Contemporary Field Soil Science

Soil Physical Measurement

Budiman Minasny & Alex. B. McBratney














Faculty of Agriculture, Food & Natural Resources
The University of Sydney
March 2010
1

Contents



Page

Infiltration 3
Double-ring, constant head 4
Single ring, constant head 7
Single ring, falling head 9
Beerkan 10
Disc permeameter 12
Ponded disc 14
Tension disc 17
Hood infiltrometer 20
Borehole permeameter 24
Falling head lined borehole 27

Soil moisture 29
The electrical properties of soil water 29
TDR 31
FDR 33

Soil strength
Shear vane 34
Dynamic cone penetrometer 35

Heat transport in soils 37


Appendix 42






Note: The authors have used some texts and pictures from this manual as entries to Wikipedia
articles. Most pictures were taken during the field trip conducted as part of this course.
2

Reference Books

Dane, J.H., Topp, G.C. (Eds), 2002. Methods of Soil Analysis Part 4 Physical Methods. SSSA
Book Series 5. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin.
Badham Library: 631.410287 1 A

McKenzie, N.J., Coughlan, K., and Cresswell, H.P. (Eds), 2002. Soil Physical Measurement and
Interpretation for Land Evaluation. CSIRO Publishing.
Badham Library: 631.4794 17

Smith, K.A., and Mullins, C.E. (Eds), 2001. Soil and Environmental Analysis. Physical Methods.
2
nd
Edition. Marcel Dekker, New York.
Badham Library: 631.43 90

Topp, C.G., Reynolds, W.D., Green, R.E (Eds). 1992. Advances in measurement of soil physical
properties: Bringing theory into practice. Soil Science Society of America, Madison,
Wisconsin. Badham Library: 631.43 79



3

Infiltration

When water is added to soil, some of this water is transported, as a result of the potential gradient
between the dry and wet soil, and some of this water is retained in the soil matrix. Initially, when water is
applied into a dry soil, most of the water is absorbed by the capillary potential of the soil matrix. Imagine
pouring water into a dry sponge, the sponge will absorb the water until it reaches its maximum water
holding capacity (where the layer of pores at the base of the sponge is filled by water). Then the excess
water will drip out of the sponge. A similar concept applies to water infiltration into soil. Initially the
capillary force dominates the process, however as infiltration proceeds, the gravitational force dominates.
A schematic infiltration curve (Figure 1a), which is characteristic for three texture contrasting soil,
shows the cumulative amount of water entering the soil as a function of time. The initial curvilinear portion
of the infiltration curve is dominated by capillary absorption and is dependent on the structure, structural
stability and initial water content of the soil. Water initially is taken up rapidly, as seen in the infiltration
rate (Figure 1b). The infiltration rate eventually drops until it reaches a constant or steady-state infiltration
rate, which is dominated by gravity induced flow. The steady-state infiltration rate can be determined from
the slope of the linear portion of the cumulative infiltration curve. The steady-state infiltration depends
primarily on the texture and structure of the surface soil, unless there is a restricting layer at shallow depths
underlying the surface layer.


The infiltration curve at short to intermediate times can be approximated by an equation known as
the Philip two-term equation (1957):
I = S t + A t .
where I [L] is the cumulative infiltration, t [T] is time, S is the sorptivity [LT
-1/2
] and A [LT
-1
] is a constant.
This equation does not apply at very large t when steady-state infiltration rate is developing. Sorptivity is a
measure of the capacity of the soil to absorb or desorb water by capillarity (Philip, 1957). Hydraulic
conductivity (K) [LT
-1
] is a measure of how fast water is transmitted in the soil. The infiltration rate dI/dt
[LT
-1
] at small (or early) to intermediate times is expressed as:
A
t
S
dt
dI
+ =
2
1

Instruments for measuring water infiltration involve supplying water at a constant rate, constant
pressure head, or falling head at the ground surface and measure the depth of water, which enters the profile
over time. There are different instruments designed for measuring infiltration in the soil, such as double ring
permeameter, and disc permeameter.

Philip, J.R., 1957. The theory of infiltration: 4. Sorptivity and algebraic infiltration equations. Soil Sci. 84,
257-264.
0
10
20
30
40
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
Time (s)
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

i
n
f
i
l
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
Sand
Loam
Clay
4


Double ring infiltrometer


The double-ring method involves measuring water infiltration under a constant head on ponded condition.
Ponded infiltration relates to the conditions experienced in the field with flood irrigation, or those high
rainfall rates which cause free water to accumulate on the soil surface.
The rate of water entering the soil, when there are no restricting layers at depth, depends largely on
the structure of the surface layer. Structural instability and swelling will reduce the infiltration rate because
these processes reduce the pore size. Air entrapment will also produce similar effects. In most ponded
infiltration, the soil water content below the soil surface in the transmission zone may only be 80 to 95 % of
the saturated water content, and the hydraulic conductivity is less than that of saturation from 1/2 to 1/10
depending on the soil.
In the field the infiltration rate as determined from a ponded infiltration ring will always be
enhanced by capillary absorption, due to lateral spreading. In order to reduce this effect, a second (outer)
ring, which is about twice the diameter of the inner ring, is driven in the soil to surround the inner ring.
Water is supplied at constant head using Mariottes bottle and maintained at the same level in both rings
The water supplied to the outer ring will act as a buffer, reducing the sideways flow out of the
bottom of the inner ring, as shown in the figure below. In this way the double-ring infiltration method
reduces the effect of capillary absorption from lateral spreading, hence water only flows in vertical
direction. As a general rule, the larger the outer ring, the more effective the double-ring method is in
reducing capillary enhancement of the steady-state infiltration rate of the inner ring. The flow of water from
the inner ring can be considered as one-dimensional, in the vertical direction. Although there is unavoidable
divergence from the flow path, the error is usually negligible compared to the spatial and temporal
variability of the soil. The steady-state infiltration rate at large times can be approximated as the hydraulic
conductivity at the transmission zone.





Outer ring
Inner ring
Mariotte bottle
Ground surface
Wetting bulb
5


Preparation
select a site with an area of about 1 m
2

clip the vegetation in a circular area of the site with a diameter of about 70 cm, close to the ground
surface
drive the smaller of the two rings (20 cm diameter) evenly into the soil to a depth of about 5 cm
place the large ring concentrically over the small ring
drive the larger ring evenly into the soil to a depth of about 5 cm
arrange shade, for example an umbrella, to cover the apparatus
place thin plastic sheeting inside the small ring, sufficient to cover the ground and about half way up the
side of the ring
pour water onto the plastic in the small ring to a depth of about 2 mm
place the supply tube of one mariotte bottle inside the small ring
adjust the mariotte until a head of about 20 - 25 mm is maintained in the small ring
pour water into the soil between the small and large rings to about the depth of water in the small ring
place the supply tube of a second mariotte bottle between the two rings
adjust the second mariotte until the water level between the two rings is about 20 - 25 mm
ensure that the mariotte supply systems are free of air
record the initial level of the mariotte vessel supplying the small ring
place a thermometer in the water in the inner ring, and record the temperature


Infiltration
remove the plastic sheet from the inner ring quickly, whilst ensuring that the mariotte supply tube is held
in place
commence timing
record only water supply in the inner ring, either
the water level in the mariotte vessel at specific times, or
the times at which constant increments along the water level scale are passed
take as many accurate readings of time or water level as possible at the start of the experiment, but the
frequency can be reduced as the experiment proceeds, for example every minute for the first 5 minutes,
every 2 minutes for the next 10 minutes, then every 5 minutes etc.
record the temperature of the water in the inner ring periodically
allow the infiltration to run for at least three hours

Data Analysis
Convert the infiltration reading into cumulative infiltration (mm of water).
If the radius of the ring is 10 cm, and the radius of the Mariotte bottle is 7.5 cm. The ratio between
the area of the ring and bottle = 7.5
2
/10
2
= 0.5625
To convert it to mm the multiplying factor is 5.625
I [in mm] = (Water level [cm] at time t Initial water level [cm]) 5.625
Plot the graph of cumulative infiltration with time
6

Identify part of the graph that indicates the steady-state infiltration rate, i.e. the amount of water
going in the soil is constant over a period of time, the cumulative infiltration over time becomes a
straight line.
Estimate the steady state infiltration rate q (in mm/mins) by fitting a line through the data. The slope
of the line is the steady-state infiltration rate
For example:
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
C
u
m
.
I
n
f
i
l
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
0 5 10 15 20
time (Minutes)


Since the infiltration is constrained to one dimesional flow, the steady state infiltration approximates
the saturated hydraulic conductivity (K
sat
)
7

Single-ring, constant head permeameter


Known boundary and pressure conditions are used to determine the
unrestricted 3-dimensional infiltration capacity, of a soil confined
below the single, steel ring. The ability for the soil to transmit water is
hence determined through steady state calculations and, this Saturated
Hydraulic Conductivity (Ksat).













Preparation
select a site with an area of about 0.5 x 0.5 m
drive the ring (20 cm diameter) evenly into the soil to a depth of about 3 cm
arrange shade, for example an umbrella, to cover the apparatus
place thin plastic sheeting inside the ring, sufficient to cover the ground and about three quarter way up
the side of the ring
ensure that the plastic sheet is not torn or pierced
Place the Mariotte bottle next to the ring
place a thermometer in the water in the ring, and record the temperature

Infiltration
remove the plastic sheet from the ring quickly and commence timing
record the water level in the ring
take as many as possible accurate readings of time or water level of the Mariotte Bottle at the start of the
experiment, but the frequency can be reduced as the experiment proceeds, for example every minute for
the first 5 minutes, every 2 minutes for the next 10 minutes, then every 5 minutes etc.
allow the infiltration to run until water in the ring disappear
collect soil sample or measure the water content inside the ring after the infiltration.
measure water content adjacent to the ring to get the initial moisture content.

Data analysis
Calculate the cumulative infiltration (in mm), i.e:
I (t) = (Water level at time t Initial water level) x b
b is a constant related to the volume of water delivered by the Mariotte bottle over the surface area
of the ring.
If the radius of the ring is 10 cm, and the radius of the Mariotte bottle is 7. 5 cm. The ratio between
the area of the ring and bottle = 7.5
2
/10
2
= 0.5625
To convert it to mm the multiplying factor (b) is 5.625
Plot the infiltration data, cumulative infiltration over time.
Identify part of the graph that indicates the steady-state infiltration rate, the amount of water going
in the soil is constant over a period of time, i.e. the cumulative infiltration over time becomes a
straight line.
8

Estimate the steady state infiltration rate A (in mm/min) by fitting a line through the data. The slope
of the line is the steady-state infiltration rate

Calculate the hydraulic conductivity using the following formula:


s
A
K
H C G
G
=
+ + | |
|
\ .


Where K
s
is the saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/min),
A is the steady-state infiltration rate (mm/min),
H is the steady pond depth (mm)
r is the radius of the ring = 100 mm,
G is a geometrical factor calculated as :
G = 0.9927 (depth ring insertion) + 0.5781 (radius of ring).
If the insertion depth = 30 mm then G = 87.6 mm.
C is the wetting-front potential, which depends on soil type (see Table 1, below)




Table 1. Wetting front potential C for soil with different texture (Reynolds et al., 2002)
Texture Wetting front potential C (mm)
Sands 100
Sandy loams 200
Loams 300
Clay loams 500
Light clay 800
Medium & Heavy Clay 1500


References
Reynolds, W.D., D.E. Elrick, and E.G. Youngs. 2002. Ring or cylinder infiltrometers (vadose zone).
p. 818843. In J.H. Dane and G.C. Topp (ed.) Methods of soil analysis. Part 4. Physical methods.
SSSA, Madison, WI.

9

Single-ring, falling head permeameter


Unlike the Constant head, this method allows water to drop under gravity in the ring (falling-head).
Although the method is simpler than the constant head method, the results may not be as accurate, as the
solution for calculating K
sat
is based on an approximation.

Preparation
select a site with an area of about 0.5 x 0.5 m
drive the ring (20 cm diameter) evenly into the soil to a depth of about 3 cm
arrange shade, for example an umbrella, to cover the apparatus
place thin plastic sheeting inside the ring, sufficient to cover the ground and about three quarter way up the side of
the ring
ensure that the plastic sheet is not torn or pierced
pour water onto the plastic in the small ring to a depth of about 10 cm
place a thermometer in the water in the ring, and record the temperature
record the initial pond height
Infiltration
remove the plastic sheet from the ring quickly and commence timing
record the water level in the ring
take as many accurate readings of time or water level as possible at the start of the experiment, but the frequency can
be reduced as the experiment proceeds, for example every minute for the first 5 minutes, every 2 minutes for the next
10 minutes, then every 5 minutes etc.
allow the infiltration to run until water in the ring disappear
collect soil sample or measure the water content inside the ring after the infiltration.
measure water content adjacent to the ring to get the initial moisture content.
Data analysis
Calculate the cumulative infiltration (in mm), i.e:
I (t) = (Water level at time t Initial water level) x 10
Plot the infiltration data, cumulative infiltration over time.
Identify part of the graph that indicates the steady-state infiltration rate, the amount of water going
in the soil is constant over a period of time, i.e. the cumulative infiltration over time becomes a
straight line.
Estimate the steady state infiltration rate A (in mm/min) by fitting a line through the data. The slope
of the line is the steady-state infiltration rate
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity using the following formula:

|
.
|

\
|
+

=
1
r G
C
A
K
s

Where K
s
is the saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/min),
A is the steady-state infiltration rate (mm/min),
r is the radius of the ring = 100 mm,
G is a geometrical factor calculated as : G = 0.316 (depth ring insertion/ r) + 0.814.
If the insertion depth = 5 cm then G = 0.972.
C is the wetting-front potential which depends on soil type (see Table 1, Appendix)
10

Beerkan Infiltration


The Beerkan infiltration was proposed by Lassabatre et al. (2006) for estimating soil hydraulic properties.
This involves an infiltration experiment in the field using a ring with pressure head h = 0 at the soil surface.
Not only does it provide an estimate of saturated hydraulic conductivity, but also water retention and
hydraulic conductivity characteristics.

Infiltration
A fixed volume of water is poured in the ring at time zero.
Record the time taken for the water to infiltrate in the soil (time for water in the ring to disappear).
After the first volume of water has infiltrated in the soil, set the stopwatch to zero.
Pour a second known volume of water in the ring, start the stopwatch.
Record the time taken for the second volume of water to infiltrate in the soil.
Repeat the procedure for several times.
Measure water content inside the ring to get the saturated moisture content.
Measure water content adjacent to the ring to get the initial moisture content.
Record the infiltration data in the table provided.

Analysis
Calculate the cumulative time.
Calculate the cumulative infiltration (in mm),
I = (Volume No. x Volume) / (Area) x 10
Volume = fixed volume of water for infiltration = V cm
3

Area is area of the ring = r
2
, for radius = 10 cm, area = 314 cm
2

So each volume = V/314 * 10 mm
Plot the infiltration data, time (in min) on the x-axis and cumulative infiltration (I in mm) on the y-axis.
Using the same procedure as in ponded disc permeameter, estimate sorptivity S and steady-state
infiltration rate A.
Estimate the water retention shape factor n and , based on soil texture (Table I below)

Calculate K
s
as follows:
B
S D A
K
s
2

=

where

( )
i s
r
D

=
75 . 0
r = radius of ring = 100 mm

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
i
, is a shape parameter (see table 2)

| | + = 1 47 . 0 B

Calculate the air entry potential
( )
2
1
g
i
s p s i
s
S
h
K c

=

| |

|

\ .


For values of cp see table 2.
11



The analysis of Beerkan infiltration experiment is based on an analytical solution of three-dimensional
infiltration with defined hydraulic characteristic functions (Braud et al., 2005). The water-retention function
is modelled using the following equation:
( )
1
m
n
s g
h
h
h

| |

= +
|
|

\ .

, with
2
1 m
n
=
where h
g
is a scale parameter [L], and n is a dimensionless shape factor with condition n > 2.
Hydraulic conductivity is modelled:

( )
s s
K
K

| |
=
|
\ .

where is a conductivity shape factor, which can be related to n by:
2
3
m n
= +

Reference
Lassabatre, L., R. Angulo-Jaramillo, J.M. Soria Ugalde, R. Cuenca, I. Braud, and R. Haverkamp. 2006.
Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer Parameters through Infiltration Experiments-BEST. Soil Science
Society of America Journal 70, 521-532.
Minasny, B, McBratney, A.B., 2007. Estimating the water retention shape parameter from sand and clay
content. Soil Science Society of America Journal 71, 53-55.

Table I. Average and standard deviation of estimated water retention shape parameter n, and hydraulic conductivity
shape , across USDA soil texture classes.
Texture n
Mean Std.dev. Mean Std.dev.
Sand 2.77 0.296 5.59 0.923
Loamy sand 2.39 0.080 8.18 0.953
Sandy loam 2.27 0.039 10.49 1.081
Loam 2.20 0.028 12.76 1.351
Silt loam 2.22 0.047 12.18 2.182
Sandy clay loam 2.17 0.035 14.54 2.289
Clay loam 2.14 0.013 17.47 1.476
Silty clay loam 2.14 0.011 17.81 1.142
Silt 2.23 0.044 11.55 14.069
Sandy clay 2.11 0.021 20.90 4.222
Silty clay 2.12 0.009 19.77 1.192
Clay 2.10 0.015 22.66 3.637
12

Disc permeameter



Theory
There are two versions of the CSIRO disc permeameter which measure the soils hydraulic conductivity.
Both the ponded (saturated), and tension (unsaturated) discs supply water at a constant head above the soil
surface. Using a ponded disc permeameter, water is supplied to the soil surface via a shallow circular pond
at a constant supply pressure.

For three-dimensional infiltration from a disc, a formulation is needed to take into account the
absorption of water laterally. Wooding (1968) found that the steady-state rate from a disc with radius r
0
can
be approximately given by:
0
0
4
r
K q

+ =

where
0
is the matrix flux potential [L
2
T
-1
], and K = K(h
0
) - K(h
n
) with K(h) is the hydraulic conductivity
as a function of soil water potential h, the subscript 0 refers to the condition imposed by disc, n refers to the
soil initial condition. When the soil is initially dry, K(h
n
) is very small and can be neglected. The first term
of the equation accounts for the vertical flow beneath the disc due to gravitational flow (as in one-
dimensional infiltration) and the second term takes into account the capillary absorption.
The matrix flux potential is defined as:
( )dh h K
h
h

=
0
n
0

where the subscript 0 refers to the applied potential, n refers to the soil initial condition and D() is the soil
diffusivity function [L
2
T
-1
].

13

Based on the equation above, several solutions for obtaining hydraulic conductivity from disc permeameter
measurements have been derived and include: single infiltration from a disc measurement (White and Sully,
1987), multiple head measurement from a disc (Ankeny et al., 1991).
According to White and Sully (1987)
0
can be derived as:
( )
n
S b

=
0
2
0

b is a shape factor for the soil-water diffusivity function which is usually taken as 0.55. Combined with
Woodings equation (Eq. 4), and assuming K(h
n
) is small, hydraulic conductivity at applied potential h
0
(K
0
)
can be calculated as:
( )
0 n 0
2
0
4
r
bS
q K

=


For this measurement the initial and final water content is needed, this can be obtained directly in the field
by using TDR or from soil cores and determined gravimetrically in laboratory. Soil water content should be
sampled or measured immediately after infiltration is completed in the soil immediately beneath the disc.
Sorptivity can be determined from the data of early stages of flow where capillary force dominates.
Philips equation for horizontal infiltration, which is applicable for the three-dimensional geometry of disc
permeameter, can be used:
I = S t
Sorptivity can be estimated by plotting I against t , identifying a portion of the graph (from early times)
with straight-line behaviour, and fitting a line. S is then determined from the slope of the line.
This method has been found to have large error (Minasny and McBratney, 2000). The value S will
always be overestimated because the influence of the sand and the time when capillary forces are dominant
can be relatively short. Also it is difficult to accurately measure the volume of water going in the soil at
early stages as the volume is changing quickly. An alternative method of estimation is by fitting the whole
infiltration curve with the two-term equation using least-squares method, i.e. fitting I as a quadratic function
of t :
I = S t + A t .




Site Preparation :
select a level, circular area of soil approximately 40 cm in diameter for the infiltration surface
clip vegetation on the infiltration surface down to less that 3 mm
remove any stones from the infiltration surface
arrange shade, for example an umbrella, to cover the work site

14


Ponded disc infiltrometer

Preparation
clear a band on the soil surface for the edge of the larger steel ring ( 40 mm high)
insert the larger steel ring 5 mm into the soil
seal the outside of the ring with bentonite or local clay or plasticine
screw one of the large water reservoir tubes into the centre of the plain perspex base
insert the smaller side tube (the one with the tap)
set the empty permeameter on the ring
level the permeameter
adjust the permeameter so that the surface of the perspex plate is 17 mm below the top of the steel ring
this arrangement will create an infiltration pond approximately 5mm deep
place the permeameter in a bucket filled with water
wet the one way valves on top of the tubes to ensure sealing
fill the side (smaller) tube to 20 cm above the top of the perspex base plate
fill the supply reservoir (large tube)
filling : use the reverse bicycle pump to draw water up into the tube, close the tap when full
remove the permeameter from the bucket and check for leaks
place the permeameter on the ring

Infiltration
open the tap on the side tube
commence timing when the side tube empties
record either :
the water level in the mariotte vessel at specific times, or
the times at which constant increments along the water level scale are passed
take as many accurate readings of time or water level as possible at the start of the experiment
recording intervals can be increased as the experiment proceeds
ten or more readings with constant water level change in equal time increments, within sampling error,
are required
turn off the valve(s)
remove the permeameter from the ring
watch the soil surface, and skim a sample from the top 3 mm of the infiltration surface as soon as free
water disappears
seal the sample in an air tight container
take two bulk density cores, at about 25 cm from the infiltration surface
seal the samples in an air tight container




15

Data Analysis

Convert the data to cumulative infiltration:
Cumulative infiltration (mm) = (Reading [in cm]- Reading
initial
) 0.56

Note: the 0.56 conversion factor is due to the ratio between the area of the mariotte tube
(47.4 mm in diameter) and the area of the ring (diameter 200 mm).

Plot the graph of cumulative infiltration with time
Estimate parameters of Philips infiltration curve, sorptivity S and steady-state infiltration rate A:
At t S I + =

Using JMP:
- First plot Sqrt(t) on the x-axis and Cumulative infiltration on the y-axis with Fit y by x
command.
- Fit a quadratic function to the data, which is the same as Philips equation:
( )
2
t A t S I + =
- Select Fit Special, select Degree :2 Quadratic, uncheck the Centered Polynomial box, and
check Constraint intercept to : 0.
For example:
Bivariate Fit of I (cm) By time sqrt
0
1
2
3
4
5
I


(
c
m
)
0 1 2 3 4 5
time sqrt


Polynomial Fit Degree=2


Polynomial Fit Degree=2
I (cm) = 0 + 0.5484074 time sqrt + 0.0944759 time sqrt^2


The sorptivity for this example S = 0.55 mm/min
0.5

And steady state infiltration rate A = 0.09 mm/min

Calculate the hydraulic conductivity using the following formula, which is called Woodings equation:
( )
2
0
4
=

f i
b S
K A
r
| |
|
|
\ .


where: b is a constant equal to 0.55
r is the radius of the disc (= 100 mm)

f
is final soil moisture content

i
is initial moisture content
16



Another version of the Woodings equation can be used in the absence of soil moisture measurement:

r
C
A
K
s

+
=
4
1

Where K
s
is the saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/min),
A is the steady-state infiltration rate (mm/min),
r is the radius of the ring = 100 mm,
C is the wetting-front potential which depends on soil type (see Table 1 on the single ring permeameter)

17

Unsaturated or Tension disc infiltrometer


Theory
The cumbersome double ring permeameter only measures flow
under ponded (saturated) conditions. And when used in soil
with connected macropores, preferential flow will dominate.
This does not reflect normal rainfall or sprinkler irrigation, and
can overestimate the soils infiltration rate under these
conditions. Many authors have attempted to create a negative
potential (tension) on the water flow. This excludes macropores
from the flow process, hence only measuring flow in the soil
matrix.
The tension disc permeameter comprises of a nylon
mesh supply membrane, a water reservoir and a bubbling tower.
The bubbling tower, which is connected to the reservoir,
controls the air entry in the reservoir (creating the negative
potential).
For infiltration under tension, the applied pressure head is
negative; hence large pores do not receive water from the
permeameter. The pores excluded are those which have the
effective pore radii re greater than equivalent pore radii of the applied tension h0, which can be predicted
from the capillary rise equation
0
8 . 14
h
r
e

=

This permits the exclusion of macropores and cracks when measured under ponded condition. Therefore
macropores can be characterized in situ by analysing the difference between saturated and unsaturated
infiltration. The disc permeameter can be used to supply potentials ranging -200 mm to 0 mm, effectively
excluding pores with diameter bigger than 0.074 mm.
The disc permeameter is mainly used for measuring the hydraulic properties of the surface layer of
soil. Unlike, the double-ring infiltrometer, which imposed a one-dimensional water flow, infiltration from
the disc permeameter is three-dimensional. Because of the mechanical limits to the disk size, the area
measured by this method is usually smaller, and the depth sampled is shallower than the double-ring
method. The disc permeameter is compact and relatively easy to use, and measurements can be completed
relatively quickly because the steady-state infiltration rate is attained more rapidly in three-dimensional
compared with one-dimensional flow.
For measurement in the field, areas preferably with a flat and smooth soil surface are selected. A
layer of contact sand is placed between the soil surface and the supply disc. The contact sand is needed to
ensure a good contact between the supply disc and soil surface. The contact sand should be pre-wetted to
avoid uneven wetting. Poor contact between the supply potential and soil surface can result in a highly
variable result. The cumulative infiltration is recorded by noting the water level drop from the reservoir
tube. After a certain time (depending on the soil type) the infiltration rate will reach a constant or steady-
state flow rate.


18

Preparation
Soak the perspex base (disc) with the attached membrane in water, membrane side down, for at least two
hours prior to use
place the 3 mm metal ring on the infiltration surface and fill with contact material (eg fine sand), smooth
the surface
screw one of the large water reservoirs into the centre of the perspex base (disc) with the membrane
attached
screw the smaller bubbling tube (the one with two smaller internal tubes) into the perspex base (disc)
place the permeameter into a bucket (or similar container) filled with water
wet the one way valve on top of the tubes to ensure sealing
add water to the bubble tube (the smaller tube) using the syringe and access tube, and set the supply
potential :
the supply potential is set by the height of water in the bubble tube above the base of the air inlet tube
(marked zero on the scale) minus the value Z1 which is usually 7 mm, and is marked on the top of the
perspex base
fill the disc reservoir
filling : use the reverse bicycle pump to draw water up into the tube, close the tap when full
with the permeameter removed from the bucket, check that :
the one way valve has been wetted and is not leaking
no air bubbles are present in the disc section

Infiltration
place the permeameter on the ring
commence timing :
when bubbling begins, or
if contact material is being used, when the wetting front has moved through the contact material
record either :
the water level in the mariotte vessel at specific times, or
the times at which constant increments along the water level scale are passed
take as many accurate readings of time or water level as possible at the start of the experiment
recording intervals can be increased as the experiment proceeds
ten or more readings with constant water level change in equal time increments, within sampling error,
are required
turn off the valve(s) and remove the permeameter from the ring
remove a portion of the contact material (if used)
measure the soils final moisture content using a TDR.
measure the soils initial soil moisture content from adjacent dry soil.
take a bulk density cores, at the infiltration surface
seal the samples in an air tight container

Data Analysis

Convert the data to cumulative infiltration:
Cumulative infiltration (mm) = (Reading [in cm]- Reading
initial
) 0.56

Note: the 0.56 conversion factor is due to the ratio between the area of the mariotte tube
(47.4 mm in diameter) and the area of the ring (diameter 200 mm).

Plot the graph of cumulative infiltration with time
Estimate parameters of Philips infiltration curve, sorptivity S and steady-state infiltration rate A:
At t S I + =
As for the Ponded infiltration estimate parameters of Philips infiltration curve, sorptivity S and
steady-state infiltration rate A.
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity using this version of Woodings equation:
19

( )
2
0
4
=

f i
b S
K A
r
| |
|
|
\ .


where: b is a constant equal to 0.55
r is the radius of the disc (= 100 mm)

f
is final soil moisture content,
i
is initial moisture content


References

Ankeny, M.D., Kaspar, T.C., Horton, R., 1991. Simple field method for determining unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55, 467-470.
Minasny, B., McBratney, A.B., 2000. Estimation of sorptivity from disc-permeameter measurements.
Geoderma 95(3-4), 305-324.
White, I., Sully, M.J., 1987. Macroscopic and microscopic capillary length and time scales from field
infiltration. Water Resour. Res. 23, 1514-1522.
White, I., Sully, M.J., Perroux, K.M., 1992. Measurement of surface-soil hydraulic properties: disk
permeameters, tension infiltrometers, and other techniques, In: Advances in Measurement of Soil
Physical Properties: Bringing Theory into Practice. SSSA Special Publication no. 30, pp 69-103.
Madison, WI.
Wooding, R.A., 1968. Steady infiltration from a shallow circular pond. Water Resour. Res. 4, 1259-1273.
20

The hood infiltrometer



The hood infiltrometer or Hauben-infiltrometer or sometimes called the Punzelmeter is invented by Dr.
Jurgen Punzel measures the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K) of the soil in the field. The infiltration is
done by first placing a hemispherical hood filled with water directly on the soil surface. The hood is
connected to a Mariotte bottle, which controls the suction of the water on the top of the soil. The negative
pressure controlled by the Mariotte bottle compensates the depth of water ponding and hence, water can be
supplied at different pressure heads. The experimental hood infiltrometer setup allows the measurement of
hydraulic properties from saturation up to the air entry value of the soil. The effective pressure head on the
soil surface can be measured by an U-tube manometer with a precision of 1 mm (Punzel and Schwrzel,
2004).

Steady-state infiltration rates at hydraulic pressures between 0 hPA (cm water) and the air entry pressure of
the soil system (up to 16 hPa) can be measured. The pressure head and the bubble point can be measured
directly via an U-pipe manometer and the stand pipe of the hood. Vertical infiltration is initially governed by
capillarity or sorptivity of water into the soil matrix, containing both vertical and horizontal components.
Later-time infiltration becomes gravity driven and linear with time as soil capillarity forces are reduced,
indicating that infiltration is at steady state.

The design of the hood infiltrometer comes from Dixon (1975) who developed a closed-top ring
infiltrometer to quantify macropores. Water is applied to a closed-top system, which permits the imposition
of negative head or pressure on the ponded water surface. Negative tension can be considered as simulating
a positive soil air pressure, created by a negative air pressure above ponded surface water. A simplification
was made by Topp and Zebchuk (1985). The limitation of this device is the infiltration has to be started by
ponding the closed-top infiltrometer (applying a positive head), then adjusted to a negative pressure.


The infiltration is done by placing a circular shaped hood (base diameter of 16 cm) filled with water directly
on the soil surface. The circular contact line between the hood rim and the soil is sealed with medium
textured sand. Compared with the tension disc infiltrometer, the hood infiltrometer requires little preparation
on the soil surface and no contact materials . The pressure head in the water filled hood is regulated by a
Mariotte water supply. The effective pressure head at the soil surface can be adjusted between zero and any
negative pressure up to the bubble point of the soil. Although no preparation of the soil surface is required,
21

unlike the tension and ponded disc infiltrometers, vegetation should be trimmeddown to about 5mm high
and a level site should be chosen.

Principle

A hood [2] with circular base is standing on the soil surface, the space beneath the hood is filled with water,
and the hydraulic pressure is controlled through a mariotte water supply system [5, 6, 7].
The edge of the hood is sealed with fine water-saturated sand against the soil up to an outer ring [1].
The sealing will only be effective if the pressure in the water volume under the hood is negative. The
negative pressure is adjustable from zero to the soil bubble point.
When setting up the system, first the over-flow chamber [3] under the hood has to be filled with
water. Upon overflow of this chamber, infiltration into the soil begins and the volume under the hood gets
filled with water. In the course of this, the pressure of the enclosed air gets negative. This air then is led
through the air-outlet pipe [10] into the air volume of the infiltration reservoir [5].
After the hood has been filled, the infiltration flow is delivered directly from the infiltration
reservoir of the mariotte water supply system from where the reading can be taken. The effective hydraulic
pressure head on the soil surface is determined from the height of the water table in the standpipe [4] and the
negative pressure at the U-tube manometer [8]. The zero point of the scale on the standpipe is at soil surface
level.


Operation

Preparation of hood infiltrometer
Screw the tripod [12] into the base plate of the infiltrometer.
Fill the bubble tower [6] to mark B. For this, pull out the air pipe [7] and insert a funnel. Fill the
infiltration reservoir [7] to mark I with valve VI, V2 and V3 shut.
Fill the U-tube manometer [8] to zero mark.
Connect the hood through the connecting hose [11] to the infiltrometer, connect the U-tube manometer
through hose [9], and connect the air escape hose [10].
Choose the measuring site as level as possible. Cut the vegetation down to about 5 mm high.
Put the outer ring [1] onto the ground, if necessary, press it a few mm into the ground. Center the hood
into the outer ring, set the infiltrometer up and bring it in vertical position. Bend the connecting hose
[11].
Install the U-tube manometer.

Filling the hood
Set the submergence depth T of the air intake pipe about 2 cm higher than the infiltration chamber
height Hk.
(The hydraulic pressure head Zero will then become effective under the soil surface.)
Open V1 slowly and fill the connecting hose [11] and the overflow chamber [3]. Evacuate air (use
syringe) at the hose [9] until the water table in the standpipe [4] is about mid-scale.
Fill the gap between the hood and the outer ring [1] with fine sand and sprinkle (use wash-bottle).
Open V2 slowly to evacuate air from the hood.
If necessary evacuate additional air through V3 and keep the negative pressure under the hood at the
desired value.
The negative pressure Us at the U-tube manometer must always exceed the water table on the scale at
the standpipe [4].
Shut V2 when the water table has reached the mark on the hood. Wait for the bubble of the mariotte
water supply system.





22

Measurement

The effective water tension on the soil surface can be chosen via the depth of submergence T by
changing the depth of air pipe insertion in the bubbling tower. The deeper the insertion of the pipe in the
bubbling tower (bigger T values), the more negative the tension applied.
-h = Us - Hs (1)
We start the infiltration with water tension Zero by adjusting the depth of air pipe insertion. Pull the
air pipe slowly until water starts bubbling in the Mariote bottle. Adjust the pipe so that the calculated
tension (Eq. 1) equals to zero.
Measure the water drop in the mariotte bottle over time.
When the infiltration rate has reached steady-state condition, decrease the water tension to more
negative values by inserting the air pipe into the bubbling tower (decrease the distance T).
Note the mariotte water level with time, and continue the infiltration until it reaches steady-state
condition, repeat decreasing the tension until bubble point.

Determination of the bubble point (BP)

Shut water supply valve V1.
Watch the pressure rise on the U-tube manometer. Determine the maximum Us.
BP = Us
max
-Hs


Technical details

Radii of the infiltration areas (outer rings) Infiltration area on soil
Large hood: a1 = 12.4 cm F1 484 cm
2

Small hood: a2 = 8.8 cm F2 242 cm
2


Cross section of the reservoir Qi = 75.1 cm
2


Qi/ Fl (small hood) 0.313
Qi/ F2 (large hood) 0.156


Analysis of the Hood Infiltrometer Data

- Convert reading into mm of water
I (mm) = (Initial Reading [in cm] Reading [in cm]) x 1.56

Note: the radius of the reservoir column is 7.85 cm and the radius of the big hood is 12.4 cm, hence the
multiplying factor = 7.9
2
/12.4
2
= 0.156 (in cm) or 1.56 (in mm)

- For each applied tension calculate the steady state infiltration rate q.

- The analysis is based on Woodings formula:

0
4
1
C
q K
r
| |
= +
|
\ .


where q is steady-state infiltration rate (mm/s), K
0
is hydraulic conductivity at applied potential h
0
, r is the
radius of the ring/hood, C is the average wetting front potential (unit mm) also called soils sorptive
capacity. The unknown in this equation is C. We can find C if we have measurement for two different
supply potentials. For infiltration under two different tension (supply potential) h
1
and h
2
, the corresponding
steady-state infiltration rate is q
1
, and q
2
, where we can write:
23


1 1
4
1
C
q K
r
| |
= +
|
\ .
,
2 2
4
1
C
q K
r
| |
= +
|
\ .

And we can solve for C.

- Estimate the value of C:
1 2
1
2
ln
h h
C
q
q

=
| |
|
\ .


- Calculate hydraulic conductivity at supply potential h
1
as:
1
1
4
1
q
K
C
r
=
| |
+
|
\ .

And similarly K
2
.

Note: Radius of hood r = 124 mm

References
Buczko,U., Bens, O., Httl, R.F. (2006a).Tillage Effects on Hydraulic Properties and Macroporosity in
Silty and Sandy Soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 70, 1166-1173.
Dixon, R.M., 1975. Design and use of closed-top infiltrometers. Soil Science Society of America
Proceedings 39, 755-763.
Schwrzel,K., Punzel, J., 2007. Hood InfiltrometerA New Type of Tension Infiltrometer. Soil Sci Soc
Am J 71, 1438-1447.
Topp, G.C., Zebchuk, W.D. (1985). A closed adjustable head infiltrometer. Canadian Agricultural
Engineering, 27, 99104.
24


Amoozemeter or Borehole permeameter



The Amoozegar compact constant head permeameter is designed for measurement of saturated hydraulic
conductivity from the surface to 2 m depth. Also known as the borehole permeameter, this procedure
requires a cylindrical auger hole (radius r) dug to the required depth, with a constant head of water (H)
maintained at the bottom of the hole. The steady state flow rate (q) of water from the hole into the
surrounding material is then measured.

The apparatus consists of :
the flow measurement reservoir
the small transparent tube with the scale
the supply reservoir
the large white PVC tube volume 4 litres
four bubbling tubes
bubbling tube No. 1 (the first bubbling tube) has an adjustable air inlet tube
the other three bubble tubes have fixed air inlet tubes
tube connections are as follows :
bubble tube 1 air inlet is open to the atmosphere
bubble tube No. 1 is connected to bubble tube 2
bubble tube 2 is connected to bubble tube 1 and bubble tube 3
bubble tube 3 is connected to bubble tube 2 and bubble tube 4
bubble tube 4 is connected to bubble tube 3 and the flow measuring reservoir
the 4 litre water reservoir is connected to the flow measuring reservoir
the three way tap
25

position OFF indicates no outflow
position 1 ON indicates outflow is possible from the flow measurement reservoir only
position 2 ON indicates outflow is possible from the flow measurement and supply
reservoirs
the water dissipation units
the perforated white plastic cylinder connected to the outflow pipe

Preparation
using a 2 inch auger, auger a hole to the desired depth of
measurement
clean the bottom and adjacent portions of the sides to create an
unsmeared cylindrical hole, if possible
level a small area next to the hole, and place the permeameter on this
levelled area
turn the three way valve on the permeameter to OFF
arrange shade, for example an umbrella, to cover the work site
fill the supply reservoir on the permeameter with water
fill the flow measuring reservoir with water
measure the vertical distance from the bottom of the hole to the
reference level on the permeameter, D
the reference level on the permeameter is the bottom of the air inlet
tube in the flow measuring reservoir
select the depth of water required in the hole, H
the water dissipating unit is about 13 cm long, and so an appropriate value for H would be 15 cm
calculate the required head, d, equal to D - H
set the head in the permeameter :
the water level in the bubble tubes is measured from the level mark near the top of the tube
downwards
for the first bubble tube, the water level is measured from the water level mark to the bottom of the air
inlet tube
the bubble tubes each provide up to 50 cm head
if d < 50 cm, fill bubble tube No. 1
if 50 cm < d < 100 cm, fill bubble tube Nos. 1 and 2
if 100 cm < d < 150 cm, fill bubble tube Nos. 1, 2 and 3
if 150 cm < d < 200 cm, fill all the bubble tubes
adjust the air inlet tube in bubble tube No. 1 so that the sum of the bubble tube water levels
is equal to d
check the tube connections
disconnect the air tube between the water reservoir and the flow measurement tube
turn the three way tap to 2 ON, and ensure that outflow is occurring, and that there are no air bubbles
between the permeameter and the water dissipation unit (the outlet)
turn the three way tap to OFF
reconnect the air tube between the water reservoir and the flow measurement tube
lower the water dissipation unit to the bottom of the hole

Infiltration
turn the three way tap to position 2 ON
when the flow rate becomes more uniform, determine the depth of water in the hole H
record either :
the water level in the flow measurement tube at specific times, or
the times at which constant increments along the water level scale are passed
take as many accurate readings of time or water level as possible at the start of the experiment
recording intervals can be increased as the experiment proceeds
when steady state is reached measure the flow rate
26

one accurate flow rate measurement is required
determine the depth of water in the hole H
in slowly permeable soils, it may be necessary to close the supply reservoir to allow measurement (slow
the flow) with the flow measuring reservoir
to close the supply reservoir switch the three way tap to 1
if the flow measurement reservoir alone is used (three way tap set to 1 ON)
a 1 cm in drop water level equals 20 cm
3
inflow
if the flow measurement and supply reservoirs are used (three way tap set to 2 ON)
a 1 cm in drop water level equals 105 cm
3
inflow

Data analysis

Convert the readings into ml or cm3 of water.
Cumulative infiltration (cm
3
) Q = (Reading - Reading
initial
) M
When tap set to "1" M = 20 cm
3
/ cm, tap set to "2" M = 105 cm
3
/ cm
Plot cumulative infiltration Q (cm
3
) over time
Calculate the steady state infiltration rate q (in cm
3
/min)
Using Glovers formula, calculate the subsoil saturated hydraulic conductivity:
2
1
2
2
sinh 1
2
H r r
r H H
K q
H

| |
+ +
|
\ .
=

r is the radius of the hole
H is the depth of water in the hole.


Reference
Amoozegar A.(1992) Compact Constant Head Permeameter: A Convenient Device for
Measuring Hydraulic Conductivity. In Advances in Measurement of Soil Physical Properties:
Bringing Theory into Practice. (Ed: Topp GC, Reynolds WD, Green RE) pp.31-42.(SSSA
Special Publication Number 30)
27

Falling head lined borehole

This method, the theory of which is described by Philip, (1993), measures sub-soil K
sat
. A cylindrical hole is
made to the desired measurement depth, into which a length of plastic pipe of equivalent diameter is
inserted. Water is poured into this lined borehole, initial water depth recorded, and the depth of water over
time monitored, until steady-state infiltration is observed.


Measuring the depth of water in a falling-head lined-borehole

Preparation
- Holes should be made with a hydraulic ram; this will be the most efficient sampling method. If a
hand auger must be used the bottom surface of the hole should be treated an epoxy-resin such as
araldite to remove the smeared surface.
- Holes must be a made to a depth just below the root zone of the crop, or if there is a known
constricting layer, measurements should be taken at that depth.
- When inserting the pipe, push it into the soil such that a bite of approximately 2cm is achieved.
- Based on a assessment with hand classify the subsoil texture.
- Determine the moisture condition of the subsoil: wet, medium or dry, based on your prior
knowledge or visual assessment.

Infiltration
- Measure the depth from surface of the sand to the top of the pipe.
- Fill the hole with water to approximately 10 cm below the top of the pipe,
- Measure the initial depth of water below the top of the pipe D
0
.
- The change in water depth over time must then be recorded. For the first 2 days 3 measurements
should be made each day, approximately 3 hours apart. By this time the area of infiltration should be
saturated. On the last day 5 measurements, approximately 2 hours apart should be made.
- Measurements are made by inserting a stiff graduated ruler into the hole, at the point where the pipe
has been marked until the bottom of the ruler just touched the surface of the water.
- Measurements must be taken until steady-state infiltration has been achieved, this time will vary
depending upon soil type and initial moisture content, for vertosols in NW NSW 3 days is sufficient.
- These measuring specifications are a rough guide, if water infiltration is occurring at a rapid rate,
then the hole should be refilled, and the last 5 measurements, made when soil saturation has
occurred may need to be only half to one hour apart.



28

Data Analysis

Determine the steady-state infiltration rate (dD/dt) from the infiltration data

To obtain a value of K
sat
from this data, the infiltration process must be modelled. Philip, (1993) made
three main assumptions:
- Equivalent spherical supply surface with hydraulic correction. The actual three-dimensional flow
from the circular surface at the base of the hole is replaced by spherically symmetrical flow from a
sphere of equivalent surface area. This yields flow paths that are hydraulically more efficient, and a
factor of 8/
2
is introduced to account for this and provide balance.
- Three-Dimensional Green-Ampt Model. The Green-Ampt analysis of water flow uses the idea of a
step-function wetting front, which suggests there is a sharp boundary between the wet and non-wetted
region. This is highly idealized, as soil moisture profiles do not have a distinct boundary, but are
gradual, especially for soils with high clay content such as vertosols. However it is considered that this
does not affect the ability for useful information such as cumulative infiltration to be obtained.
- Pressure-Capillarity-Driven Flow Perturbed Symmetrically by Gravity. Pressure and capillarity
forces, causing spherical symmetrical flow, are considered the main driving forces to flow with gravity
perturbing this flow downwards.
From these assumptions Philip, (1993) developed the following Equation to calculate K
sat
.
( )
max 0
max 2
0
8
1
sat
dD
R r
dt
K
C
R
r

=
| |
+
|
\ .

where K
sat
is the saturated hydraulic conductivity (mm/h),
dD/dt is the steady-state infiltration rate (mm/h),
0
r is the radius of the sphere (pipe) (mm),
C is the wetting front potential, which models capillarity (mm) (See table 1)
max
R is the final radius of the wetted bulb (mm), given by
1
2
3
3 0 0
max 0
3D r
R r

= +

where is the change in volumetric moisture content over the period of infiltration and
D
0
is the initial water depth in the permeameter (mm).

Reference
Philip, J. R. (1993). Approximate analysis of falling-head lined borehole permeameter. Water Resources
Research 29, 3763-3768.
29

Electrical properties of soil water

The water molecule is dipole due to the presence of two partial positive charges on the
hydrogen atoms and a negative charge on the oxygen atom. In the absence of any external electric
field, water molecules are in random thermal motion. However, when an external electric field is
introduced, the charged molecules align themselves with the electric field. This property is called
permittivity, a measure of how an electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielectric medium.
The dielectric constant of a material is the proportion of the electrical permittivity of the
material to the permittivity of free space.
0
K

=
Complex dielectric constant is a property that describes both polarization and absorption of
energy. The real part is related to polarization while the imaginary part is related to energy
absorption:
r i
K i = +
Where
r
and
i
is the real and imaginary part of the permittivity; and i is 1 .

The real permittivity is related to stored energy within the medium. It characterises the molecular
orientation polarizability. The orientation polarization of a water molecule in the presence of an
electromagnetic wave is much greater than the polarization of soil. The three main physical
components in soil are air, water and solids. The dielectric (K, unitless) properties of these
components (at 20 C) differ from air (K
air
= 1) to solid (K
solid
2-5), with water (K
water
= 80.18).
The real dielectric constant of dry soil is around 1 to 5 while the real dielectric constant for water is
about 80. It is this different property of the K
water
that enables the use of the dielectric technique for
moisture determination in soil.

The imaginary permittivity describes the energy loss which is directly related to the electrical
conductivity of the medium. Assuming the molecular relaxation is negligible, the imaginary
dielectric constant is a function of frequency and electrical conductivity by the following
relationship:

0
i

=
Where is the electrical conductivity, is the angular frequency and
0

is the dielectric constant in
a vacuum.

The dielectric constant varies with electromagnetic frequency. Sensors in the low frequency
radiowave (about 10 kHz), e.g. electromagnetic induction (EMI) utilize the relationship of the
sensitivity of the imaginary part of the dielectric constant (electrical conductivity).
Sensors in the high frequency (about 100 MHz), e.g. ground penetrating radar (GPR), time domain
reflectometer (TDR), frequency domain moisture sensors (FD) detect variations in the real soil
dielectric constant and utilizing the low value of the imaginary part.
The time-domain reflectometry (TDR) and frequency domain (FD) techniques exploit the change in
dielectric properties in soil as the water content changes.

30


31


TDR soil moisture meter


Theory
The time-domain reflectometry (TDR) and frequency domain (FD) techniques exploit the change in
dielectric properties in soil as the water content changes. A TDR unit usually consists of a measuring unit
and an attached probe or a wave guide. The wave guide is inserted into the soil and the unit generates an
electromagnetic pulse which travels along the probes and through the soil around them. When the pulse
reaches the end of the probe, there is a sharp difference in conducting ability, and some of the pulse is
reflected back. The TDR unit measures the time taken by the pulse to travel back and forth along the probe,
t. As the distance travelled by the pulse is known (twice the probe length, L), the dielectric constant of the
soil can be calculated:
K
c t
L
a
=
|
\

|
.
|

2
2

where the apparent dielectric K
a
is related to the velocity of propagation (c is the velocity in a vacuum, 3
10
8
m s
-1
) multiplied by the time of travel (t, ns) divided by the length of travel (L) along probes embedded
in the soil.
The K
a
is then related to either empirically (after Topp et al., 1980):
-2 -2 -4 2 -6 3
-5.3 10 2.92 10 - 5.5 10 4.3 10
a a a
K K K = + +
The universal calibration predicted the ( 0.025 m
3
m
-3
) from measured K
a
for mineral soil between 10
C < T < 36 C for the range of soil water contents 0 < < 0.55 m
3
m
-3
with a variation in
b
from 1.14 to
1.44 Mg m
-3
. This equation still forms the basis of most reported by the TDR technique. This empirical
relationship K
a
() is limited by conditions such as dry soil ( < 0.05) where the K
soil
dominates.

TRASE
The TRASE moisture measurement meter uses time domain reflectivity to
measure , the volume fraction water of soils, which is displayed as a percentage.
In its most basic form of operation, the TRASE consists of two wave guides which
connect to a waveguide mount which connects to the TRASE unit with coaxial
cable.

Preparation
remove waveguides and connector from the housing inside the instrument lid
or cover
both items are housed inside the lid, in which a door is released by
pushing the catch in the centre of the lid
the waveguides are two stainless steel rods housed in a plastic mount
inside the lid
the connector is a black plastic cylinder with coaxial cable attached
connect the coaxial cable to the socket on the face plate (lower left hand side)
of the TRASE
press the
ON
ENTER
button

The LCD screen on the TRASE face plate should now be displaying the MEASURE screen. This screen has MEASURE
SCREEN as a heading on the top line of the screen.
If the TRASE is displaying the DATA Screen ( a table of results) or the GRAPH Screen (a grid with or without a data
plot) then :
press the
NEXT
SCREEN
button (once or twice) until the MEASURE Screen appears.
32

The MEASURE Screen has date, time and message fields along the bottom of the screen, the message field being on the
right hand side.
The TRASE display will turn off after a specified time of inactivity (from 20 to 240 s). To reactivate the TRASE display
press the
ON
ENTER
button

Setting waveguide parameters :
The MEASURE Screen displays the waveguide length and type, plus options for multiplexing and storage of
data. The cursor is displayed as a black pulsating square somewhere on the display.
check that the waveguide length is correct for the waveguides being used.
if it is not :
find the location of the cursor
using the ARROW keys, move the cursor until it is in the waveguide field
using the NUMERIC keys, enter the correct waveguide length
check that the CONNECTOR is selected as the connector type (the word CONNECTOR is in square brackets)
if it is not :
find the location of the cursor
using the ARROW keys, move the cursor until it is in the waveguide type field
using the NUMERIC keys, select the connector

Zero set :
Setting the zero establishes the time reference for subsequent moisture measurements.
press the
ZERO
SET
button
the message Setting the Zero, Wait will be displayed in the message field
after approximately 15 seconds the process will be complete
the message Zero Set will then be displayed in the message field
the TRASE may or may not beep

Mount waveguides :
The waveguide connector has a clamping knob on the top
The waveguides have a semicircular groove at one end
turn the clamping knob anticlockwise until it stops
insert the end on the waveguides with the groove into the holes in the base of the connector
turn the clamping knob clockwise until the waveguides are locked into position

Insert into soil :
push the waveguides into the soil until their full length is buried in the soil
the connector can be (gently) tapped with a soft faced mallet to assist insertion

Take readings :
select the MEASURE Screen
press the
MEASURE
button
during the measuring process the message digitizing ... will flash in the centre of the screen

After approximately 15 seconds the TRASE will display the calculated moisture content in the MOISTURE
field, on the second row of the MEASURE Screen, the TRASE may or may not beep
It is advisable to take at least three readings in close proximity whenever using the TRASE to measure the moisture
content of a soil.
33

Frequency domain moisture sensors

There are many devices that used the frequency domain (FD) principle for measuring soil moisture
(and EC), such as:
- Theta Probe
-ECH2O
- Hydraprobe
They are based on electrical impedance sensor, which consists of probes or wave-guides and using
electrical impedance measurement. The most common configuration is based on the standing wave
principle (Gaskin & Miller, 1996). The device comprises a sinusoidal oscillator, a fixed impedance
coaxial transmission line, and probe wires which is buried in the soil. The oscillator signal is
propagated along the transmission line into the soil probe, and if the probe's impedance differs from
that of the transmission line, a proportion of the incident signal is reflected back along the line
towards the signal source.


The Hydra Probe is a Frequency Domain Reflectometer, measuring the behaviour of a standing
wave generated from the reflection of an electromagnetic wave at a radio frequency of 50 MHz. The
50 MHz electromagnetic wave propagates along the wave-guide. The soil absorbs most of the wave.
The portion of the wave that reflects back down the wave-guide encounters the emission
propagation creating a standing wave.


Capacitance probe, or fringe capacitance sensor.


The configuration is like the neutron probe where an access
tube made of PVC is installed in the soil. The probe consists
of sensing head at fixed depth. The sensing head consists of an
oscillator circuit, the frequency is determined by an annular
electrode, fringe-effect capacitor, and the dielectric constant of
the soil.
Each capacitor sensor consists of two metal rings mounted on
the circuit board at the distance e.g. 10, 20, 30, and 50 cm
from the top of the access tube. These rings are a pair of
electrodes, which form the plates of the capacitor with the soil
acting as the dielectric in between. The plates are connected to
an oscillator, consisting of an inductor and a capacitor. The
oscillating electric field is generated between the two rings
and extends into the soil medium through the wall of the
access tube (99% of the reading is taken within 10 cm radius
around the sensor axis). The capacitor and the oscillator form
a circuit, and changes in dielectric constant of surrounding
media are detected by changes in the operating frequency. The
capacitance sensors are designed to oscillate in excess of 100
MHz inside the access tube in free air. The output of the
sensor is the frequency response of the soils capacitance due
to its soil moisture level.
34


Shear vane

Shear devices measure soil strength parameters by direct application in the field. Stafford and
Tanner comparing various shear measurement options, concluded that The choice of test method must be
determined by the particular application for which shear strength is required. Thus, a different method
would be chosen when considering a soil traction problem than when considering a problem of soil-
implement interaction.

The direct reading shear vane, was an instrument originally designed to measure the shear
strength of clays in trial pits and excavations for foundations over the whole range of strengths likely to be
found on a building site. Soil scientists have applied these instruments to find out properties in the top layers
of the soil profile. The shear strength of a soil is determined when an increasing external force is applied to
a soil, and a point is reached where the soil moves in the direction of the force. At the point of movement,
the shear strength of the soil has been reached. A term commonly used in describing a soil that has its shear
strength exceeded is failure. When the shearing, or failure has occurred the two forces holding the soil
particles together have been overcome. Those properties are; 1.) cohesion force between the particles (N/m2
= Pa), 2.) angle of shearing resistance.


Operating instructions for the Pilcon direct reading hand vane tester

Remove the plastic cover from the instrument and screw in the required vane spindle, or the
required number of extension rods and vane spindle.
NOTE When coupling and uncoupling rods always use both spanners to
avoid straining the spring, which could ruin the accuracy of the
instrument.
The pointer is to be rotated clockwise until it comes to rest against the dog plate.
The instrument should be pushed into the soil until the centre is 40 - 50 mm below the soil surface.
Holding the instrument in one hand revolve the head clockwise at a speed equivalent to a complete
revolution in a minute.
When the sample has sheared, the pointer will remain set at a reading of shear strength determined
form the scale corresponding to the vane used.
After use the vanes and instrument should be wiped over with a damp cloth to remove dust and mud.



35

Dynamic cone penetrometer


The dynamic cone penetrometer measures the soil strength attributes of penetrability and
compaction. The instrument is comprised of a metal rod (approx. 1.6 m) with a hardened 30
steel cone (20mm basal diameter) affixed as the striking tip. The exact dimensions of the cone are
very important as this allows the force and friction to be calculated.

The cone is first pressed into the soil surface until buried. Held vertically, checked by referring to
bubble float, the slide hammer is lifted to a specified height and dropped onto the anvil.
Assuming the slide hammer is dropped from a vertical position, friction from the metal rod is
negligible and the force in which the slide hammer places on the soil can be calculated. This
action is repeated until a certain depth is achieved.




36

Data analysis

The penetrometer was comprised of a hammer of mass, m, and a shaft mass m (which included the rod, the
anvil, cone and other parts attached to the penetrometer). The hammer (mass m) was lifted to height H and
dropped to produce an amount of kinetic energy, W (in J), described as:
W mgH = .

Not all of the energy from the hammer was transmitted to the soil at the impact (when the hammer hit the
anvil) because both the hammer and the shaft moved downward together into the soil. A modification to this
energy therefore needs to be made using the so-called Dutch formula (Sanglerat 1972; Cassan 1988),
which calculates the soil resistance as follows:
'
mgH m
R
A z m m
=
+


where:
R is the resistance to penetration (Pa),
A is the basal area of the cone (m
2
), (diameter 20 mm, so an area of 0.000314 m
2
)
g is the gravity acceleration constant (= 9.81 m s
-2
),
m is the mass of the hammer (kg), (2 kg)
m is the mass of the shaft (kg)., (2.2 kg)
z is the depth of penetration (m).


References
Herrick, J.E., Jones, T.L. 2002. A dynamic cone penetrometer for measuring soil penetration
resistance. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 1320-1324.

Vanags, C., Minasny, B., McBratney, A.B., 2004. The dynamic penetrometer for assessment of soil
mechanical resistance. SuperSoil Conference.
http://www.regional.org.au/au/asssi/supersoil2004/s14/poster/1565_vanagsc.htm


37

Heat transport in soil

Many processes occurring in soil, for example seed germination, plant growth, root development and
activity are strongly influenced by temperature. Soil temperature is a function of the exchange of heat with
the atmosphere and the transfer of heat within the soil.

Some thermal properties and processes in soil are :

Temperature T: the intensity of heat in soil, C etc.
Heat capacity C
h
: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass or
volume by one degree, J m
-3
K
-1
, or J kg
-1
K
-1
.
Thermal conductivity
h
: the ratio of heat flux density to the temperature gradient, a measure
of how much heat will be conducted through the soil, usually as a
function of moisture content, J m
-1
s
-1
K
-1
.
Thermal diffusivity D
h
can be obtained by dividing thermal conductivity with heat capacity D
h
=
h
/ C
h
.
The unit is m
2
s
-1
.

Transport of heat in soils can occur by conduction or convection, with or without latent heat transport. The
only method of heat transfer to be considered here is conduction, as this method is considered to be the
major method of heat transfer.
Conduction is governed by the thermal properties of the soil, heat capacity and conductivity, which are
strongly dependant on soils volume fraction of air, water and solid.

HEAT CAPACITY

The change of heat content of soil divided by volume and by change of temperature is called the
volumetric heat capacity, C
h
, :

re temperatu is
soil of volume by the divided content heat the is where
T
Q
dT
dQ
C
h
=



which can be expressed as the sum of the contributions of the different components :

3 -
3 - 3 -
i
,
K m J component of capacity heat c volumetri the is
m m component of fraction volume the is where
i C
i
C C
hi
i
i
i h h

=






38



Table 1 Thermal properties of some common materials (at 10 C)
c C
h

h


Mg m
-3
kJ kg
-1
K
-1
MJ m
-3
K
-1
Jm
-1
s
-1
K
-1
(Wm
-1
K
-1
)
quartz 2.66 0.76 2.0 8.8
clay minerals 2.65 0.73 2.0 2.9
organic matter 1.30 1.8 2.5 0.25
water 1.00 4.2 4.2 0.57
soil, dry 1.4 1.26 1.76 1.5
charcoal, wood 0.40 1.0 0.4 0.088
sawdust 0.15 0.879 0.132 0.08
ice (0

C)
0.92 2.1 1.9 2.18
air (sat with water
vapour)
0.0013 1.0 0.0013 0.025

HEAT CONDUCTION

The heat conductivity of a soil (
h
, J m
-1
s
-1
K
-1
, or W m
-1
K
-1
) is defined as the heat flux density
by conduction through the soil divided by the temperature gradient. Alternatively, the relationship between
heat flux density (f
h
, Wm
-2
) and temperature can be described by the Fourier law:

distance vertical is
K or C re temperatu is where
d
d
s
T
s
T
f
h h

=




The value of
h
depends highly on the way in which the best conducting mineral particles are
interconnected by the less conducting water phase and separated by the poorly conducting gas phase.
At low water contents,
h
is usually low ( < 0.5 J m
-1
s
-1
K
-1
), heat conduction being only via
narrow points of contact between particles. Air has little influence due to its low conductivity. Increasing
soil moisture content affects
h
only slightly at first, due to formation of thin films around particles. Further
increase raises
h
sharply due to bridging between mineral particles. Increasing water content now increases
the cross sections of the water bridges, increasing
h
more gradually. Maximum
h
is reached at saturation,
being between 1.5 and 2.0 J m
-1
s
-1
K
-1
. See Figure 1.


39




Figure 1 Thermal conductivity values for some soil materials (De Vries, 1966)























y = 0.539Ln(x) + 3.1266
R
2
= 0.8961
y = 0.4568Ln(x) + 1.6926
R
2
= 0.7532
y = 0.1102Ln(x) + 0.3829
R
2
= 0.6894
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
q
l
Faibanks sand
Healy clay
Fairbanks peat
40

Cyclic temperature fluctuation

A cyclic daily (or annual) heating and cooling of the soil surface can be approximately described by
the following boundary conditions:
av
av
av
T T s t
t A T T s t
T T s t
=
+ =
= =
0
sin : 0 = 0
: 0 0


where
T
av
is the average diurnal temperature
A is the amplitude at the surface = T
max
(or T
min
) T
av


is the period of oscillation = 2/(period to complete a cycle)
t is the time

If the soil is infinitely deep, and the damping depth, s
d
is introduced, the temperatures at any depth and time
are given by

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
d d
av t s
s
s
t t
s
s
A T T
0 ,
sin exp




where t
0
is the correction to bring the time of mean temperature back to T
av
.
The damping depth,
2 2
h h
d
h
D
s
C

= = , represents the reduction in amplitude of the temperature
variation with depth, and is the depth at which the amplitude is reduced by e
-1
or 0.37 times its value at the
surface.

Typical diurnal damping depths are 10 - 15 cm, and typical annual damping depths are 2 - 3 m for mineral
soils. Note that the diurnal temperature variation is not as well described by a sine wave as the annual
variation, and that the diurnal variation changes from day to day.

Tav
A
t
0

41



Experiment

The apparatus is set initially by digging a hole which exposes a
vertical face of the soil in which temperature sensitive
thermocouple probes are inserted at varying heights in the soil
profile and temperatures were recorded at 10 minute intervals using
a datalogger.

The aim of the analysis is to estimate the thermal properties of the
soil. The data of temperature waves collected over time were used
to estimate the soil thermal properties based on the cyclic heat
transport equation.








Fitting the diurnal temperature model to the data with JMP

Creating a Formula with Parameters
First create a column in the data table using the formula editor to build a prediction formula, which includes
parameters to be estimated. The formula contains the parameters' initial values.

Begin in the formula editor by defining the parameters. Select Parameters from the popup menu above the
column selector list (top left panel).
When New Parameter appears in the selector list, click on it and respond to the New Parameter definition
dialog. Use this dialog to name the parameter and assign it an initial value. When you click OK, the new
parameter name appears in the selector list. Continue this process to create additional parameters.
You need to create parameters: Tav, A, sd, and t0.

You can now build the formula you need by using data table columns and parameters.

When the formula is complete, choose from the Menu: Analyze > Modeling > Nonlinear and complete the
Launch dialog. Select the column of the data as Y, Response, and the column with the fitting formula as
X, Predictor Formula.

42

Appendix


Table 1. Wetting front potential C for soil with different texture
Texture Wetting front potential C (mm)
Sands 100
Sandy loams 200
Loams 300
Clay loams 500
Light clay 800
Medium & Heavy Clay 1500



Table 2. Descriptive permeability class (McKenzie et al., 2004)
Class K
s

(mm/day)
Description Examples
1 1 Sodic B horizon
2 2 Very slow Stable B horizon Vertosol
3 7 Surface seal
4 24 Slow Dense B horizon from a Chromosol
5 72 Dense structured clay
6 240 Moderate Vertosol A Horizon
7 720 Chromosol B horizon
8 2400 High Dermosol B horizon
9 7200 Coarse sand Podosol
10 24000 Extreme Soil with macropores
11 72000 O Horizon

43

Table 3. Mean of clay, and sand content (in percent weight) according to field texture classes.
S
LS
LFS
CS
SL
FSL
FSCL
SCL
SC
L
HC
MHC MC
LMC
LC
SiC
SiCL
SiL
CL
SCL-
Sand (particles 20-2000 um) content (%)
C
l
a
y

(
p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
s

<
2

u
m
)

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

(
%
)
Table 4. Probability of the occurrence of a texture contrast soil based on field texture of B2 horizon and the overlying layer. Grayed area represents the likely
condition based on probability 0.5 and 0.9.


Texture of Mean Texture of layer overlying the B2 horizon
B2 horizon Clay S LS LFS SL CS FSL FSCL SiL SCL SCL- L SiCL SC CL SiC
SCL 22 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
SCL- 23 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
L 24 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
SiCL 31 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0
SC 32 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
CL 34 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1
SiC 39 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0
LC 40 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
LMC 45 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
MC 49 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3
MHC 53 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4
HC 57 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5


2

Table 5. Mean of clay, sand content, field capacity & wilting point, according to field texture classes.


Texture

A Horizon B Horizon

Sand
content
Clay
content
Field
Capacity
Wilting
Point
Field
Capacity
Wilting
Point

% % m
3
m
-3
m
3
m
-3
m
3
m
-3
m
3
m
-3

Sands S 92 5 0.11 0.05 0.11 0.07

LS 85 8 0.18 0.07 0.17 0.08

CS 80 14 0.22 0.10 0.21 0.11
Sandy Loams SL 78 13 0.24 0.10 0.23 0.10

FSL 67 15 0.29 0.12 0.26 0.11

SCL- 65 23 0.30 0.15 0.27 0.14
Loams L 57 24 0.32 0.16 0.29 0.15

LFS 78 10 0.25 0.09 0.23 0.09

SiL 51 21 0.33 0.15 0.30 0.14

SCL 70 22 0.28 0.13 0.26 0.13
Clay Loam CL 47 34 0.36 0.20 0.33 0.19

SiCL 43 31 0.37 0.19 0.35 0.20

FSCL 64 21 0.30 0.14 0.27 0.13
Light Clay SC 60 32 0.31 0.17 0.29 0.17

SiC 35 39 0.41 0.25 0.38 0.24

LC 44 40 0.37 0.22 0.34 0.21

LMC 38 45 0.39 0.25 0.38 0.25
Medium-Heavy Clay MC 36 49 0.40 0.26 0.38 0.26

MHC 31 53 0.43 0.30 0.40 0.28

HC 28 57 0.44 0.31 0.40 0.29