy money"made by is these"fake" traders spenteitherin ostentatious to living or transferred foreignbanks. It is primarily because of this fact, and the large-scale goods to India, thatthepumpsmuggling relief of aid ing of massiveforeign (about 200 milliondolduringthe lars in cash and kind) intoBangladesh failedto revitalize first two yearsof independence the Bangladesh economy. 47 See Gonokantha, JuneI973. I 48 See Presidential Address Dr. MazharulHuq, of Arthoniti in the first annual sessionof Bangladesh Samiti (BangladeshEconomic Association),I974 (publishedby BangladeshEconomicAssociation), comment, pp. 5-6. For an exampleof opposition Na(ElectionManifesto), Ishtehdr see Nirbachani by tionalAwamiParty(Bhashani),published Qazi dubs the Ahmad, 1973, p. 3. The Manifesto Jafar Awami League Lut Pat Samiti (Associationof Looters). 49 Ed. note: Since this articlewas written, a to consortium aid Bangladeshhas been formed is inside the World Bank. The consortium to innations.In addition,in clude threeoil-producing aid order to improvethe climatefor foreign and investment, Mujib has assuredthataid fundswill he more concretely, not be squanderedcorruptly; investment has raised the ceilingforprivate-sector from $3 to 4 million. He has also declared a for of on moratorium nationalization industries 15

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are of is poor;50and about 75 percent the small industries no longerfunctioning The majority materials.5' essential oil in becauseof the difficulty acquiring and other to Similarly, support therevolutionaries. to their of thepeoplewill thusbe likely offer will by together forceof personality dwindleas to Mujib's ability hold the country from corrupt workers the AL himself disassociate timegoeson. He cannotcompletely violenceof the Rakhi Bahini and otherarmed gratuitous nor fromthe seemingly groups. of the Although totalstrength thearmyis onlyabout5o,ooo;of thepolice40,ooo; the BangladeshRifles20,000; and the Rakhi Bahini also about 20,000 (in a country of the support theseforces revolutionaries the critical of some 75 million),without forcesare stillloyal are unlikelyto fullysucceed.The variousarmed government argue that it is only a but to Mujib and the AL government; the revolutionaries theirpeasantoriginsand cast theirlot withthe of matter timeuntiltheyremember of incalculables Bangleft.The behaviorof the armedgroupsis one of the greatest Anotherunknownis how India would reactto left-wing ladesh's politicalfuture. and Peace Cooperation, since under the 25-YearTreaty of Friendship, successes, to help Bangladeshto guard her "peace, (signed March I972), India is supposed and stability, security." of Overall,it seemssafeto say thatthe Bangladeshrevolution I97I is not going to will see. Blood will continue flowin a de factocivil to be thelastthatthecountry to war. The government will have to make some accommodation demands for from the be will surely different The result freedom. and stability political economic of generation leaders.However,all her thatis soughtby the present kind of society citizensdo believe that somedayBangladeshwill once again become the land of their dreams-SonarBangla,"Golden Bengal."
1975) Postscript (February

The finalversionof this articlewas preparedin April I974. The developments in in Bangladeshsince thattimehave been in the line indicated the last sectionof floods in by in the paper.The economic crisis Bangladeshwas aggravated the"worst in our history" Julyand August 1974, resulting "near famine"situationand in to estimate, 27,500 persons.The underground causing death,accordingto official halfof I974. The daily newsin theiractivities the latter revolutionaries intensified forcesand armed betweenthe Government over ioo engagements papersreported to in The extremists. PrimeMinister, his broadcast the nationon theeve of Victory on the Day (December i6, commemorating PakistanArmy'ssurrender thatdate in fourM.P.sthat3000 Awami League leadersand workers-including 1971), stated createdby hostile "In had been killedby the terrorists. view of the gravesituation and extremists of elements withthecollaborators PakistanArmy, actingin collusion spokesman powers,"(as the Home Ministry enemyagents in the pay of foreign in a proclaimed Stateof Emergency put it) on December28, 1974,the government rightsconperiod-all fundamental Bangladeshand suspended-foran indefinite
of years,and has allowed for liberal repatriation profitsand salaries for foreigncompanies. See KasturiRanganin the New York Times,i8 October I974. 50 Syed Nazrul Islam, Minister for Industries, told Parliament thatthe totalloss suffered the by yearafterindein industries the first nationalized See was Taka 322.4 million. The Banglapendence 23 des/h Observel;, JuneI973. suppliedby editorfrom 51 Ed. note: This figure New York Times, I8 OctoberI974.

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The new year 1975 began in Bangladeshwiththe news by ferred the Constitution. and had that Siraj Sikdar-the leader of the SarboharaParty-had been arrested, 25, On of been killed while escapingfrompolice custody. January on the initiative of of againstthe privatefeelings the majority the Prime Ministerand reportedly was amendedto providefora presiM.P.s belongingto the AL, the Constitution to one National was and of dentialform government; thePresident authorized form of Partyand suspendthe activities all politicalgroupsopposed to joining the proSheikh that"Bangabandhu, provided further The amendment posed NationalParty. of MujiburRahman,the Fatherof the Nation" would be the President the country In amendment. his lastperoration forfiveyearsfromthe date of thisConstitutional his before bill in Parliament, soon afterthe passingof the amendment and shortly to his Bangabandhuexpressed determination comtakingoath as thenew President, In and hoarders, smugglers." his terrorists, elements, wipe out the "anti-state pletely Bangabandhudubbed the of to outdo the slogan-mongering the revolutionaries, bid of to coup his "second revolution" bringabout the "democracy the constitutional and killing changes,and the arrest constitutional masses."In spiteof the exploited While thelast have of of Siraj Sikdar,the activities the revolutionaries not stopped. to banned,a weeklysympathetic the dailies,Gonokantha, has been of theopposition actedas for Mujib's movement autonomy thatas Sheikh commented revolutionaries to his of a catalyst theemergence Bangladesh, movement usherin "thedemocracy for of lead to the establishment the "dictatormasses"mightultimately of the exploited shipof theproletariat."

Personalities of Biographies Party Appendix:

i.

AwamiLeague (AL)

Leaderof thewar of head.PrimeMinister Bangladesh. Party Rahman. SheikhMujibur to referred as Bangabandhu often for his even independence, from cellin WestPakistan. of of ("friend Bengal").[Ed. note:nowPresident Bangladesh.] which anti-American group, Leaderof pro-Indian, of Minister Finance. TajuddinAhmed. seeks completely economy. socialist a which group, Leaderof themorepro-West for SyedNazrul Islam.Minister Industries. the economy. accepts mixed Leader,with for Khandoker MustaqAhmad.Minister ForeignTrade and Commerce. wing. of NazrulIslam, pro-U.S. League group. of Secretary theAL. Leaderof one Students' AbdurRazzak. Organizing withRazzak. Co-leader to Secretary thePrimeMinister. Political TofaelAhmad. Leaderof dissident of Expounder Mujibism. Sheikh Fazlul Huq Moni.Mujib'snephew. (Youth) League. of and League, founder Jubo of wing Students' League. of President AL Students' Siddiqui. Nur-E-Alam Union. Students' Central Dacca University AbdulQuddus Makhan.GeneralSecretary, corps. AbdulMannan. Lal Secretary, Bahini-theAL volunteer General
2.

fronts JSD,andaffiliated League, Communist Bangladesh of League (AL), Secretary Students' General Serajul AlamKhan.LeaderofBCL. Former Bangladesh. for leaderof movement independent and early Dacca UniLeague. Vice-President, leaderof AL Students' A.S.M. AbdurRab. Former

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versity CentralStudents'Union in I97I. First to raise the flagof independent Bangladesh. JSD member. Firstto raise the issue Swapan Kumar Choudhury.FormerAL Students'League member. of independent Bangladeshat a League meeting. Sahjahan Siraj. FormerAL Students'League leader,now JSD member. Nurul Ambia. Former Presidentof AL Students'League. JoinedRab-Siraj group, now JSD leader. Mohammed Shahjahan. FormerAL labor leader,broughthis workersto JSD. Ruhul Amin Bhuyian.FormerAL laborleader,now JSD. of of Khondokher Abdul Malek. President peasantfront the JSD, theJatioKrishakLeague. Jatio KrishakLeague. AhsanulHaq. GeneralSecretary, of Major M. A. Jalil.FormerMajor, Pakistan Army.Presidentand co-founder JSD. Al-Mahmud. Radical poet. Editor of Gonokantha, the newspaperof the BCL. of A. F. M. MahbubulHaq. GeneralSecretary theBCL, I972-3. Momtaz Begum. Lady Secretary, JSD. Sramik League (workers' froint). MeshbahuddinAhmed. Acting Secretary, Party(BCP) 3. Banglar Communist who Deven Sikdar. Formermemberof East Bengal CommunistParty(Marxist-Leninist) split fromthis group and fromSomonnoyCommittee'sfoundingof BCP(L). Abdul Bashar. Co-leaderwith Sikdar. (BCP(L)) 4. BangladesherCommunist Party-Leninbadi now Amal Sen. Former leader of East Pakistan Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist), open leaderof BCP(L). In his late 50's. earlierwith EPCP(M-L). Nazrul Islam. Formerstudentleader,now in his 30's. Affiliated Now open leaderof BCP(L). Dr. Maroof Hossain. Communistleader fromKhulna, led his group into the Somonnoy of Committee. Formerly the CommunistWorkers'Association. Dr. Sayyedur Dahar. Leader with Hossain. Nasim Ali Khan. Leader of the above-groundBCP(L). leader. Hyder Akbar Khan (Rono). Above-ground MastafaJamal.Above-ground leader. Qazi Zafar Ahmad. Leader in BCP(L). Also working throughthe NAP (Bhashani) and its peasantorganization. Rashad Khan Menon. Colleague of Ahmad. Abdul Mannan Bhuyian.Colleague of Ahmad. 5. Purbo Bangla SarboharaParty (East Bengal CommunistParty-Sarbohara Party) to and theorist.[Ed. note: killed by police. See postscript Siraj Sikdar. Leader, founder, thisarticle.] 6. Purbo Bang/a Sammobadi Dal (Marxbadi-Leninbadi). (Communist Party of East Bengal-the Saimmobadi Dal) Mohammad Toaha. Engineer of the I968 split in the East Pakistan Communist Party Sammobadi Dal. forming EPCP(M-L). Founder of underground Sukhendu Dastidar. Leader withToaha. 7. EPCP(M-L) Abdul Haq. Colleague of Toaha, acts as leader of separateparty.

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8. Purbo Bang/aCommunist Party(Marxbadi-Leninbadi)(East Bengal CommunistParty -EBCP(M-L)) Matin. Formercolleague of Sikdar and Bashar, but did not flee to India. Opiposedboth Pakistanand AL fromoutset.Imprisoned. Alauddin. Tipu Biswas. Ohidur Rahman. Also former EBCP member(colleague of Sikdar). Formed Attrai(Rajshahi) CommunistPartyand supportedliberation war, but later recantedand helped Matin and colleagues escape the Rakhi Bahini. Imprisoned.

9. Other
Moni Singh.Leader of theCommunist Partyof Bangladesh-Moscow. Muzzafar Ahmad. Leader of theNational Awami Party. Maulana Bhashani.Leader of theNAP (Bhashani).