INSIDE STORIES

Interpreter of Maladies
by Jhumpa Lahiri Teaching notes prepared by Andrew Doyle

INTERPRETER OF MALADIES
by Jhumpa Lahiri. Teaching notes prepared by Andrew Doyle. Edited by Laura Deriu. Cover design and formatting by Viveka de Costa.

Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2 Ways into the Text ........................................................................................... 4 Running sheet and Structure of the Text ......................................................... 5 A Perspective on the Text .............................................................................. 12 Characters...................................................................................................... 14 Issues and Themes........................................................................................ 17 Language and Style ....................................................................................... 20 Close Study.................................................................................................... 22 Further Activities ............................................................................................ 25 Key Quotes .................................................................................................... 27 Text Response Topics ................................................................................... 29 Two Guided Text Responses......................................................................... 30 References, Resources and Supplementary Texts ....................................... 33

INTRODUCTION
In the nineteenth century the British Empire was the largest the world had seen stretching from Australia and New Zealand to Canada and Africa to the so-called Jewel in the Crown, India. When looked at through the lens of the Empire, India extended from modern day Afghanistan in the west across to Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, finishing in the east in Burma (Myanmar). It encompassed a multitude of languages, religions, traditions and ethnicities. There are three notable features of the British Empire system. The first was an entrenchment of previously established class and caste systems, sustaining divisions and keeping the status quo, but with the addition of the British at the top. The second was the relatively free movement of people within these countries; the people of the Indian sub-continent grew used to migrating. The last feature was the spread of the English language, becoming and now remaining the most useful second language to know. With the slow decay of the Empire in the twentieth century, Britain often unwillingly sliced up the enormous multicultural vision of India into the countries we are familiar with today. This creation of new states led to enormous conflicts that are still being played out. Following independence and the partition of India in 1947 there was a huge movement of people to and from various parts of the country, often based on religious lines. This strained relations between those moving in and out of these areas. Contemporary, India is also a poor country with a huge population that needs to be fed and widespread homelessness. Even in the twenty-first century there is a strong division between the haves that is, those who have won economically in the new world of free trade and the have nots those who remain at the bottom of the social and economic pile. This division is often linked to the long-standing caste system that dictates where people live and what jobs they can hold. In response to poverty and conflict, many people left India in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in what has been known as a diaspora. This spreading or dispersion of people across the world is similar to the Jewish, Irish and Chinese experience. Many initially migrated to Britain and her colonies; others moved further to other English speaking countries such as Australia, Canada and the United States. The North East Coast of the USA is one of the richest areas in the country. While much of its heavy industry has disappeared there is a strong focus on education, through the grand universities of MIT, Yale, Harvard and Princeton. Many towns are so-called University towns, filled with places of higher learning where the emphasis is not on physical objects but the development of minds. These are places where people are judged on their intelligence; places far from violent conflict. These towns are places that are paradoxically connected to the natural landscape. Escaping much of the industrialisation of the Midwest, they tend to be close to the ocean and have huge swathes of national parks. These 2

regions of no visible commercial enterprise are the result of history and these states are often quite wealthy. The climate in this part of the USA is usually very cold in winter and balmy in summer. A contrast to much of Indias climate and environment. Like many first generation migrants, many Indians were very successful, often going into prestigious white-collar jobs. Next to this success, however, are the difficulties that many of them faced; largely to do with identity and where they fitted into the world. This is the world Jhumpa Lahiri writes about. She herself is an immigrant of Indian background. She was born in the UK, but grew up in Rhode Island, USA. Her stories are often to do with the gaps between societies and the problems people feel when they are a stranger in a strange land. Note: In this edition of Inside Stories the word Indian is used to refer to people from India or whose background is from India; it does not refer to Native Americans.

WAYS INTO THE TEXT

It is useful for students to have an understanding of the world the characters have come from. Ask students to draw a map of India and the subcontinent; then research the demography and climate of the area. Finally, compare and contrast living standards between India and themselves. Provide students with information about Indian society; then ask them to consider how Indians might perceive the west. If they were an Indian living in the west how would they write a letter home to their parents what would they write about?

As well as examining specifically Indian concerns, Lahiri often refers to the migrant experience. Ask students to interview a migrant about their experiences. How did they or are they dealing with the new society? What did they feel they had to change about themselves, their lifestyle and values? What were the things they couldnt accept? How much of the old or previous culture and ways of thinking have they preserved in their transition to a new society? Ask students to consider how migrants are represented in Australia. What are the stereotypes? How might they differ from reality?

Lahiri examines the idea of identity, not just within the migrant experience. Ask students how they define themselves. Which aspect of themselves is the most important? Are they part of a family / cultural group / social group and how does this impact on their sense of self? What are the conflicts within themselves that are related to these groups? Are they resolved? How do they maintain, or show, their cultural connections / sense of self? Ask students to draw and describe the natural world, and their built environment. Which one is more important in defining their sense of self and why?

It is also worth examining the short story form and structure. What are the structural features of short stories? How do they work? How do they provide the maximum amount of information in the shortest possible space? What effect does having a number of different perspectives in the collection have on the reader?

RUNNING SHEET AND STRUCTURE OF THE TEXT

This collection follows a rough narrative development even though it doesnt have any recurring characters or settings. It starts with a universal human story, and then moves towards explicitly Indian stories and dealing with issues of identity. The collection ends with a final story about coming to America. The order of stories slowly develops the central themes of the migrant experience, perspective and identity, and the attempts to connect with others.

A Temporary Matter
This story is set in the USA in a typical university town. The two characters from an Indian background have achieved personal success in their professional fields. Shukumar, the husband is slowly finishing, or not finishing a book on Indian history; while his wife Shoba is an apparent workaholic editor of books. They appear to live separate lives in the same house, however it is slowly revealed that their first baby was stillborn. The babys death accounts for their emotional distance and their difficulty in being around each other. What starts to bring them together, at least from Shukumars perspective, is the power going out for five days. The story opens with a letter describing what will happen: The notice informed them it was a temporary matter. (p.2) This highlights that the situation will be brisk and business-like, an American stereotype; it implies that any problem Shukumar and Shoba have will be short lived and they will get over it promptly. The story slowly plays out the opposite. The blackouts provide the catalyst for the couple to talk over matters, to force them to become close again. Their intimacy is reignited, at least in the eyes of Shukumar, through whose perspective the story is told. They use these moments at dinner, in candlelight to tell each other what they have never told each other before. Shukumar tells Shoba he returned a sweater she gave him and his guilt in tearing a picture of a woman out of a magazine. While they rediscover some form of intimacy they see their neighbours walking down the street for ice cream during the power blackouts. To Shukumar they represent what he would like to be with Shoba, close and apparently happy. This dream and hope is rekindled when they eventually have sex for the first time since the death of their baby. The second last revelation belongs to Shoba. She tells Shukumar that she is moving out of their house, to initiate a separation. This revelation turns the story on its head what Shukumar thought was about reconciliation was to Shoba about separating. Shukumar finishes the story by telling Shoba the sex of their dead child, helping them both to move on. This lets the reader think that maybe the temporary matter of the first line may not have been their grief, but their marriage and love.

Why does the story end with Shukumar seeing the neighbours walking by? Why is the reader denied Shobas point of view?

When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine

This is the first story to deal with the Indian expatriate experience. It examines issues of identity such as attempts by Indians, or people from the subcontinent, to fit into their new society and how their children try to become American. The plot centres on the narrator, Lilia, and her memories of her parents friend the eponymous Mr Pirzada, who used to come around to their house as she was growing up. Set against this memory are more catastrophic events of the era; in this case, Bangladesh declaring independence from Pakistan. Lilias queries as to the identity of Mr Pirzada confuse her, but highlight Lahiris attempt to pose questions to the reader concerning identity and nationality. Despite the potential strife and division that may erupt between Lilias family and Mr Pirzada, they remain friends and are more intent on learning how to become American than continuing any partisan squabbles. This is shown when they play Scrabble arguing long into the night about the spelling of English words. (p.34) At the same time her parents are trying to encourage Lilia to become more American, through participating in Halloween and watching television, she is trying to find out what it means to be Indian. Interestingly she comments on her friends parents and how the television wasnt on at Doras house at all. Her father was lying on the couch reading a magazine, with a glass of wine on the coffee table. (p.39) This scene is quite removed from her parents vision of America. Lahiri is pointing out that Lilias parents are almost trying too hard to fit in, that Americans are far removed from the clichs her parents are trying to live up to. Similarly, her attempts to understand the world she has come from are ultimately meaningless. The book she reads about Pakistan in her school library is dismissed when her teacher asks, I see no reason to consult itdo you? (p.33) While this quote is to do with Lilia staying on-task, it also represents the fact that Pakistan does not exist in the American worldview, except as a remote place of strife. This is not an anti-American statement, instead it is to do with how people construct their national identity: it is not important if it does not take place in the USA. The story ends with Mr Pirzada going home to Bangladesh and being reunited with the family he feared was dead. Lilia eventually stops a ritual she started to bring him good luck, finally throwing away the candy with which she did it. This signifies that she has not only cast off her Indian and sub-continental attitudes and desires, but also her attempts to fit into the American clich. Her previous identity, cast partly by Mr Pirzada, is no longer relevant. Why do the adults try to become more American? What does Lilia represent for Mr Pirzada? 6

Interpreter of Maladies
This looks at the same issue in When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine from another perspective: in this case, how Indians react when they are faced with those who have succeeded and thrived outside of India. The interpreter of the story, Mr Kapasi, is a tour guide through India and he shepherds the American Das family around temples and sites. Even though they are of Indian background, the Das family seem to be fully integrated into American society. Mr Das carries the requisite guidebook while the children complain about the lack of air conditioning in the car. Mr Kapasis life is a poor photocopy of the Das familys success. His youthful dreams of being an interpreter for world leaders has been discarded for the more prosaic job of an interpreter for the local doctor. Lahiri in this story addresses not only the gulf between cultures, but the gulf between two people. Mr Kapasi paints an image in his mind of a future correspondence between himself and Mrs Das with whom he seems to connect. He thinks their connection is about him as a person, instead of his role as an interpreter, not only of languages, but of the countryside. However, this perceived connection is revealed to be a fantasy when Mrs Das confesses that one of her sons is not her husbands. Mr Kapasi is not able to give her advice on how to resolve her guilt over it. It becomes clear to the reader and Mr Kapasi that he will not be able to fulfil his dream life; the gap between their cultures is too great. It also shows that he is a poor interpreter of her guilt, he lacks the imagination to put himself in her position. When Mrs Das leaves the car in search of her missing son, the comparison between the monkeys around the temple, and Mr Kapasi are made evident, in that they are a world away from each other. They have no real understanding of the human world, in the same way that Mr Kapasi has no real understanding of the Das family. His dream of being with Mrs Das, which he partly acknowledges as a dream, is crushed by reality when the paper with his address that he gave to her flutters away into the trees. He knows that he will not have any understanding or any other entry into their lives again. Why has Mr Kapasi compromised his life? Why does Mrs Das reveal her secret to Mr Kapasi?

A Real Durwan
This is the first story set exclusively in India, and examines ideas of class and human nature: in this case, Boori Ma, a woman of reputedly high class birth who is forced to sweep stairs and live on the roof of a crumbling apartment building in Calcutta. Lahiri moves away from many of her previous ideas on the Indian diaspora and, instead, focuses on the distance between people. Boori Mas life is inscrutable, she describes herself as high born yet none of the residents believe her. They tolerate her because she provides the service looking after the house. She is heralded by the bunch of keys around her waist, a symbol of wealth and prestige; even if it is a symbol of a history they dont believe. 7

However, she is ejected from the building after a robbery; blaming her absence from the building at the time instead of their own complacency. Lahiri seems to be saying that people become avaricious and greedy, and consequently lose their previously held common humanity. Similarly, people dont like having someone like Boori Ma around, the symbol of what they might become a fallen person. Why does Boori Ma always talk about her old life? Why is there so much description of her bedding?

Sexy
This story, set in the USA, is used to show two perspectives on the same subject people having affairs. The central character, Miranda, is not of Indian background, but her lover, Dev, is. However, his background seems to be irrelevant. The story is told from Mirandas point of view, a woman who doesnt appear to be particularly astute. By entering into an affair with a married man, Dev, she gains pleasure, feeling special and wanted; even going to the point of buying an alluring cocktail dress to act out her dream of being treated in a special way. This dream comes to nothing when Dev visits and it is clear he just wants sex: he carried her over to the bed, wearing sweatpants and sneakers, and enters her without a word. (p.93) She cant find a way out of this situation, apparently stuck in stasis. A way out is presented to her with the parallel story that runs through the narrative, the story of her work friend Laxmis cousins husband. After leaving his wife for a much younger woman his family is in uproar. The two affairs are juxtaposed to show why people might commit these acts of betrayal. Lahiri is careful not to damn their motives. She seems to say that people will do things to feel important, often to the detriment of others, and in the long run, themselves. Miranda works out that Dev is using her for sex when she is babysitting the cousins precocious child and he explains what he means by sexy: It means loving someone you dont know. (p.107) This reveals to Miranda what has happened. She thought she knew Dev and was special to him. Yet, Dev seems to have no desire to make the leap to understand and relate to her. The story ends with Miranda postponing meetings with Dev, not wanting to make a decision, but at least able to think about her sense of self as something other than a clich or stereotype. Why does she put on the dress for the young boy? Why is the young boy written in such an unappealing way?

Mrs Sens
Like When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine, this story is about trying to adapt and change to a new life. The central character is a young boy, Eliot, who needs to be babysat after school. Like Miranda in Sexy he is not Indian, but Mrs Sen who comes to look after him is. 8

Unlike other Indian characters in the collection, she is unable to change and adapt to the new way of life in the USA. Her husband seems kind, but he is unable to help her adapt and change. His life at the University is ordered; he has adapted to the new life, but she is unable to do so. This inability to conform to this new society is shown by her inability and unwillingness to learn how to drive. Her separation from the culture she is living in is shown when she is on a bus with a bloodlined bag (p.132) full of fish and a woman with a crisp white bag from the drugstore (p.132) tells the bus driver. Mrs Sen is living in a world where blood and the real world are ever-present, a distinct contrast with the antiseptic world of America. Mrs Sen is frustrated at her new life and wants to hold on to her old life. Conversely, Eliot is in wonder and awe at the new life he has when he is with the Sens, experiencing the natural world in a different way than he did previously. For example, he compares a trip he makes in the car with the Sens with the same trip he makes with his mother: in the back set of Mr and Mrs Sens car the ride seemed unfamiliar, and took longer than usual. (p.126) This life with the Sens is significantly different from the hurried and often impersonal life with his mother. The fact that the story ends with Mrs Sen crashing the car is a metaphor for the fact that she will never get used to living in America. This event precipitates Eliot no longer going to the Sens; however, this separation awakens in Eliot a new understanding and interpretation of the natural world. How is the second visit to collect the fish different from the first? What purpose does this serve in the story? How is Eliots mother presented and why?

This Blessed House

This story is a more amusing take on trying to fit in. It looks at how a husband Sanjeev and his wife, Twinkle, encounter the world together. Upon moving into their new home they keep finding Christian religious iconography secreted in various parts of the house: much to Sanjeevs disgust and Twinkles delight. Sanjeev is obviously obsessive and uptight, interested in reading the liner notes of a CD to understand what it means. He is presented as a lonely person, who doesnt know if its better to be lonely and contained or have unhappy companionship. By comparison, the aptly named Twinkle confronts the world in a carefree and breezy manner. Despite the fact that they are from a non-Christian Indian background, Twinkle is adamant that they keep and display the found religious paraphernalia. While their arranged marriage is an impediment to them getting to know each other, it is less an Indian story that one about trying to bridge the gap between two people. Twinkle seems to relate to others with ease, yet Sanjeev finds making connections very difficult. When asked to take a huge bust of Jesus down from the attic, an image he hates, Sanjeev does what is right: Sanjeev pressed the massive silver face to his ribsand followed her. (p.157) This final image indicates that even though he may not love his wife, he is at least willing to do the right thing by her, something he did previously by 9

compromising over the location of a statue of Jesus. Another interpretation of the final line could be an indication that their forthcoming years of marriage will be unhappy and full of unsaid anger. What effect does humour have in the story? What do Twinkles tears signify in the story?

The Treatment of Bibi Haldar

For this fable-like story, Lahiri returns to India. Bibi Haldar has fits, and is despised and exiled by her family. She is reduced to living in the back of the familys shop and is shunned by all in the village. All Bibi desires is a husband, but marriage is unlikely due to her neurological condition. She is gradually de-socialised by her family, despite the rest of the villages attempts to help her. The familys treatment of Bibi hastens the demise of the shop and the family moves away leaving her behind. She slowly comes out of her insular exile and emerges as a new person with a child. She is revitalised by the child, despite not knowing who impregnated her, but it gives her purpose. Bibi also starts running the shop to great success. As a story it doesnt have too many links with the others in the collection, yet it does provide hope for people. Lahiri seems to be saying that love and support is what will cure people; that psychological problems are caused not by things within a person, but factors outside them. What is the lesson being taught in this story? What is the familys motivation for putting the ad in the newspaper?

The Third and Final Continent

The final story looks at outcasts: the first is the narrator, an unnamed male Indian student; the second is the woman he rents a room from, Mrs Croft; and finally, the narrators wife, Mala. They are all strangers in a strange land at some point in the story and all impact upon each other. The story starts with the narrator tracing his trip from India to the USA, via London. He is often unaware of what to do in these new societies; for instance, eating cornflakes for every meal; a classic sign of being out of place. He sees a kindred soul in Mrs Croft. She is a woman so old who is almost out of time. He looks after her, in the same way he looked after his mother and during her increasing dementia. However, once he learns her real age, over a hundred, he feels he has to treat her differently, yet he states apart from those eight dollars [for rent], I owed her nothing. (p.189) This belies the fact that she gave him an opportunity to be a good person to her. She is slowly and inadvertently teaching him how to look after people, opening up his heart. This kindness is invaluable once his wife, Mala, finally arrives. The earlier contact he had with her is tinged with exasperation; she seemed too unworldly and hard to look after. Indeed, she is weak when she gets off the plane, not having anything to eat since the only food option was oxtail soup. Yet in the 10

same way he considers Mrs Croft, he slowly considers Mala and they build and establish their relationship. In a way, they are all students of each other. Mrs Crofts influence on his life helps him relate to his wife. Her importance is highlighted by the fact he regularly drives by Mrs Crofts street long after she is gone to point where they both lived. The world has moved on, yet the place in his memory for her has not; the connections he has made linger on. What is the relevance of the title? Why are the moon landings included in the story?

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A PERSPECTIVE ON THE TEXT

Since the stories were largely written for a number of different publications, they dont have a common thread. Interestingly, there are ideas and thoughts Lahiri returns to in her stories, suggesting there are a few underlying concerns she is trying to address. Her short stories generally fall under two categories. The first is the classic short story, with a beginning, complication, and resolution. This structure underpins many contemporary narrative formats, including novels and films. The concern of many of Lahiris short texts is not the characters themselves, but how they overcome the narrative complication. These include The Treatment of Bibi Haldar and, to a certain extent, A Temporary Matter. Lahiri balances these stories with other more observational pieces. These types of short texts are more to do with snapshots of peoples lives than overcoming a problem. Mrs Sens is a classic example where little unfolds beyond Eliots growing understanding of himself and Mrs Sen. Similarly, A Real Durwan provides the reader with a person, Boori Ma, and a vision of her life as it deteriorates. Two noticeable stylistic choices are used to explore different ideas. The first is how people learn more about themselves by solving a particular problem or overcoming an obstacle in their way. The second shows how the world and people are. The realisation and revelations in the text are more to do with the character than the plot. All of Lahiris stories address the idea of people reaching out to others, how well they understand this or achieve success in this can be difficult for the reader to gauge. Lahiri seems to be saying that our attempts to connect with others are often misplaced or futile. Yet she doesnt dismiss these attempts, they are what makes us human. While there are only two stories told from a first person perspective, there is always a central character whose internal thoughts and emotions are presented over others. It is useful to note how often the reader is made aware of a characters shortcomings or dramas before they themselves are; for example, the way Miranda is used by Dev in Sexy is made clear to the reader much sooner than she realises it herself. Even by the end of the story the reader is still doubtful whether she can truly see what has happened. Similarly in Mrs Sens: it takes until the end of the story for Eliot to realise something the reader is already aware of; in this case, Mrs Sens difficulties in settling in and coping with her new world experience. Like many short story writers, Lahiri uses metaphors and comparisons to reinforce her central themes and ideas. The most commonly used metaphor or image is the use of the natural landscape. Many of her stories use the natural world to illustrate the underlying theme. Even though the reader is granted an insight into the central characters heads, there is still much that is hidden. By ending her stories with glimpses of the natural world, the reader is given an insight into how the central characters are really feeling. Sexy ends

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with a clear blue sky, while Mrs Sens ends with ominous grey waves. Such metaphors give the readers clues to the true state of the characters emotions. The Indian expatriate experience is explored in the collection. The cultural differences faced by some of the characters face are peculiarly Indian, particularly those stories based in India. These include the role of family; consider how many of the marriages depicted in the collection are arranged. Lahiris protagonists try to find a way to reconcile their desires to be with a person they love with their desire to be secure. Neither option is shown to be the right one; her characters just try to come to peace with the compromise they have made. The role of family is central to these stories. It is interesting that the Indian families, despite their formality and lack of apparent love are seen to be closer than the non-Indian families. This is an indication that the idea of family not only means a blood relative, but also implies duty, a duty that is repaid in later life. The Indian background helps centre the stories in an identifiable milieu; however, they are also about universal themes and ideas. They explore ideas about what it means to enter into another society and what it means to be an outsider in these new societies. Issues of identity are more to do with who you are, and what it means to identify yourself with one particular group. This is best shown in When Mr Pirzada Came To Dine and Mrs Sens.

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CHARACTERS
Jhumpa Lahiri is adept at creating characters with credible emotions and feelings, and who exhibit realistic and believable attributes. While there are no recurring characters, there are common concerns or ideas that correlate roughly with the age groups of Lahiris characters. The children in the book seem to be searching for an identity. They dont necessarily choose one by the end of the story, but are still in wonder and awe at the choices available to them. Even though When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine is told as a memory with the benefit of hindsight, the story is told as Lilia experienced it. She spends much of the story trying to work out who she is. She embraces the American culture and schooling through her history lessons and Halloween costumes. Yet she still tries to work out who she is by looking around her. The clues to another reality and history are there, but she cant read them as well as the American clues. Another of the young characters in the collection, Eliot from Mrs Sens, is also trying to determine his identity. His lack of understanding towards his mother and his own life is mirrored by Mrs Sens frustration at the new world she finds herself in. The greater tragedy is that he cannot relate and share his present sense of dislocation with her. The young boy in Sexy by contrast is precocious, yet knows less of himself than Eliot. He is in the throes of establishing a new sense of self, using the language and attitudes of his absent father in an attempt to work out who he is. The other young characters are relatively peripheral, but are present to illustrate Lahiris points about developing identity. Lahiri suggests that characters are what their family says they are, and it is only once they get older that the characters begin to question their construction of themselves. The second character types in her stories are the unattached younger adults. Miranda, Bibi Haldar and the narrator in The Third and Final Continent are included in this group. They, like the children in Lahiris stories, are also searching for their identity. Unlike the children, they are able to articulate a vision of what they dont want to be like: in Mirandas case, she does not wish to be merely a sexual object; and Bibi Haldar does not want to grow into an old spinster. Like the children, these characters are not able to shape their realities, not because they dont have the ability, but rather because they dont know how to place themselves in their world. Miranda cant work out her sense of self because of a lack of understanding of others and, at least until the end of the story, herself. For Bibi her sense of self is hard to define because of her condition and her familys insistence that they control her life. The narrator in the Third and Final Continent is unable to work out who he is, at least not until he arrives in the USA and defines himself against Mrs Croft and his soon to arrive bride. Lahiri moves from these younger characters to established married couples. Their concerns as characters are less to do with their sense of self, but rather how they interact with their new partner. In A Temporary Matter both Shukumar and Shobas ways of dealing with grief are different; she by 14

throwing herself into her work, he by not doing any work. This is a reflection of both of their personalities; she is well organised and he is more distracted. He is able to produce high quality work, but to little academic or intelligent gain. This makes Shobas decision to leave a surprise for him, but believable for the reader. She is seen to be dealing with the grief over the loss of their child in a business-like way, unlike Shukumars unfocussed manner. He cant see the big picture or plan like she can. By contrast, the young couple in Blessed House are learning about each other in a much more tangential, but in many ways, more stable manner. Their difference in personalities is highlighted and the way they deal with this gap is in sharp contrast to Shukumar and Shoba. Sanjeevs ability to compromise, suggests their marriage will continue. To keep going they have to be willing to acknowledge the unhappiness in their relationship, but they have to also think of the happiness in their lives. They still have the vestiges of joy and spontaneity that have been sucked out of the relationship between Shukumar and Shoba. The couple in The Third and Final Continent are also representative of the attempt to control and deal with living and coping with others. The pair manages to deal with their lives by forgiving each other. The ability to absolve and understand the other seems to be what separates the happy and unhappy characters in this age bracket in Lahiris collection. The fourth character types are the older married couples with children. These characters are resigned to their lives. In The Interpreter of Maladies the reader is presented with two couples, the Das family and Mr Kapasi. Both Mrs Das and Mr Kapasi are searching for fulfilment in their lives; in her case, it is absolution for cheating on her husband. Interestingly, Mrs Das is not sorry for the act of having sex; she seems unfussed when relating the story. Instead, she is unhappy that she has not been able to tell the story, the same kind of guilt that the characters in A Temporary Matter experience. She is focussed on her family even though she doesnt love her husband anymore. Mrs Das acknowledges the compromise she has had to make for a sense of happiness. By contrast Mr Kapasi is resentful of his marriage and his dreams seem to be the only things that sustain him. His dreams are contrasted with his lack of imagination, much like Shukumar. Both of them are people who possess great skills, but without the ability to think about them differently. Mr Kapasis dreams are a way of dealing with his reality, but when the opportunity to realise those dreams is presented to him, he is unable to take action. In this way he is a foolish and tragic figure, unaware until he sees his address fluttering away in the breeze, that he is unable to make his dreams come true. The reader is offered glimpses of Lilias parents in and they seem to be much like the other older married couples in the collection. Their concerns are to do with their sense of self and enforced compromise; for instance, after Lilias father laments her apparently insular education, her mother silences him. Their private compromise has migrated to the public sphere. The final character types are the older ones. While some are married, they are presented to the reader as uncommitted and relatively free. Mr Pirzada as 15

seen through Lilias eyes is glorious. He looks different and is far removed from her parents apparent mundane existence. He sees in Lilia the girls that he has left behind in Bangladesh. He is also comfortable in his sense of self; he dresses formally and is never without his hat. Mr Pirzadas ability to conform and alter who he is in the American context is only achieved through the friendship he has with Lilias parents. Lilias presence as a proxy daughter enriches his sense of self. In a similar way, Mrs Croft manages to cope with her new world by staying resolutely connected to the old world. While she lives in the modern world, remarking on the moon landing, her values, such as no visitors of the opposite sex and expressions such as Splendid! preserve her identity. She is able to remain unchanged because she is still living her past life. Boori Ma also survives her perceived fall from grace by staying in her imagined past with servants. Interestingly, the reader isnt told whether this world really existed for her or not. It is enough that she remembers it. However, she finds her final eviction difficult since she does not have the keys around her waist, the symbols of her old life. Her identity is on the verge of fragmenting. Not all of the older characters cope with the world they live in. Mrs Sen cant cope with her new reality. Her sense of self is too tightly controlled by her past and she feels dislocated. Buying fish is central to her, however the efforts she has to make to ensure she can continue in this manner are too great for her. Mrs Sen is trapped, not by her inability to change, but by her inability to let go of the past. In this respect, she is one of the most tragic of all of the characters in the collection.

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ISSUES AND THEMES

The central theme of the collection is identity: who we are and who we feel ourselves to be. Lahiri addresses these questions and indecisions through the Indian expatriate experience. Although they are strongly centred in particular cultures, her settings are less to do with particular places and traditions, instead they illustrate broader human concerns. To say the stories are only about identity is to ignore the wider themes of the collection. She poses four distinct questions concerning identity: How do we search for an identity? How can we change our identity? How is our identity changed for us? How are we trapped by our identity?

How do we search for an identity?

This question is covered in the stories When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine and Mrs Sens. The central characters are trying to determine what sort of person they are. Lilias identity in the story is still fluid: she doesnt know who she is and her attempts to be American feel as false as her attempts to be Indian. While she understands American culture, she is excluded from it by her ethnicity and her experiences at home. Lilias attempts to forge an Indian identity flounder through physical distance and her own parents insistence that she be like everyone else. Similarly, Eliot is searching for the type of person he wants to be and he is unsure of the direction to go in. Even though he is a largely passive character there is still an implied preference for Mrs Sens reality. He is unable to be part of this reality since Mrs Sen herself is unable to be her true self. Many of the other characters explore ways to define their identity. The narrator of The Third and Final Continent in his search away from his family and his homeland finds an identity in the USA. This identity is not far removed from the one he escaped from, an intentional choice on Lahiris part. This implies that we are only who we are that, in fact, we each have a set of qualities that make up our core identity no matter where or how we live.

How can we change our identity?

Unlike Lilia, her parents and Mr Pirzada are more adept at changing and altering their selves. Lilias parents seem content and able to alter their sense of self. While Mr Pirzada appears to be changing his sense of self, he really manages to remain the same person through the clothes he continues to wear and the substitution of Lilia for his daughters. All of this takes place in the shadow of his changing nationality, from Pakistani to Bangladeshi. This is used to show that even though his passport is changing, he is still able to continue his sense of selfhood. His attempts to be more American, such as carving the Jack-O-Lantern are brought asunder by the news from

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Bangladesh. The reader is lead to interpret the ruined carving as a sign that despite his desire to assimilate, he is still linked to his old life. In Sexy, Miranda tries on a number of identities in her search to feel comfortable within herself. She recalls being exploited when she was younger; however, the affair with Dev offers her hope that she can establish a new sense of self. This is dashed once she realises that she is being used; curiously, this realisation is the true catalyst for being able to think of herself differently. Even though her affair has failed she is able to cast herself in a changed role; she still has the ability to think about herself in a different way.

How is our identity changed for us?

In A Real Durwan, Boori Mas personality is shifting. Her attempts to create an identity for herself, either through her stories or her presence in Calcutta, are irrelevant. She will always be what others tell her she is. This is shown when she is thrown out of the apartment building. Boori Ma may persist in claiming that she was high born, but it is irrelevant once others turn against her. She goes from being tolerated to being reviled. In this story, Lahiri suggests that we are only what others say we are. This is a point of view that is argued against in This Blessed House. Not only has Sanjeev changed from being single to a married man, but he is also required to be thoughtful and negotiate in ways not previously necessary. This shift of identity is very hard for him to adjust to since, on the one hand, he is happy about the love and affection that exists between himself and Twinkle. However, Sanjeev is also furiously angry that his desires wont always be met; a fact he appears to be resigned to by the end of the story. Interestingly, Bibi Haldar is trapped inside a version of herself which she tries to escape from. She is unable to do so; however, once she becomes a mother she achieves the full identity she craves. She moves from the isolated woman of the village to achieving a curious form of liberty by having a child; even though it is out of wedlock.

How are we trapped by our identity?

Mr Kapasi in Interpreter of Maladies is struggling to change his identity. Although he is trying to hold on to his old aspiration of being a translator for politicians, he uses his dreams to cast a new role for himself. This is despite the fact that he is not able to actually move away from this reality. He will remain nothing more than a cipher for others. The Das family seem secure in their identity, which makes Mr Kapasi anxious: how can they be a happy family when they dont behave according to his impression of the way a family is meant to behave. He is unaware until the end of the story that he is trapped in his own narrow-minded vision of the world and his place in it. Mrs Sen is comfortable in her identity, just not where she is. She is unwilling and unable to adjust to the different identity demanded by her new environment. Her attempts to change herself, such as learning to drive are

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unachievable. She is trapped by her inability to change and the fact that her sense of self is linked to her past.

The difficulty of human contact and loneliness

Another one of the themes in the collection is the gulf that exists between people and their often detrimental attempts to bridge them. The collection also looks at loneliness and how people try to avert it. These two themes intertwine throughout the collection. In A Temporary Matter, the grief Shukumar and Shoba feel separates them until the final estrangement at the end. They are unable to deal with their emotions and the sad truth of their relationship. It is only by bridging the gap with their candlelit meals that they are able to express their emotions; however, this only serves to show how far apart they have grown. Despite this, there is a bittersweet sadness to their renewed intimacy; they have been able to communicate with each other even though it has led to their break-up. This new capacity for communication seems to be more important than their marriage. Mr Pirzada also tries to assuage his loneliness by giving the love he would have shown to his daughters to Lilia instead. He is able to cope with the distance and the separation from his family by loving Lilia. She responds in kind too, yet it is a response that is more to do with playing out a role. She forgets his significance in her life after he has returned home, signified by throwing away the candy with which she performed her superstitious act. This is not necessarily seen as a negative act, since the memory of Mr Pirzada was so vivid and important. This seems to indicate that human contact by its very nature is fleeting, and the ability to communicate and share no matter how brief is vital. This idea is also borne out by A Temporary Matter. Interpreter of Maladies shows how sometimes the differences between people cant bridge the gaps thus hindering the possibility of connection. This is partly because Mr Kapasi is himself not able to be anything more than a cipher, and also because he and Mrs Das are unable to share their culture. This is not a fault of cultures, but a failure of the imagination by both of them. Blessed House suggests that making a connection between people is difficult and that it often leads to anger and disappointment. Both Twinkle and Sanjeev show their frustration towards the other. The story ends with a possibility that Sanjeev will alter his attitudes and find the joy of common connection. Something that may or may not occur, but the reader is consoled that he can see the benefits of it even if he cant make it happen.

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LANGUAGE AND STYLE

Jhumpa Lahiri is a masterful stylist. She uses a number of different techniques in her writing to add depth and greater meaning to the stories. Her use of narrators is strategic in creating meaning. She writes in the first and third person, in one instance the first person plural. She also gives more understanding of a particular character in her narratives and lets the reader appreciate what they are thinking. Since these stories are inextricably linked with people, it helps reinforce their intense singular viewpoint. However, despite this detailed information, the reader is often not shown what these characters are really thinking. The reader has to fill in the emotional blanks of the story by drawing on the imagery and metaphors associated with the characters. While the reader gets to understand one character in detail, they are often not the most interesting or central character in the narrative. Many of her stories, like Mrs Sens and When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine, are often about another character. The narrators of these stories are not the protagonists of their story. This is an intriguing technique, since the reader is searching for an understanding of both characters, the person telling the story and the central character. The reader can track the narrators progress through their attempts to comprehend the other character. The reader is often given indications of what will happen, or the true meaning of events before the characters themselves do. This is an effective technique; it draws the reader in and makes them hope these characters will understand their plight and the way to resolve it. However, this is a false hope for some of the stories. Many of the stories are recollections, even though the characters are remembering these events, they still present their memories as they experienced them. They tend not to interpret what has really happened, leaving the reader to decipher meaning. Lahiris short stories often have few characters and repeated iconography. This is used to reinforce her point in the particular story. Consider examples such as: Sanjeev reading the liner notes, Shobas coloured pens and Mrs Sens curved knife. What do these objects represent in terms of character and theme? Lahiri often draws on the physical world as a counterpoint to the action in the story. When her characters undergo stress and anxiety, images of the natural world often follow. This is to provide cues to the characters internal life. This is especially important since they are often unable to express or indicate their emotions. She also pointedly incorporates metaphors into the stories. These metaphors are used to compare the characters plight and their anxieties. They provide the reader with two ways into the story. One example includes the religious iconography Twinkle finds throughout the house. Since Bless This House is about faith and trying to find meaning in marriage, this search is contrasted with the apparently unshakeable religious faith the previous tenants had.

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Sanjeev is meant to see that he has to submit to faith and trust to enjoy his marriage. Within stories, Lahiri sets up contrasts between characters to highlight her views about human nature and relationships. The Bradford couple in A Temporary Matter are intended to be a counterpoint to Shukumar and Shoba. The two couples apparent happiness and connection are contrasted, Shukumar wishes he could be like the Bradfords; but to achieve this he feels he has to be honest, leading to less than happy results.

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CLOSE STUDY
Passage One
Carving the Jack-o-Lantern, pages 34-36 This extract from When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine covers the Halloween preparations. This section addresses cultural differences and how people try to connect with others. Mr Pirzadas attempt to carve the Jack-o-Lantern is ruined when news from the conflict in Bangladesh is conveyed. 1. Why does Mr Pirzada decide to ignore the television so they can carve the pumpkin? What does this suggest about his relationship with Lilia? 2. Why is there a close description of what Mr Pirzada is wearing, down to his opal cufflinks? Think about it in the context of wanting to be like Americans. Why then do his clothes ring false? 3. Why do the family and Mr Pirzada eagerly engage in the carving of the pumpkin? What does this suggest about their attitude towards their adoptive country? 4. What similarities are there between Mr Pirzada and the reporter on the television? What effect does this have on the reader? 5. Why does Mr Pirzada seem so competent and confident carving the pumpkin? What does this suggest about his sense of self? 6. What effect does the eventual shape and size of the Jack-oLantern have on the reader? Why is it important to the story that it does not look correct? 7. Why is this an important passage in the story? 8. What is the significance of Lilia teaching the adults how to carve the pumpkin?

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Passage Two
Buying the fish a second time, pages 131-133 This extract from Mrs Sens follows her refusal to drive the car. In desperation she tries to get to the fish shop and back by public transport. This attempt is fraught with drama. 1. What kind of landscape is the shopping centre? What effect is this description meant to have on the reader? 2. How are the women from the nursing home contrasted with Mrs Sen? What differences between them are highlighted in this passage? 3. Mrs Sens description of Eliots future treatment of his mother is about two things. What is Mrs Sen really commenting on? 4. How different is the service she receives in the fish shop from her previous experience? Why is this important to the story? 5. What does the built environment look like in this section? What purpose does it serve in the story? 6. Make a list of the numerous details and aspects that are juxtaposed in this section. 7. Why is Eliots point of view rarely mentioned in this extract? Who does the central character appear to be? 8. What does Mrs Sens despair at seeing the women in the bus shelter signify? 9. What do the fish represent for her? Why are they so important? 10. What does the bus drivers desire to get them to open the window represent, especially in the light of the natural and built environments described in this section?

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Passage Three
Sanjeev feeling he has the house to himself during the party, pages 155157 This extract from the end of This Blessed House is at the tail end of the party. While it displays Sanjeevs inability to have fun and his irascibility, it does show his growing understanding of love and acceptance. The extract ends with him carrying the bust of Jesus down for Twinkle. 1. What does the religious iconography represent in the story? 2. Why does he want to be undisturbed? What is his desire for a quiet night really about? 3. What does the reference about the liner notes indicate about his personality? 4. Is his desire to tear down the posters about them being blasphemous or is it about something deeper? 5. What is the stated reason for not pulling the ladder up? Where is the comedy or humour in this reason? 6. What seems to be the source of his anxiety and the knotting in his neck? 7. What stops Sanjeev from going into the bedroom? What does this suggest about his feelings towards Twinkle? 8. What is the relevance of her finding the kitschiest of the objects at this point in the story? What sort of test is Sanjeev being put through by the writer? 9. List the reasons why he hates the silver bust. What do you think is the most important? Why? 10. What seems to be the consolation to having this thing he hates on the mantel? Is this consolation enough to keep him happy? 11. Why is Sanjeev careful with the feather hat? What does it show about him? 12. In what mood do you think Sanjeev leaves the story?

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FURTHER ACTIVITIES
Individual student activities
List the recurring images or common elements of the stories. What themes are they linked to? Select one of the stories and insert the emotions the characters would be feeling. Compare your responses with the rest of the class. Write down some examples on the gulf and separation between people try to use real life examples if appropriate or draw from other texts. How was this separation overcome?

Oral presentation activities

Have several people read out the story The Treatment of Bibi Haldar. How does having a chorus telling the story affect the reader? Present personal immigrant stories. They could be interpretations on immigrant stories you know. What are the similarities or differences between this collection and the personal stories?

Written responses
Re-write one of the stories from another characters perspective. What are the differences and similarities? How would the previous narrators life be related to the audience? Write creative stories using similar methods as Lahiri. This includes the use of the natural world to reflect inner feelings and using other metaphors as a counterpoint to the story.

Group activities
Find examples where Lahiri foreshadows what is about to happen. Find instances where the natural world mimics and reflects the drama that the characters are going through. Using Venn diagrams compare three stories by identifying their similarities and differences.

Whole class activities

Write essay questions on large sheets of paper and in groups of three to four get the students to prove or disprove the statement with examples from the text. Write an introductory paragraph in the middle of the paper, and then display these around the room. Students are then required to write their own essay based on one of the essay questions.

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Extension work
Visit the Immigration Museum in Melbourne and draw links to the experiences depicted in the collection. Since migration is often a matter of adaptation, visit your town or citys migrant hub, Chinatown is often a good place to start. What has been adapted from the original culture, and what has been retained? What might this suggest about attempts to keep or discard peoples culture of origin?

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KEY QUOTES
They wept together for the things they now knew. (p.22) This quote from A Temporary Matter illustrates how difficult it is to make connections with other people, to reveal yourself to others can be very damaging. It also suggests that telling the truth is important, despite the fact it can cause considerable grief. Lilia has plenty to learn at school, my mother said. We live here now, she was born here. (p.26) This quote from When Mr Pirzada Came to Dine shows that many immigrants feel they are part of the new society and should abide by the new societys customs; also that their old customs are not compatible with their new country. It was hard to believe they were regularly responsible for anything other than themselves. (p.49) This quote from Interpreter of Maladies by Mr Kapasi who is in amazement at the Das parents, is used to show the lack of understanding he has of them. He cannot comprehend that they have not only taken to the new culture, but that he cannot bridge these cultural differences. Among the wives, however, resentment quickly brewed. Standing in line to brush their teeth in the mornings, each grew frustrated with having to wait her turn (p.79) This quote from A Real Durwan shows how people are often dissatisfied with their condition, even when it is an improvement on what they previously knew and experienced. As he talked he smoked three cigarettes, crushing them in a saucer by the side of her bed. (p.94) This quote, in reference to Devs behaviour in Sexy, highlights how he is regular in his actions. The affair is clearly not about her needs, nor is it about building a relationship, but rather a satisfying routine for Dev. This is something that takes Miranda longer to notice than the reader, a conscious strategy on Lahiris part. They think I live the life of a queen, Eliot. She looked around the blank walls of the room. They think I press buttons and the house is clean. They think I live in a palace. (p.125) Mrs Sens sad line from Mrs Sens highlights two aspects of the immigrant experience. The first is the inability for those who are back in the home country to understand the new life and culture. The second is Mrs Sens frustration at her new life, and her desire to return to her old life. Now he had one [a wife], a pretty one, from a suitably high caste, who would soon have a masters degree. What was there not to love? (p.148)

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This line from This Blessed House highlights the ephemeral nature of love and whether Sanjeev has chosen his wife because his alternative was insufferable loneliness. It is about the compromises people will make not to be lonely. A choice Lahiri consciously does not judge. We found her lying on the camp cot. She was about four months pregnant. (p.172) This reference from The Treatment of Bibi Haldar is used to show how the community is vital to people, how it can and does help and save others. It is also meant to highlight the fable-like nature of the story, that Bibis pregnancy is what will save her from her troubles. In my sons eyes I see the ambition that had first hurled me across the world. (p.197) This line from the final story in the collection The Third and Final Continent highlights the circular nature of many of these stories; that the travails the father went through in his youth are not individual to him, but rather they are universal dramas. His experiences are less to do with culture and more to do with human connection and nature.

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TEXT RESPONSE TOPICS

1. It is impossible to bridge the gap between two people. Discuss. 2. Jhumpa Lahiris stories arent about being Indian, but about being a human. Do you agree? 3. How people react to a situation is determined by their history and culture. Discuss. 4. None of the characters in these stories are at peace. Do you agree? 5. Cultural differences are more difficult to resolve than personal differences. Discuss. 6. To be different is a curse. Discuss. 7. While these stories are told from a characters perspective, that character is rarely the central character. Do you agree? 8. The people in these stories are searching for something they are not able to find. Do you agree? 9. Immigrants shed their previous cultures with ease. Discuss. 10. Mr Kapasi in the story Interpreter of Maladies is not able to understand the Das family. Do you agree? 11. Becoming part of the new society is more important to migrants than retaining their old society. Discuss. 12. The stories people tell themselves are more important than their realities. Discuss. 13. How does the use of imagery from the natural world influence these stories? 14. We can never broach the space between two cultures. Discuss. 15. While the characters lives remain largely unchanged, they do undergo a transformation. Do you agree?

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TWO GUIDED TEXT RESPONSES

Guided Response One
Topic: It is impossible to bridge the gap between two people. Discuss. Consider the key words of the topic. What do they mean in relation to the text? The use of the word impossible is important. It is rare that you would get a question that can only be answered in one way. What this is asking you is how the gap between two people can be bridged. The gap between two people refers to the emotional distance two people feel; perhaps even the innate differences between two people.

Sample evidence to draw on to develop a response: A Temporary Matter the young couple eventually learn to connect, even though it is ultimately leads to unhappiness Interpreter Of Maladies the attempts by Mrs Das and Mr Kirpasi to connect fail This Blessed House there is the hope of a connection between Sanjeev and Twinkle Sexy understanding the impossibility of a bond in one situation can convince you it is possible in others The Third and Final Continent when the narrator learns to relate to his wife, a wife he has largely resented and shunned prior to her arrival.

Some ideas to draw on to develop a response as bridging the gap between people is achievable when some of the following conditions or ideals are achieved: Understanding of others This Blessed House, Interpreter of Maladies Honesty A Temporary Matter, Sexy Forgiveness This Blessed House, The Third and Final Continent.

When people achieve one or more of the above three conditions they have a possibility to connect.

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Guided Response Two

Topic: The stories we tell ourselves are more important than our realities. Discuss. Before answering the topic, you may question the topic itself to ensure that you understand its requirements. Some questions to pose about this topic are: What are the stories we tell ourselves? What is our reality? How do they clash? Which story holds more sway over us? Does important necessarily mean more beneficial?

In this case the question is asking whether it is better to live with a vision of our world that is not accurate, over truth and reality. Sample evidence to draw on to develop a response: A Temporary Matter Shukumar is so consumed by grief that he cant see what his wife is actually doing; this is to his detriment Interpreter of Maladies Mr Kapasis daydreams are fine as long as he doesnt have to confront them; as long as they cant come true, theyre manageable, they take him away from his less than satisfying reality Sexy Miranda imagines the situation to be something it isnt; this has a damaging effect on her, to grow and move on she has to see the world as it is The Third and Final Continent Mrs Croft lives in a world far removed from reality, but is able to bend the real world to fit her perception; as long as she doesnt leave the confines of her home, it is acceptable.

Introduction All people live, to some extent, in their heads that is, their imaginations. Peoples internal monologues may describe a world where they are the central character. Problems can occur when this vision of the world is overlaid with reality. Jhumpa Lahiris collection Interpreter of Maladies looks at this idea in a number of different ways, although her stories arrive at roughly the same conclusion about the stories we tell ourselves. First topic sentence: As long as it is possible to control the surrounding environment, it is possible to live in the world in our heads. Second topic sentence: The dreams and fantasies people make for themselves can be liberating; however, if the possibility of them coming true arrives, it can have dire consequences for these people.

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Third topic sentence: While it may be convenient and easy for the imagined life to control peoples lives, it is often better to live in the real world, even though it may be more difficult and disappointing, it is usually more rewarding.

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REFERENCES, RESOURCES AND SUPPLEMENTARY TEXTS

There are numerous films and novels that explore the Asian immigrant experience. Note: some of these contain confronting language and sexuality, please watch / read them before using them in class.

Films
Ae Fond Kiss (Ken Loach, 2004). Set in Glasgow, Scotland, this tells the story of a relationship between a Pakistani man and a teacher at his sisters Catholic school. It examines the problems such a union would cause within their respective communities. It also addresses the difficulties of trying to adapt to a new way of life, across cultural boundaries. Brick Lane (Sarah Gavron, 2007). Based on the book of the same name, telling one womans story in an arranged marriage and her attempts to adjust to her new life and identity in London. Slumdog Millionaire (Danny Boyle, 2008). A filmed version of a book about the life and adventures of an unlikely winner of the Indian Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?. It presents a bubblegum vision of India.

Books
Hanif Kureishi, The Black Album. A dark novel about the Asian expatriate experience set in the dank and grimy London of the early 1990s. Jhumpa Lahiri, Unaccustomed Earth. A short story collection, sharing the same milieu as Interpreter Of Maladies. The last three stories are a heartbreaking, interlocking novella. Alice Pung (ed.), Growing Up Asian In Australia. A non-fiction collection from numerous contributors. It examines the idea of difference and the difficulty of establishing an Asian Australian identity. Shaun Tan, The Arrival. A word free graphic novel recording a character settling in a new land. It examines the foreign nature of the expatriate experience with sensitivity and an immersion in a fantastic world.

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