Radiography Level 1 Section One

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Table of Contents
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10 Appendix
Introduction to Radiographic inspection Sources of Radiation Generation of X-Rays Gamma Rays and Gamma Ray Equipment Radiation Detection and Measurement Radiation Safety Factors Affecting Radiographic Image Quality Calculation in Radiographic Exposure Radiographic Interpretation Glossary of Radiographic Terms Engineering Drawings
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Section 1
Introduction to Radiographic Inspection
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Section 1
Introduction to Radiographic Inspection X-Ray and Radiographic Inspection utilizes the penetrating power of this radiation to reveal the interior of objects as recorded on film. X-rays and Gamma rays have the ability to penetrate material that is opaque to visible light. During passage through material, radiation is absorbed to varying degrees, dependent on the density and the atomic number of the material. This different absorption phenomenon is used to render information which is recorded or imaged upon a film. X-rays and Gamma rays, because of their unique ability to penetrate material and disclose discontinuities, have been applied to the radiographic inspection of castings, welds, metal fabrication and nonmetallic products. Radiography has proven to be a successful tool with which to implement Quality Control at all of its various stages. Process control is one of the areas wherein radiography has been widely applied. The use of radiography to assist in the development of products and systems prior to production has resulted in considerable savings in time and cost.
Three major steps concerned in this method of inspection are: 1) Exposure of the material to X- or Gamma Radiation, including preparation for exposure 2) Processing of the film 3) Interpretation of the radiograph The penetrating radiation passes through the object and produces an invisible or latent image in the film. When processed, the film becomes a radiograph or shadow picture of the object. Since more radiation passes through the object where it is thin, or where there is a space or void, the corresponding areas on the film are darker. The radiograph is read by comparing it with the known or intended design of the object and noting the similarities or differences.
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Advantages Radiographic inspection is superior to other methods of inspection in a number of applications: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) It is a non-destructive test method Reveals the internal condition of the material Applicable to most materials Discloses fabrication and assembly errors Reveals structural discontinuities Provides a permanent visual representation of the object
Limitations: Radiographic inspection has several inherent limitations: 1) Two sided accessibility of the specimen is required 2) Specimen size and configuration may limit the extent to which a specimen may be radiographed 3) Radiography Will Not detect all discontinuities 4) Time involved and equipment costs make radiography expensive 5) Presents a potential safety hazard Training and Certification: It is important that the Radiographer be adequately trained and qualified in the radiographic method before the technique is used and test results evaluated. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has published the document Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A. This document provides the employer with the necessary guidelines to properly qualify and certify the NDT technician in all methods. Mirek Industrials Radiography Certification program is designed to satisfy the requirements as outlined in SNT-TC-1A. Any questions concerning SNT-TC-1A should be directed to the Quality Manager.
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Applications of Radiography: Radiography is very useful in inspecting and testing products of various kinds. It may be used to inspect finished products to determine their soundness or fitness and it may be used to help develop production techniques that will produce products that meet desirable standards. This method of testing may be used one or two pieces occasionally or it may be used to examine hundreds of pieces in a short period of time. Welding has become on of the important processes in the manufacturing of metal products. Due to advances in this field, many high pressure, high temperature tanks or containers are constructed by welding. Such equipment is now almost universally examined by radiography and other nondestructive testing methods. Weld radiography is one of the most important applications of industrial radiography. One of the first industrial applications of radiography was the examination of castings. Most metal produced in the world is cast into a mold at some point during its processing. The cooling of the liquid metal in the mold may be accompanied by several undesirable effects. Small pieces or sand from the mold may become trapped in the metal, gas bubbles mat be formed and slag may be caught in the metal. Also, the shrinkage characteristics of most metals as they cool from a liquid to a solid may lead to cracks, holes and even breaks. Manu of these may not be noticeable on the surface of the metal. Radiography may be used to detect these flaws. Metal may be worked or shaped into desirable forms. Steel is usually forged at high temperatures because it becomes plastic to some degree. This makes it easier to form. The expansion and contraction of the metal being forged mat be uneven and the stresses may cause cracks or breaks at certain points in the metal. Radiographs will reveal internal defects. Nonmetallic materials such as plastics, ceramics, and concrete, paper, wood, textiles and food products are now being inspected by radiography. Assemblies are being inspected. Study of internal working parts may be made during the design and prototype stage as wall as at the production stage. Other applications include pipe wall gauging, high speed or flash radiography, microradiography and stereo radiography. The making of steel, manufacturing processes, and material discontinuities will be discussed in detail in other sections.
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The Industrial Radiographer: The industrial radiographer must be familiar with the subjects listed below, all of which will be discussed in detail in subsequent sections. 1) The source of radiation a) The maximum energy of the source of radiation in Kev or Mev, including energy spectral distribution. b) Emission rate of source in Roentgens per Curie per hour at one foot r/c/hr at 1 foot for Gamma rays r/hr/Ma at 1 meter for X-rays 2) The specimen to be examined. a) Mass density of the material ( atomic number of chemical composition b) Thickness or length of absorption 3) The film to be used a) Grain or the ability of the film to resolve images b) Speed and relative exposure required to attain desired radiographic density c) Film processing and interpretation 4) Geometric principles. (a) Size of source of radiation (b) Source to film distance (c) Specimen dimensions and shape (d) Specimen to field distance (e) Projected images (geometric enlargement and description) (f) Calculations In addition to these outlined principles. Every successful radiographer must know and practice these topics: 1) Radiography techniques (a) Exposure calculations (b) Exposure arrangements 2) Interpretation of radiographs
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The Constituents of Matter: The Greek philosopher, Democritus, is often mentioned as the original proponent of the atomic theory. However, even before the fourth century BC, when Democritus theorized that all things are composed of tiny portions of matter which he called atoma (atoms), ancient scholars had been teaching a broad concept that the material world was made up of many small particles. Now, modern scientists have given mankind an intimate knowledge of several basic constituents of matter: molecules, elements, atoms and even subatomic particles. How do we know that a substance is made up of numerous tiny particles? Some simple examples lead us to the reasonable explanation of this concept of matter. Table salt dissolves when put into water and disappears. So do many other substances when placed in water. Where does the salt go? There must be holes in the water for the particles to go into! A colored dye placed in a glass of water soon spreads throughout the water. How can the dye do this? The water might be like sand. The particles of dye must spread out and fill in the spaces between the particles of water. Does this sound absurd to you? Follow this experiment: By combining exactly one litre of water with exactly one litre of pure alcohol, the combined mass will be the sum of both parts. But when you measure the total volume, you will find that you have less than two litres of solution. Consider this example: If two very smooth edges of a bar of gold and a bar of silver are placed together and left, it will be found that some particles of each have mixed together. This suggests that a smooth continuous surface of matter is deceiving. In fact, there are almost countless holes or spaces in all matter. This can be explained by thinking of matter as being composed of tiny particles or atoms with spaces between the atoms.
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A molecule is the smallest unit of a substance which can exist and still exhibit all the chemical properties of that substance. Some molecules consist of a single atom and are, therefore, identical to the atom. But most molecules, however, are combinations of two or more atoms. For example, a molecule of hydrogen (H2) contains two hydrogen atoms; a molecule of water (H2O) is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Elements: An element is a collection of atoms which have the same chemical properties. The properties of an element originate in the atoms that constitute it; therefore the atoms of different elements are not the same. The hydrogen and oxygen elements, for example, combine to combine a water molecule (H2O). there are 103 known elements which may be grouped into an ascending series according to their atomic numbers (proton numbers). Hydrogen (atomic number 1) is the simplest element; Lawrencium (atomic number 103) is the most complex. It took many years of work for scientists to find and isolate the elements. Many were known in ancient times, such as silver, gold and carbon. However, the people did not know that the elements were different from other substances such as salt and water. Some of the more familiar elements with their chemical symbols are: Aluminium Calcium Carbon Chlorine Cobalt Al Ca C Cl Co Copper Gold Hydrogen Iron Lead Cu Au H Fe Pb Nitrogen Oxygen Silicon Silver Sulfur N O Si Ag S
The smallest particles of elements are atoms. Atoms enter into many combinations with atoms of other elements to form many materials, but other reactions can always reclaim the atoms back from these materials.
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Compounds: Generally, materials which are not elements are called compounds (consisting of two or more elements). The smallest is called a molecule. A molecule may be broken down into atoms that compose it. Water mat be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen. Table salt may be broken down into sodium and chlorine. Atoms making up a molecule of a substance always combine in the same ratio by weight. Thus, if a spark is shot through a tank of hydrogen and oxygen, water will form. For every ounce of hydrogen, eight ounces of oxygen will be used to form water.
Each water molecule is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Water is often referred to in science as the universal solvent. Water is the only pure substance found naturally in all three states of matter: solid; liquid and gas. Water may take many forms; the solid state of water is commonly known as ice or amorphous solid water; the gaseous state is known as water vapour or steam; the common liquid phase is generally called: simply, water. An important feature of water is its polar nature. The water molecule forms an angle, with hydrogen atoms at the tips and oxygen at the vertex. Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the side of the molecule with the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. A molecule with such a charge difference is called a dipole. The charge differences cause water molecules to be attracted to each other (the relatively positive areas being attracted to the relatively negative areas) and to other polar molecules. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding, and explains many of the properties of water.
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Until recently, these concepts of atoms and molecules were mainly theories. No one had seen an atom or molecule. However, the electron microscope provided fairly clear pictures of the largest molecules such as proteins. They contain thousand of atoms per molecule. It is noteworthy that the first direct photographs of molecules looked in size and shape just as scientists predicted they would. Atomic Structure: The production of radiation and the utilization of radiation for inspection depends on the characteristics and behavior of the atom. The atom is pictured as an extremely tiny solar system, having a heavy inner core or nucleus with a positive electrical charge and a variable number of lighter circulating particles, called primary planetary particles with negative charges, which revolve continuously around the nucleus in circles or ellipses. All of the particles are tightly bound together by electromagnetic forces. These small planetary particles circling about the nucleus of the atom are called electrons and carry a negative charge. Each atom has a different nucleus and planetary structure. Compared to the size of the particles, there are tremendous empty spaces between the tiny nucleus and the planetary electrons. There is no solid matter in the open space between the nucleus and electrons, thus the volume occupied by an atom is almost empty space.
The hydrogen atom has a diameter of about 1/200,000,000 of an inch. If the nucleus were enlarged to the size of a baseball, the single electron would be nearly half a mile away.
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Atomic Number and Mass Number: The nucleus contains two of the three subatomic building blocks, the protons and neutrons, often referred to collectively as nucleons. Protons: The proton has an electrical charge of +1 and a mass of 1.00758 atomic mass units (very nearly 1 amu). The number of protons in an atomic nucleus is equal to the number of orbital electrons. Since the electron has an electrical charge of -1, the total atomic charge is zero and the complete atom is electrically neutral. The number of protons and electrons in an atom determine the element to which the atom belongs, and are responsible for the chemical properties of an atom which make it different from atoms of other elements. For example, all atoms of hydrogen have 1 proton and I orbital electron; all atoms of oxygen have 8 protons and 8 orbital electrons. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number (or proton number) of the atom. atomic number (Z number) = number of protons
Proton: Carries a unit of positive electrical charge. Neutron: Carries a unit of electrically neutral charge. It has the same approximate mass as the proton. Electron: Carries a unit of negative electrical charge. Its mass is 1/1840 AMU (atomic mass unit).
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Neutrons: The neutron is electrically neutral and also has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit (1.00894 amu). The4 neutron does not affect the atomic number (i.e., chemical behavior) of the element but they do affect the atomic mass. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is the atomic mass number. This, hydrogen (atomic number 1) also has a mass number of 1 because in its common form it does not have any neutrons. Oxygen (atomic number 8) has a mass number of 16 because it normally has 8 neutrons in addition to its 8 protons. Mass number (A number) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons To appreciate the meaning of the atomic mass unit, consider the relative mass of three subatomic particles. Particle Proton Neutron Electron Weight in grams 1.67 x 10-24 1.67 x 10-24 9.19 x 10-28
Since the weight of an individual particle is very small and when expressed in grams, involves the use of unwieldy negative exponents, the system of atomic mass units was developed. The arbitrary value (weight) of 12 units has been assigned to carbon. The weight of all other atoms and subatomic particles are based on a unit of 1/12 the weight of the carbon 12 atom. The atom mass unit is especially handy because it makes the proton mass (and the mass of the neutron) very nearly 1.
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The Atom
Definition: the smallest amount of matter having the chemical nature of an element. 92 different kinds found in nature plus 11 man-made.
The Atom Nucleus Neutron Proton Electron
Charge 0 + 0 + -
Mass AMU 1.238 1.238 1.00+ 1.00+ 1 /1840
Mass Grams 1.67 x 10-24 1.67 x 10-24 9.19 x 10-28
Dia. Cm 10-8 2.8x 10-13 2.8x 10-13
Symbol
1
0n
1 1H 0 -1e
Atomic number = Z number Element number = number of protons. Mass number = A number = number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) Number of neutrons = A Z
Isotopes
Definition: Differing forms of the same element having the same atomic number (no. of protons). But different mass numbers (no. of neutrons differs). Stable Isotopes not radioactive; e.g., C-12, C-13 Unstable Isotopes radioactive; e.g., C-14, Co-60, U238 Naturally occurring K-40, Ra-236, U-238 Man-made (artificial) C0-60, Ir-192, I-131, Sr-90
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** 1 AMU = 1/12 the mass of C-12 isotope. The 103 elements found in nature have been numbered from 1 to 103. Number 1 is Hydrogen and number 103 is Lawrencium. Symbols for elements are commonly written with subscripts and superscripts. Examples: Hydrogen Helium
1 1H 2
He4
Oxygen Uranium
16 8O 238 92U
The subscript is called the atomic number and denotes the nuclear charge or number or protons in the nucleus. The superscript refers to the sum of the neutrons and protons in the nucleus. Also, this superscript is approximately the atomic mass. The weight of one carbon atom has been arbitrarily set as 12 units of mass. On this basis, the atomic weights of other elements have been determined. Examples: Note that these are very nearly whole numbers Hydrogen Helium Nitrogen 1.008 4.003 14.0 Cobalt Lead Uranium 58.9 297.1 238.0
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Physics Breakthrough: Fast-Moving Neutral Atom Isolated and Captured

(Sep. 27, 2010) In a major physics breakthrough, University of Otago scientists in New Zealand have developed a technique to consistently isolate and capture a fast-moving neutral atom -- and have also seen and photographed this atom for the first time. The entrapment of the Rubidium 85 atom is the result of a three-year research project funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology, and has already prompted world-wide interest in the new science which will flow from the breakthrough.
Atomic Entrapment
A rubidium 85 atom says cheese.
A team of four researchers from Otago's Physics Department, led by Dr Mikkel F. Andersen, used laser cooling technology to dramatically slow a group of rubidium 85 atoms. A laser-beam, or "optical tweezers," was then deployed to isolate and hold one atom -- at which point it could be photographed through a microscope. The researchers then proved they could reliably and consistently produce individual trapped atoms -- a major step towards using the atoms to build next-generation, ultra-fast quantum-logic computers, which harness the potency of atoms to perform complex information-processing tasks. Dr Andersen says that unlike conventional silicon-based computers which generally perform one task at a time, quantum computers have the potential to perform numerous long and difficult calculations simultaneously; they also have the potential to break secret codes that would usually prove too complex. "Our method provides a way to deliver those atoms needed to build this type of computer, and it is now possible to get a set of ten atoms held or trapped at the one time.
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"You need a set of 30 atoms if you want to build a quantum computer that is capable of performing certain tasks better than existing computers, so this is a big step towards successfully doing that," he says. "It has been the dream of scientists for the past century to see into the quantum world and develop technology on the smallest scale -- the atomic scale. "What we have done moves the frontier of what scientists can do and gives us deterministic control of the smallest building blocks in our world," Dr Andersen says. The results of the landmark study have been announced in the journal Nature Physics. Dr Andersen says that within three weeks of the first laboratory experiment successfully trapping the atom, new experiments previously not thought possible were underway. The next step is to try and generate a "state of entanglement" between the atoms, a kind of atomic romance which lasts the distance, he says. "We need to generate communication between the atoms where they can feel each other, so when they are apart they stay entangled and don't forget each other even from a distance. This is the property that a quantum computer uses to do tasks simultaneously," says Dr Andersen. One atom is so tiny that 10 billion side by side would make a metre in length. Atoms usually move at the speed of sound, making them difficult to manipulate. Unlike ions, neutral atoms like the Rubidium 85 atom are notoriously difficult to pin down because they cannot be held by electrical fields. In recent times, only two other types of neutral atom have been seen and photographed by scientists in the world; the Rubidium 87 and the Caesium 133 atom. Dr Andersen says that for him personally, the breakthrough has been a major milestone. "I learnt at elementary school that it is impossible to see a single atom through a microscope. Well, my elementary school teacher was wrong," he says. The other members of Dr Andersen's team are Tzahi Grnzweig, Andrew Hilliard and Matt McGovern.
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Atomic theory: Daltons atomic theory came early in the nineteenth century. It motivated a search for elements which by the middle of the century resulted in the discovery of some 75 elements. Study of these showed that they differed in atomic weight and that they could be placed in serial order. Also noted was the fact that some groups of elements seemed to have similar properties. For example Lithium, Sodium and Potassium were soft shiny metals that are easily tarnished in air. Their compounds are similar. Sodium Chloride, table salt, is a salty tasting white crystal which dissolves easily in water. Lithium Chloride and Potassium Chloride have the same properties. Mendeleev, in 1869 arranged the elements in a pattern called the Periodic Table. This grouped together similar elements and enabled the prediction of new elements and even the properties of new elements which were unknown. Using this table, the structure of the nucleus and the electron shells for an atom may be visualized. Also, the atomic number and weight may be found. The structure of the atoms of several elements can be seen in the Periodic Table of Elements on the following page. Remember that the atomic number tells how many protons, or positive unit charges are in the nucleus and how many electrons, or negative unit charges, are in the shells about the nucleus. Isotopes in our atmosphere: Atoms of an element are composed primarily of electrons, protons and neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus (the atomic number) equals the number of electrons in shells about the nucleus. This number determines the chemical properties of an element. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus (the atomic weight), primarily determines physical properties of an element. The number of neutrons in the nuclei of atoms ranges from zero for the hydrogen atom to 146 for uranium. The nucleus of a hydrogen atom contains one proton and no neutrons. The element helium has an atom containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thus, hydrogen has an atomic weight of one and helium has an atomic weight of four. Scientists found what was thought to be a sample of a pure element containing identical atoms. This was really a mixture of atoms with different atomic weights. These atoms had the same number of protons in their nuclei but had different numbers of neutrons. The atoms retained the same chemical properties while differing in atomic weight. These atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons were called isotopes of the element.
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Hydrogen was found to have two isotopes other than the ordinary hydrogen atom. By cooling hydrogen gas to a liquid and allowing it to evaporate, a concentration of heavier atoms remained. The nucleus of the heavy hydrogen (deuterium) atom contains a neutron as well as the usual proton. Heavy hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen to form heavy water. Only one hydrogen atom in 14,000 is a heavy atom. More recently a still heavier hydrogen atom (tritium) has been discovered. The number of isotopes for each element varies. While hydrogen has three isotopes, tin has 25 isotopes. Uranium has several isotopes. One is called Uranium-238. Its nucleus has 92 protons and 143 neutrons, or 235 particles. Both react chemically in the same way. In all, more that 1,500 isotopes have been found.
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Isotopes: Any single atomic element has a fixed number of protons. However, nearly all elements are capable of possessing more than one fixed number of neutrons. For example, hydrogen is defined as an atom with only one proton. Hydrogen commonly has zero neutrons, giving this type of atom an atomic mass of 1. This means that 6.0225 1023 (one mole) of these common hydrogen atoms weighs 1 gram. However, every once in a while a hydrogen atom will also have a neutron, which has basically the same mass as a proton. These heavier hydrogen atoms are referred to as 2H, or deuterium, and have an atomic mass of 2. Even more rarely, a hydrogen atom will have two neutrons. These atoms have an atomic mass of 3 and are referred to at 3H, or tritium. 1H, 2H, and 3H are all isotopes of hydrogen. Some isotopes are classified as stable isotopes and others are classified as unstable, or radioactive, isotopes. Stable isotopes maintain constant concentrations on Earth over time. Unstable isotopes are atoms that disintegrate at predictable and measurable rates to form other isotopes by emitting a nuclear electron or a helium nucleus and radiation. These isotopes continue to decay until they reach stability. As a rule, the heavier an isotope is than the most common isotope of a particular element, the more unstable it is and the faster it will decay. Because the rates of radioactive decay are measurable, unstable isotopes are useful tools in determining age. For example, nuclear bombs put large and detectable amounts of certain radioactive isotopes into the atmosphere. After the nearelimination of nuclear bomb testing due to the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963, the carbon-14 concentration in the atmosphere began decreasing immediately. Therefore, a 5 year old has a significantly lower concentration of carbon-14 in her bones than a person born in 1960. Anybody born after1965 or so possesses a significantly higher concentration of carbon14 than someone born before nuclear testing. Thus, we can tell how old many living organisms are based on the recent history of carbon-14 in the atmosphere. Because carbon-14 decays slowly (decreases to half of its original concentration every 5,370 years), we can also tell how long ago much older organisms died based upon what we know the pre-industrial carbon-14 concentration in the atmosphere was and how much radioactive decay of this isotope has occurred since the organism's death. This is a very useful tool in dating petrified wood, bones from ancient civilizations, and shells in ocean-floor sediments. For very old specimens such as dinosaur bones, more stable radioactive isotopes must be used because of their slower decay rates.
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Because stable isotopes don't decay, they remain in the environment at a constant concentration. However, the distribution of stable isotopes throughout the environment constantly changes as a result of changing environmental preferences. For example, much like salinity, the concentrations of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in the ocean increases significantly during glacial periods because cold air is not as good at absorbing and holding onto heavy water molecules as warm air is. This means that water molecules made of light hydrogen and oxygen isotopes evaporate from the ocean more easily than heavy molecules. During glacial times, much more water is trapped on land as ice than during interglacial times, redistributing the light water molecules that preferentially evaporated from the ocean onto land. Trapping water on land decreases the volume of the ocean and therefore increases the concentration of heavy hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in the ocean. Because the concentration of these heavy isotopes in the ocean is a function of temperature, the environment has been keeping a record of sea surface temperature for millions of years by the constant piling up of dead organic matter on the ocean floor (sedimentation). For example, foraminifera living at the ocean's surface make their calcium carbonate (CaCO3) shells out of the chemicals they pull out of the ocean. If the ocean is changing its isotopic composition over time, and if these shells are constantly falling to the ocean floor as new shells are created, then measuring concentrations of heavy oxygen isotopes in shells going down in depth from the ocean floor is like traveling back in time and measuring sea surface temperature over millions of years. There are many other processes that influence the preferential distribution of other heavy and light isotopes as well. For example, the concentration of nitrogen-15 in an animal indicates whether or not that animal is starving. The combination of nitrogen-15 and carbon-13 in a human indicates how much meat that person eats, and comparing these measurements around the world can tell us much about dietary differences from country to country. Changes in carbon-13 concentration throughout the hoof of a herbivore, such as a deer, can indicate drought because of changes in chemistry of the plants that the dear eats, and changes in carbon-13 of bones from 10 million to 3 million years ago indicate a significant change from woody plants (C3) to grasses (C4) about 5 million years ago.
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CORRECT TOOL, INC.

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Introduction to Radiographic Inspection

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The Atom Nucleus Neutron Proton Electron

Mass AMU 1.238 1.238 1.00+ 1.00+ 1 /1840

Mass Grams 1.67 x 10-24 1.67 x 10-24 9.19 x 10-28

Dia. Cm 10-8 2.8x 10-13 2.8x 10-13

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Physics Breakthrough: Fast-Moving Neutral Atom Isolated and Captured

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