Power System Protection Lab Manual

LABM UAL MANU
PO OWER RSYSTEMPR ROTEC CTION

SUBM MITTED TO
ENGR R.MJUNA AID
SUBM MITTED BY
AS SADNAE EEM 2006R RCETEE E22
DEPAR RTMENT O ELECTRICAL EN OF NGINEERIN NG A ITUENT CO OLLEGE: R RACHNA C COLLEGE OF ENGIN NEERING & (A CONSTI TECHNOLO T OGY GUJR RANWALA A) UN NIVERSITY OF ENGI Y INEERING & TECHN NOLOGY LA AHORE, PA AKISTAN
POWERSYSTEMPROTECTIONLABMANUAL
EXP# 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14
TITLE IntroductiontoMATLABandElectricalTransients AnalyzerProgram ETAP IntroductiontoPowerSystemProtection IMPACTOFINDUCTIONMOTORSTARTINGONPOWER SYSTEM SELECTIONOFCIRCUITBREAKERFORDIFFERENT BRANCHESOFAGIVENPOWERSYSTEMUSINGETAP Transientstabilityanalysisofagivenpowersystem usingETAP IntroductiontoGroundGridModelinginETAP GroundGridModelingofaGivenSystemusingETAP ModelingofSinglePhaseInstantaneousOverCurrent RelayusingMATLAB ModelingofaThreePhaseInstantaneousOverCurrent RelayusingMATLAB ModelingofaDifferentialRelayUsingMATLAB ComparisonbetweentheStepandTouchPotentialofa TModelandSquareModelof GroundGridsunder TolerableandIntolerableinETAP ModelingofanOverCurrentRelayusingETAP ModelingofaDifferentialRelayUsingETAP ModelingofSinglePhaseDefiniteTimeOverCurrent RelayusingMATLAB
ASADNAEEM 2006RCETEE22
EXPERIMENTNO:01
IntroductiontoMATLABandElectricalTransientsAnalyzer Program ETAP
MATLAB
Thisisaveryimportanttoolusedformakinglongcomplicatedcalculations andplottinggraphsofdifferentfunctionsdependinguponourrequirement. UsingMATLABanmfileiscreatedinwhichthebasicoperationsare performedwhichleadstosimpleshortandsimplecomputationsofsomevery complicatedproblemsinnoorveryshorttime. SomeveryimportantfunctionsperformedbyMATLABaregivenasfollows: Matrixcomputations VectorAnalysis DifferentialEquationscomputations Integrationispossible Computerlanguageprogramming Simulation GraphPlotation 2D&3DPlotting
Benefits:
SomeBenefitsofMATLABaregivenasfollows: Simpletouse Fastcomputationsarepossible Wideworkingrange Solutionofmatrixofanyorder Desiredoperationsareperformedinmatrices DifferentProgramminglanguagescanbeused Simulationispossible
BasicCommands:
SomebasicMATLABcommandsaregivenasfollows: Addition: A B Subtraction: AB Multiplication: A*B Division: A/B Power: A^B PowerOfeachElementindividually: A.^B RangeSpecification: A:B SquareRoot: A sqrt B WhereA&Bareanyarbitraryintegers
BasicMatrixOperations:
ThisisademonstrationofsomeaspectsoftheMATLABlanguage.
CreatingaVector: Letscreateasimplevectorwith9elementscalleda. a 123464345 a 123464345 Nowlet'sadd2toeachelementofourvector,a,andstoretheresultinanew vector. NoticehowMATLABrequiresnospecialhandlingofvectorormatrixmath. AddinganelementtoaVector: b a 2 b 345686567 PlotsandGraphs: CreatinggraphsinMATLABisas easyasonecommand.Let'splot theresultofourvectoraddition withgridlines. Plot b gridon
MATLABcanmakeothergraphtypes aswell,withaxislabels. bar b xlabel 'Sample#' ylabel 'Pounds'
MATLABcanusesymbolsinplotsaswell.Hereisanexampleusingstarsto markthepoints.MATLABoffersavarietyofothersymbolsandlinetypes. Creatingamatrix: Creatingamatrixisaseasyasmakingavector,usingsemicolons ; to separatetherowsofamatrix. A 120;251;4101 A 120 251 4101 AddinganewRow: B 4,: 789 ans 120 251 4101 789 AddinganewColumn: C :,4 789 ans 1207 2518 41019 Transpose: WecaneasilyfindthetransposeofthematrixA. B A' B 124 2510 011 MatrixMultiplication: Nowlet'smultiplythesetwomatricestogether.
NoteagainthatMATLABdoesn'trequireyoutodealwithmatricesasa collectionofnumbers.MATLABknowswhenyouaredealingwithmatrices andadjustsyourcalculationsaccordingly. C A*B C 51224 123059 2459117 MatrixMultiplicationbycorrespondingelements: Insteadofdoingamatrixmultiply,wecanmultiplythecorresponding elementsoftwomatricesorvectorsusingthe.*operator. C A.*B C 140 42510 0101 Inverse: Let'sfindtheinverseofamatrix: X inv A X 522 211 021 Andthenillustratethefactthatamatrixtimesitsinverseistheidentity matrix. I inv A *A I 100 010 001 MATLABhasfunctionsfornearlyeverytypeofcommonmatrixcalculation.
EigenValues: TherearefunctionstoobtainEigenvalues: eig A ans 3.7321 0.2679 1.0000 Polynomialcoefficients: The"poly"functiongeneratesavectorcontainingthecoefficientsofthe characteristicpolynomial. ThecharacteristicpolynomialofamatrixAis p round poly A p 1551 Wecaneasilyfindtherootsofapolynomialusingtherootsfunction. Theseareactuallytheeigenvaluesoftheoriginalmatrix. roots p ans 3.7321 1.0000 0.2679 MATLABhasmanyapplicationsbeyondjustmatrixcomputation. VectorConvolution: Toconvolvetwovectors: q conv p,p q 110355235101
Orconvolveagainandplottheresult. r conv p,q plot r ; r 1159027848048027890151
MatrixManipulation: WestartbycreatingamagicsquareandassigningittothevariableA. A magic 3 A 816 357 492
MATLABINPOWERSYSTEMPROTECTION

TheMATLABSystem:
The MATLAB system consists of five main parts: Development Environment. ThisisthesetoftoolsandfacilitiesthathelpyouuseMATLABfunctionsand files.Manyofthesetoolsaregraphicaluserinterfaces.ItincludestheMATLAB
desktopandCommandWindow,acommandhistory,aneditoranddebugger, andbrowsersforviewinghelp,theworkspace,files,andthesearchpath.
TheMATLABMathematicalFunctionLibrary:
Thisisavastcollectionofcomputationalalgorithmsrangingfromelementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions,andfastFouriertransforms.
TheMATLABLanguage:
This is a highlevel matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and objectoriented programming features. It allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throwaway programs, and "programming in the large" to create largeandcomplexapplicationprograms.
Graphics:
MATLABhasextensivefacilitiesfordisplayingvectorsandmatricesasgraphs, as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes highlevel functions for twodimensional and threedimensional data visualization, imageprocessing,animation,andpresentationgraphics.Italsoincludeslow levelfunctionsthatallowyoutofullycustomizetheappearanceofgraphicsas well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB applications.
TheMATLABApplicationProgramInterface API :
This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interactwithMATLAB.ItincludesfacilitiesforcallingroutinesfromMATLAB dynamiclinking ,callingMATLABasacomputationalengine,andforreading andwritingMATfiles.
MATLABDocumentation:
MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help you learn about and use all of its features. If you are a new user, start with this Getting Started book. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many examples. The MATLAB online help provides taskoriented and reference information about MATLAB features. MATLABdocumentationisalsoavailableinprintedformandinPDFformat.
WorkingwithMatrices:
Generate matrices, load matrices, create matrices from Mfiles and concatenation,anddeletematrixrowsandcolumns.
MoreAboutMatricesandArrays:
Use matrices for linear algebra, work with arrays, multivariate data, scalar expansion,andlogicalsubscripting,andusethefindfunction.
ControllingCommandWindowInputandOutput:
Change output format, suppress output, enter long lines, and edit at the commandline.
BioinformaticsToolbox:
The Bioinformatics Toolbox extends MATLAB to provide an integrated softwareenvironmentforgenomeandproteomeanalysis.Together,MATLAB and the Bioinformatics Toolbox give scientists and engineer a set of computational tools to solve problems and build applications in drug discovery,geneticengineering,andbiologicalresearch.Youcanusethebasic bioinformatics functions provided with this toolbox to create more complex algorithms and applications. These robust and well tested functions are the functionsthatyouwouldotherwisehavetocreateyourself. Connecting to Web accessible databases, Reading and converting between multiple data formats, Determining statistical characteristics of data,
Manipulating and aligning sequences, Modeling patterns in biological sequencesusingHiddenMarkovModel HMM profiles,Reading,normalizing, and visualizingmicroarray datacreatingandmanipulatingphylogenetictree data interfacing with other bioinformatics software. The field of bioinformatics is rapidly growing and will become increasingly important as biologybecomesamoreanalyticalscience. The Bioinformatics Toolbox provides an open environment that you can customize for development and deployment of the analytical tools you and scientistswillneed.PrototypeanddevelopalgorithmsPrototypenewideasin an open and extendable environment. Develop algorithms using efficient string processing and statistical functions, view the source code for existing functions,andusethecodeasatemplateforimprovingorcreatingyourown functions.SeePrototypeandDevelopmentEnvironment. Visualize data Visualize sequence alignments, gene expression data, phylogenetic trees, and protein structure analyses. See Data Visualization. Share and deploy applications Use an interactive GUI builder to develop a custom graphical front end for your data analysis programs. Create stand alone applications that run separate from MATLAB. See Algorithm Sharing andApplicationDeployment.
ControlSystemToolbox:
Building Models Describes how to build linear models, interconnect models, determine model characteristics, convert between continuous and discrete time models, and how to perform model order reduction on large scale models.ThischapterdevelopsaDCmotormodelfrombasiclaws ofphysics. Analyzing Models Introduces the LTI Viewer, graphical users interface GUI that simplifies the task of viewing model responses. This chapter also discussescommandlinefunctionsforviewingmodelresponses. Designing Compensators Introduces the SISO Design Tool, a GUI that allows youtorapidlyiterateoncompensatordesigns.
Youcanusethistooltoadjustcompensatorgainsandadddynamics,suchas poles, zeros, lead networks, and notch filters. This chapter also discusses commandline functions for compensator design and includes examples of LQRandKalmanfilterdesign.
CurveFittingToolbox:
The Curve Fitting Toolbox is a collection of graphical user interfaces GUIs andMfilefunctionsbuiltontheMATLABtechnicalcomputingenvironment. Thetoolboxprovidesyouwiththesemainfeatures:Datapreprocessingsuch assectioningand smoothingParametricandnonparametricdatafitting:You can perform a parametric fit using a toolbox library equation or using a custom equation. Library equations include polynomials, exponentials, rationales,sumsofGaussians,andsoon.Customequationsareequationsthat you define to suit your specific curve fitting needs. You can perform a nonparametricfitusingasmoothingspineorvariousinterpellants.Standard linear least squares, nonlinear least squares, weighted least squares, constrainedleastsquares,androbustfittingproceduresFitstatisticstoassist you in determining the goodness of fit Analysis capabilities such as extrapolation, differentiation, and integration A graphical environment that allowsyouto:Exploreandanalyzedatasetsandfitsvisuallyandnumerically Save your work in various formats including Mfiles, binary files, and workspacevariables.
DataAcquisitionToolbox:
IntroductiontoDataAcquisitionprovidesyouwithgeneralinformationabout making measurements with data acquisition hardware. The topics covered should help you understand the specification sheet associated with your hardware. Getting started with the Data Acquisition Toolbox describes the toolbox components, and shows you how to access your hardware, examine yourhardwareresources,andgetcommandlinehelp.

DatabaseToolbox:
OverviewofhowdatabasesconnecttoMATLAB,toolboxfunctions,theVisual QueryBuilder,majorfeaturesofthetoolbox,andtheexpectedbackgroundfor users of this product. System Requirements Supported platforms, MATLAB versions,databases,drivers,SQLcommands,datatypes,andrelatedproducts. Setting Up a Data Source Before connecting to a database, set up the data source for ODBC drivers or for JDBC drivers. Starting the Database Toolbox Start using functions or the Visual Query Builder GUI, and learn how to get helpfortheproduct.
DatafeedToolbox:
ThisdocumentdescribestheDatafeedToolboxforMATLAB.TheDatafeed Toolbox effectively turns your MATLAB workstation into a financial data acquisition terminal. Using the Data feed Toolbox; you can download a wide variety of security data from financial data servers into your MATLAB workspace. Then, you can pass this data to MATLAB or to another toolbox, suchastheFinancialTimeSeriesToolbox,forfurtheranalysis.
FilterDesignToolbox:
The Filter Design Toolbox is a collection of tools that provides advanced techniques for designing, simulating, and analyzing digital filters. It extends thecapabilitiesoftheSignalProcessingToolboxwithfilterarchitecturesand design methods for complex realtime DSP applications, including adaptive filteringandMultiMatefiltering,aswellasfilterstransformations.Usedwith the FixedPoint Toolbox, the Filter Design Toolbox provides functions that simplify the design of fixedpoint filters and the analysis of quantization effects. When used with the Filter Design HDL Coder, the Filter Design ToolboxletsyougenerateVHDLandVerilogcodeforfixedpointfilters.
KeyFeatures:
Advanced FIR filter design methods, including minimumorder, minimum phase,constrainedripple,halfband,Nyquist,interpolatedFIR,andnonlinear
phase Perfect reconstruction and twochannel FIR filter bank design Advanced IIR design methods, including arbitrary magnitude, groupdelay equalizers, constrainedpole radius, peaking, notching, and comb filters Analysisandimplementationofdigitalfiltersinsingleprecisionfloatingpoint and fixedpoint arithmetic Support for IIR filters implemented in second order sections, including design, scaling, and section reordering Roundoff noise analysis for filters implemented in singleprecision floating point or fixedpointFIRandIIRfiltertransformations,includinglowpasstolowpass, low pass to high pass, and low pass to multiband. Adaptive filter design, analysis,andimplementation,includingLMSbased,RLSbased,latticebased, frequencydomain, fast transversal, and affine projection Multirate filter design, analysis, and implementation, including cascaded integratorcomb CIC fixedpoint MultiMate filters VHDL and Verilog code generation for fixedpointfilters.
RFToolbox:
TheRFToolboxenablesyoutocreateandcombineRFcircuitsforsimulation inthefrequencydomainwithsupportforbothpowerandnoise.Youcanread, write,analyze,combine,andvisualizeRFnetworkparameters.WorkDirectly withNetworkParameterDataYoucanworkdirectlywithyourownnetwork parameter data or with data from files. Functions enable you to: Read and writeRFdatainTouchstone.snp,.ynp,.znp,and.hnpformats,aswellasthe MathWorks.AMPformat.ConversionamongS,Y,Z,h,T,andABCDnetwork parameters Plot your data on XY plane and polar plane plots, as well as SmithchartsCalculatecascadedSparameters anddeembedSparameters from a cascaded network Calculate input and output reflection coefficients, andvoltagestandingwaveratio VSWR atthereflectioncoefficient.
WaveletToolbox:
Everywhere around us are signals that can be analyzed. For example, there are seismic tremors, human speech, engine vibrations, medical images, financial data, music, and many other types of signals. Wavelet analysis is a newandpromisingsetoftoolsandtechniquesforanalyzingthesesignals.The
WaveletToolboxisacollectionoffunctionsbuiltontheMATLABTechnical Computing Environment. It provides tools for the analysis and synthesis of signals and images, and tools for statistical applications, using wavelets and waveletpacketswithintheframeworkofMATLAB. The MathWorks provides several products that are relevant to the kinds of tasksyoucanperformwiththeWaveletToolbox. The Wavelets Toolbox provides two categories of tools: Command line functionsGraphicalinteractivetoolsthefirstcategoryof toolsismadeupof functions.
Simulink:
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamicsystems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampledtime,orahybridofthetwo.SystemscanalsobeMultiMate,i.e.,have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates. Simulink encouragesyoutotrythingsout.Youcaneasilybuildmodelsfromscratch,or take an existing model and add to it. Simulations are interactive, so you can changeparametersontheflyandimmediatelyseewhathappens. AgoalofSimulinkistogiveyouasenseofthefunofmodelingandsimulation, throughanenvironmentthatencouragesyoutoposeaquestion,modelit,and see what happens. With Simulink, you can move beyond idealized linear models to explore more realistic nonlinear models, factoring in friction, air resistance,gearslippage,hardstops,andtheotherthingsthatdescribereal worldphenomena.Simulinkturnsyourcomputerintoalabformodelingand analyzing systems that simply wouldn't be possible or practical otherwise, whether the behavior of an automotive clutch system, the flutter of an airplane wing, the dynamics of a predatorprey model, or the effect of the monetarysupplyontheeconomy.
Simulink is also practical. With thousands of engineers around the world using it to model and solve real problems, knowledge of this tool will serve youwellthroughoutyourprofessionalcareer.
SignalProcessingToolbox:
TheSignalProcessingToolboxisacollectionoftoolsbuiltontheMATLAB numericcomputingenvironment. The toolbox supports a wide range of signal processing operations, from waveform generation to filter design and implementation, parametric modeling,andspectralanalysis. Thetoolboxprovidestwocategoriesoftools:Commandlinefunctionsinthe followingcategories: Analog and digital filter analysis Digital filter implementation FIR and IIR digitalfilterdesignAnalogfilterdesignFilterdiscretizationSpectralWindows Transforms Cepstral analysis Statistical signal processing and spectral analysisParametricmodelingLinearPredictionWaveformgeneration.Asuite ofinteractivegraphicaluserinterfacesforFilterdesignand analysisWindow design and analysis Signal plotting and analysis Spectral analysis Filtering signals Signal Processing Toolbox Central Features The Signal Processing Toolboxfunctionsarealgorithms,expressedmostlyinMfiles,thatimplement avarietyofsignalprocessingtasks. These toolbox functions are a specialized extension of the MATLAB computational.
ETAPisthemostcomprehensiveanalysisplatformforthedesign,simulation, operation,control,optimization,andautomationofgeneration,transmission, distribution,andindustrialpowersystems.
ProjectToolbar
TheProjectToolbarcontainsiconsthatallowyoutoperformshortcutsof manycommonlyusedfunctionsinPowerStation.
Create Open Save Print Cut Copy Paste ZoomIn Createanewprojectfile Openanexistingprojectfile Savetheprojectfile PrinttheonelinediagramorU/Gracewaysystem CuttheselectedelementsfromtheonelinediagramorU/G racewaysystemtotheDumpster CopytheselectedelementsfromtheonelinediagramorU/G racewaysystemtotheDumpster PasteelementsfromaDumpsterCelltotheonelinediagramor U/Graceway system MagnifytheonelinediagramorU/Gracewaysystem
ZoomOut ReducetheonelinediagramorU/Gracewaysystem ZoomtoFitPage CheckContinuity PowerCalculator Resizetheonelinediagramtofitthewindow Checkthesystemcontinuityfornonenergized elements ActivatePowerStationCalculatorthatrelatesMW, MVAR,MVA,kV,Amp,andPFtogetherwitheither kVAorMVAunits
Help
PointtoaspecificareatolearnmoreaboutPowerStation
ModeToolbar
ETAPoffersasuiteoffullyintegratedsoftwaresolutionsincludingarcflash, loadflow,shortcircuit,transientstability,relaycoordination,cableampacity, optimalpowerflow,andmore.Itsmodularfunctionalitycanbecustomizedto fittheneedsofanycompany,fromsmalltolargepowersystems.
EditMode
Editmodeenablesyoutobuildyouronelinediagram,changesystem connections,editengineeringproperties,saveyourproject,andgenerate schedulereportsinCrystalReportsformats.TheEditToolbarsforbothAC andDCelementswillbedisplayedtotherightofthescreenwhenthismodeis active.Thismodeprovidesawidevarietyoftasksincluding: Drag&DropElements ConnectElements ChangeIDs Cut,Copy,&PasteElements MovefromDumpster InsertOLEObjects Cut,Copy&OLEObjects MergePowerStationProject Hide/ShowGroupsofProtectiveDevices RotateElements SizeElements ChangeSymbols EditProperties RunScheduleReportManager

InstrumentationElements:
ACElements:

DCElements:
LoadFlowAnalysis:
ShortCircuitAnalysis:
MotorStartingAnalysis:
HarmonicAnalysis:

TransientStabilityAnalysis:
OptimalPowerFlowAnalysis:
ReliabilityAssesmentAnalysis:
DCLoadFlowAnalysis:
DCShortCircuitAnalysis:
BatterySizingAndDischargeAnalysis:
COMMENTS:
MATLABisveryusefulandveryeasytousesoftwarewhichisbasicallyused forthematricesproblemsbutitisalsousedformanyapplicationslike: Matrixcomputations VectorAnalysis DifferentialEquationscomputations Integrationispossible Computerlanguageprogramming Simulation GraphPlotation 2D&3DPlotting
ETAPisthemostcomprehensiveanalysisplatformforthedesign,simulation, operation,control,optimization,andautomationofgeneration,transmission, distribution,andindustrialpowersystems.Thissoftwareisusedtoanalyze

verylargepowersystems.ETAPisusedforthefollowingtypesofanalysisof anypowersystem:
BatterySizingAndDischargeAnalysis DCShortCircuitAnalysis DCLoadFlowAnalysis ReliabilityAssesmentAnalysis OptimalPowerFlowAnalysis TransientStabilityAnalysis HarmonicAnalysis MotorStartingAnalysis ShortCircuitAnalysis LoadFlowAnalysis
EXPERIMENTNO:02
IntroductiontoPowerSystemProtection ProtectionSystem
Aprotectionschemeinpowersystemisdesignedtocontinuouslymonitorthe powersystemtoensuremaximumcontinuityofelectricalsupplywith minimumdamagetolife,equipmentandproperty.
Isolationoffaultyelement
Theilleffectsoffaultsareminimizedbyquicklyisolatingthefaulty elementfromtherestofthehealthysystem,thuslimitingthedisturbance footprinttoassmallanareaintimeandspaceaspossible.
FAULTSANDABNORMALOPERATINGCONDITIONS ShuntFault:
Whenthepathoftheloadcurrentiscutshortbecauseofbreakdown ofinsulation,wesaythatashortcircuithasoccurred.Thesefaultsdueto insulationflashoveraremanytimestemporary,i.e.ifthearcpathisallowedto deionize,byinterruptingtheelectricsupplyforasufficientperiod,thenthere arcdoesnotrestrikeafterthesupplyisrestored.Thisprocessofinterruption followedbyintentionalreenergizationisknownasRECLOSURE.Inlow voltagesystemupto3reclosureareattempted,afterwhichthebreakeris lockedout.Therepeatedattemptsatreclosure,attimes,helpinburningout theobject,whichiscausingthebreakdownofinsulation.Thereclosuremay alsobedoneautomatically. EHVSYSTEM: Inthesesystemswherethedamageduetoshort circuitmaybevery largeandthesystemstabilityatstake,onlyonereclosureisallowed.Attimes theshortcircuitmaybetotal sometimescalledadeadshortcircuit oritmay bepartialshortcircuit.
METALLICFAULT: Afaultwhichbypassestheentireloadcurrentthroughitselfiscalleda metallic fault. A metallic fault presents a very low, practically zero, fault resistance.Apartialshortcircuitcanbemodeledasanonzeroresistance or impedance parallelwiththeintendedpathofcurrent.
ARCRESISTANCE:
Most of the times, the fault resistance is nothing but the resistance of the arc that is formed as a result of flash over. The resistance is highly non linear in nature. Early researches have developed models of arc resistance. One such widely used model is due to Warrington, which gives the Arc Resistanceas; Rarc 8750 S 3ut /I1.4 Where Sisthespacinginfeet tisthetimeinseconds Uisthevelocityofairinmph Iisthefaultcurrentinampere
CAUSESOFSHUNTFAULT:
Shuntfaultisbasicallyduetofailureofinsulation.Theinsulationmay failbecauseofitsownweakening,oritmayfailduetoovervoltagethe weakeningofinsulationmaybeduetooneormoreoffollowingfactors. Ageing Temperature Rain,Hail,Snow Chemicalpollution Foreignobjects Othercauses
Theovervoltagemaybeeitherinternal duetoswitching orexternal dueto lightening .
EFFECTSOFSHUNTFAULTS
Ifthepowersystemjustconsistedofisolatedalternatorsfeedingtheirown load,thensteadystatefaultcurrentswouldnotbeofmuchconcern. ISOLATEDGENERATOREXPERINCESATHREEPHASEFAULT Consideranisolatedturboalternatorwithathreephaseshort circuitonitsterminalsasshowninfig:
Assumingthat; Internalvoltage Ip.u Synchronousimpedance Xd 2p.u

Steadystatshortcircuitcurrent 0.5p.u Thiscurrentistosmalltocauseanyworry. Howeverconsidering; Subtransientimpedance Xd 0.1p.u Subtransientcurrentwill I 10p.u FORINTERCONNECTEDPOWERSYSTEM Forthesesystemsallthegeneratorsandmotorswillcontribute towardsthefaultcurrent,thusbuildingupthevalueofthefaultcurrentto coupleoftensoftimestothenormalfullloadcurrent.Faultsthuscauseheavy currenttoflow.Ifthesecurrentpersistsforshortdurationtheycancause seriousdamagetotheequipment. OVERHEATING: Infaultedcircuitstheovercurrentcausestheoverheatingand attendantdangeroffire,thisoverheatingalsocausesthedeteriorationofthe insulation,thusweakeningitfurther.Transformersareknowntohave sufferedmechanicaldamagetothewindingsduetofault. Someimportantpointsofinterconnectedpowersystemare: Thegeneratorsininterconnectedsystemmustoperatein synchronismatallinstants. Theelectricpoweroutputfromanalternatornearthefaultdrops sharply. Themechanicalpowerinputremainsconstantatitsprefaultvalue. EFFECTOFFAULT: Asmechanicalpowerinputremainsconstantthiscausesthealternator toaccelerate,alongwiththerotoranglestartsincreasing,thusthe alternatorsstartswingingwithrespecttoeachother.Iftheswinggoesoutof
controlalternatorwillbetrippedout.Thussystemstabilityisatsake. Thereforefaultneedtobeisolatedandremovedasquicklyaspossible.
CLASSIFICATIONOFSHUNTFAULT PHASEFAULTANDGROUNDFAULT
GROUNDFAULT: Thefaultwhichinvolvesonlyoneofthephaseconductorandgroundis calledasgroundfault. PHASEFAULT: The fault which involves two or more phase conductors with or withoutgroundiscalledasphasefault. FAULTSTATICSWITHREFERENCETOTYPEOFFAULT FAULT LG LL LLG LLL PROBABILITYOFOCCURANCE 85% 8% 5% 2% SEVERITY Least Most
FAULTSTATICTICSWITHREFERENCETOPOWERSYSTEMELEMENTS Further the probability of fault on different elements of power system is different. The transmission lines which are exposed to the vagaries of the atmospherearemostlikelytobesubjectedtothesefaults.Thefaultstatistics isshownintable: POWERSYSTEMELEMENT Overheadlines UndergroundCables Transformer Generator SwitchGears PROBABILITYOFFAULT % 50 09 10 07 12
CT,PT,Relays
12
PhasorDiagramofVoltagesandCurrentsduringVariousFaults
Afaultisaccompaniedbyabuildupofcurrent,whichisobvious.Atthesame timethereisafallinvoltagethroughoutthepowersystem.Ifthefaultisa metallicfault,thevoltageatthefaultlocationiszero.Thevoltageatthe terminalsofthegeneratorwillalsodrop,thoughnotdrastically.Ifthesource isideal,therewillbenodropinvoltageatthegeneratorterminals.Normally therelayisawayfromthefaultlocation.Thus,asseenfromtherelaylocation, afaultischaracterizedbyabuildupofcurrent,andtoacertainextent, collapseofvoltage.
SeriesFault
Thesefaultsoccursimplywhenthepathofcurrentisopened.Practicallymost ofthetimeseriesfaultisconvertedintoshuntfault.
AbnormalOperatingConditions
Theboundarybetweenthenormalandfaultyconditionsisnotcrisp.There arecertainoperatingconditionsinherenttotheoperationofthepower systemwhichisdefinitelynotnormal,butthesearenotelectricalfaultseither. Someexamplesarethemagnetizinginrushcurrentofatransformer,starting currentofaninductionmotor,andtheconditionsduringpowerswing.
WhatareProtectiveRelaysSupposedtoDo?
Relaysaresupposedtodetectthefaultwiththehelpofcurrentandvoltage andselectivelyremoveonlythefaultypartfromtherestofthesystemby operatingbreakers.This,therelayhastodowithutmostselectivityand speed.Inapowersystem,faultsarenotaneverydayoccurrence.Atypical relay,therefore,spendsallofitslifemonitoringthepowersystem.Thus, relayingislikeaninsuranceagainstdamageduetofaults.
EvolutionofPowerSystems
Systemshaveevolvedfromisolatedgeneratorsfeedingtheirownloadsto hugepowersystemsspanninganentirecountry.Theevolutionhas progressedsystemstohighvoltagesystemsandlowpowerhandling capacitiestohighpowercapacities.Therequirementsimposedonthe protectivesystemarelinkedtothenatureofthepowersystem. IsolatedPowerSystem Theprotectionofanisolatedpowersystemissimplerbecausefirstly,thereis noconcentrationofgeneratingcapacityandsecondly,asinglesynchronous alternatordoesnotsufferfromthestabilityproblemasfacedbyamulti machinesystem.Further,whenthereisafaultandtheprotectiverelays removethegeneratorfromthesystem,thesystemmaysufferfromablackout unlessthereisastandbysourceofpower.Thesteadystatefaultcurrentina singlemachinepowersystemmayevenbelessthanthefullloadcurrent. Suchafaultwill,however,causeothereffectslikespeedingupofthe generatorbecauseofthedisturbedbalancebetweentheinputmechanical powerandtheoutputelectricalpower,andthereforeshouldbequickly attendedto.Although,therearenolongeranyisolatedpowersystems supplyingresidentialorindustrialloads,wedoencountersuchsituationsin caseofemergencydieselgeneratorspoweringtheuninterruptedpower suppliesaswellascriticalauxiliariesinathermalornuclearpowerstation. InterconnectedPowerSystem Aninterconnectedpowersystemhasevolvedbecauseitismorereliablethan anisolatedpowersystem.Incaseofdisruptioninonepartofthesystem,
powercanbefedfromalternatepaths,thus,maintainingcontinuityofservice. Aninterconnectedpowersystemalsomakesitpossibletoimplementan economicloaddispatch. Thegeneratorsinaninterconnectedsystemcouldbeofvariedtypessuchas turboalternators incoalfired,gasfiredornuclearpowerplants ,generators inhydroelectricpowerplants,windpoweredgenerators,fuelcellsoreven solarpoweredphotovoltaiccells. Figureshowsasimpleinterconnectedpowersystem.Mostofthegenerators operateatthevoltagelevelofaround20kV.Forbulktransmissionofpower, voltagelevelsoftheorderof400kVorhigherareused.Atthereceivingend, thevoltageissteppeddowntothedistributionlevel,whichisfurtherstepped downbeforeitreachestheconsumers. ItcanbeseenthattheEHVlinesarethetielineswhichinterconnecttwoor moregeneratorswhereasthelowvoltagelinesareradialinnaturewhich terminateinloadsattheremoteends. ThereisinterconnectionatvariousEHVvoltagelevels.
DisadvantagesofanInterconnectedSystem
Thereareotherundesirableeffectsofinterconnection.Itis Verydifficulttomaintainstability Disturbancesquicklypropagatethroughoutthesystem Possibilityofcascadetrippingduetolossofstabilityisalwayslooming large Voltagestabilityproblem Harmonicdistortionpropagatethroughoutthesystem Possibilityofcyberattacks
VariousStatesofOperationofaPowerSystem
Apowersystemisadynamicentity.Itsstateislikelytodriftfromonestateto theotherasshowninthefigure. Whenthepowersystemisoperatinginsteadystate,itissaidtobeoperating innormalstate.Inthisstate,thereisenoughgenerationcapacityavailableto meettheload,therefore,thefrequencyisstablearoundthenominal50Hzor 60Hz.Thisstateisalsocharacterizedbyreactivepowerbalancebetween generationandload.
AProtectionSystemandItsAttributes
Followingfigureshowsaprotectionsystemforthedistanceprotectionofa transmissionline,consistingofaCTandaPT,arelayanditsassociatedcircuit breaker.Everyprotectionsystemwillhavethesebasiccomponents.
Atthisstage,wecanconsidertherelayasablackboxhavingcurrentand voltageatitsinput,andanoutput,intheformoftheclosureofanormally opencontact.Thisoutputoftherelayiswiredinthetripcircuitofthe associatedcircuitbreaker s soastocompletethiscircuit.Theconceptual diagramofageneralizedrelayisshowninFigure:
BasicRequirementsofaProtectionSystem
Sensitivity Theprotectivesystemmustbealivetothepresenceofthesmallestfault current.Thesmallerthefaultcurrentitcandetect,themoresensitiveitis. Selectivity Indetectingthefaultandisolatingthefaultyelement,theprotectivesystem mustbeveryselective.Ideally,theprotectivesystemshouldzeroinonthe faultyelementandisolateit,thuscausingminimumdisruptiontothesystem.
Speed Thelongerthefaultpersistsonthesystem,thelargeristhedamagetothe systemandhigheristhepossibilitythatthesystemwilllosestability.Thus,it helpsalotiftheentireprocessoffaultdetectionandremovalofthefaulty partisaccomplishedinasshortatimeasfeasible.Therefore,thespeedofthe protectionisveryimportant. ReliabilityandDependability Aprotectivesystemisofnouseifitisnotreliable.Therearemanywaysin whichreliabilitycanbebuiltintothesystem.Ingeneral,itisfoundthatsimple systemsaremorereliable.Therefore,weaddfeatureslikebackupprotection toenhancethereliabilityanddependabilityoftheprotectivesystem.
SystemTransducers
Currenttransformersandvoltagetransformersformaveryimportantlink betweenthepowersystemandtheprotectivesystem.Thesetransducers basicallyextracttheinformationregardingcurrentandvoltagefromthe powersystemunderprotectionandpassitontotheprotectiverelays. CurrentTransformer Thecurrenttransformerhastwojobstodo. Firstly,itstepsdownthecurrenttosuchlevelsthatitcanbeeasily handledbytherelaycurrentcoil.Thestandardsecondarycurrent ratingsusedinpracticeare5Aand1A.Thisfreestherelaydesigner fromtheactualvalueofprimarycurrent. Secondly,itisolatestherelaycircuitryfromthehighvoltageoftheEHV system. AconventionalelectromagneticcurrenttransformerisshowninFigure. Ideally,thecurrenttransformershouldfaithfullytransformthecurrent withoutanyerrors.Inpractice,thereisalwayssomeerror.Theerrorcreeps in,bothinmagnitudeandinphaseangle.Theseerrorsareknownasratio errorandphaseangleerror.
VoltageTransformer Thevoltagetransformerstepsdownthehighvoltageofthelinetoalevelsafe enoughfortherelayingsystem pressurecoilofrelay andpersonnelto handle.Thestandardsecondaryvoltageonlinetolinebasisis110V.This helpsinstandardizingtheprotectiverelayingequipmentirrespectiveofthe valueoftheprimaryEHVadopted. APTprimaryisconnectedinparallelatthepointwhereameasurementis desired,unlikeaCTwhoseprimaryisinserieswiththeline. AconventionalelectromagneticVTisshowninFigure:

CircuitBreaker Thecircuitbreakerisanelectricallyoperatedswitch,whichiscapableof safelymaking,aswellasbreakingshortcircuitcurrents.Thecircuitbreakeris operatedbytheoutputofitsassociatedrelay.Whenthecircuitbreakerisin theclosedcondition,itscontactsareheldclosedbythetensionoftheclosing spring.Whenthetripcoilisenergized,itreleasesalatch,causingthestored energyintheclosingspringtobringaboutaquickopeningoperation. OrganizationofProtection Theprotectionisorganizedinaverylogicalfashion.Theideaistoprovidea ringofsecurityaroundeachandeveryelementofthepowersystem.Ifthere isanyfaultwithinthisring,therelaysassociatedwithitmusttripalltheallied circuitbreakerssoastoremovethefaultyelementfromtherestofthepower system.This'ringofsecurity'iscalledzoneofprotection. Thisisdepictedin Figurewiththehelpofasimplerelayfortheprotectionofatransformer. Withoutgoingintothedetailedofthedifferentialrelayingscheme,wecan makethefollowingstatements:
Faultswithinthezonearetermedinternalfaultswhereasthefaultsoutside thezonearecalledexternalfaults.Externalfaultsarealsoknownasthrough faults.Thefarthestpointfromtherelaylocation,whichisstillinsidethezone, iscalledthereachpoint.
ZonesofProtection
VariouszonesforatypicalpowersystemareshowninFigure.Itcanbeseen thattheadjacentzonesoverlap;otherwisetherecouldbesomeportionwhich isleftoutandremainsunprotected.
PrimaryandbackupProtection
Asalreadymentionedtherearetimeswhentheprimaryprotectionmayfail. ThiscouldbeduetofailureofCT,VTorrelay,orfailureofcircuitbreaker.One ofthepossiblecausesofthecircuitbreakerfailureisthefailureofthetrip batteryduetoinadequatemaintenance.Wemusthaveasecondlineof defenseinsuchasituation.Therefore,itisanormalpracticetoprovide anotherzoneofprotectionwhichshouldoperateandisolatethefaulty elementincaseofprimaryprotectionfailure. Further,thebackupprotectionmustwaitfortheprimaryprotectionto operate,beforeissuingthetripcommandtoitsassociatedcircuitbreakers.In otherwords,theoperatingtimeofthebackupprotectionmustbedelayedby anappropriateamountoverthatoftheprimaryprotection.Thus,the operatingtimeofthebackupprotectionshouldbeequaltotheoperating timeofprimaryprotectionplustheoperatingtimeoftheprimarycircuit breaker.
Maloperation Thereshouldbepropercoordinationbetweentheoperatingtimeofprimary andbackupprotection.Itcanbeseenthatthebackupprotectioninthiscase issuestripcommandtoitsbreakerwithoutwaitingfortheprimaryprotection todoitsjob.Thisresultsinoperationofboththeprimaryandthebackup, resultinginalongerandunnecessarydisruptiontothesystem.Itissaidthat witheveryadditionalrelayused,thereisanincreaseintheprobabilityof Maloperation.
Variouselementsofpowersystemthatneedsprotection
Thepowersystemconsistsof Alternators Busbars Transformersfortransmissionanddistribution TransmissionlinesatvariousvoltagelevelsfromEHVto11kVcables Inductionandsynchronousmotors Reactors Capacitors InstrumentandprotectiveCTsandPTs Variouscontrolandmeteringequipmentetc
Eachoftheseentitiesneedsprotection.Eachapparatushasauniquesetof operatingconditions.
VariousPrinciplesofPowerSystemProtection
Themostbasicprinciplesthatareusedinanyprotectionsystemarefollowing Overcurrentprotection Overvoltageprotection Distanceprotection Differentialprotection
Normallyusedprotectionschemesfordifferentelements
Protectionschemesusedfordifferentelementsofanypowersystemare completelydependantuponthenatureofthatelement.Wecannotuseall protectionschemesforeveryelement.Followingtableshowstheprotection schemesusedformentionedelements:
ELEMENT
Principle
Primary protection Busbar Primary protection Transformer Primary protection Transmission Primary line protection Large Primary induction protection motor COMMENTS
Alternator
Non Directional Differential Distance directional overcurrent over current yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Theknowledgeaboutprotectionsystemisofgreatimportance.Inthis experiment,weunderstand Whatisaprotectionsystem? Differentkindsoffaultsandtheireffects Classificationoffaults Abnormaloperatingconditions Functionofarelay Typesofapowersystem Propertiesofagoodprotectionsystem Zonesofprotection
Indeedthesenecessarytoselectprotectionschemeforanypowersystem elementtounderstandthebasicsoffaulteffectsandregardingprotection system.

EXPERIMENTNO:03
IMPACTOFINDUCTIONMOTORSTARTINGONPOWER SYSTEM ELECTRICMOTOR
Anelectricmotoruseselectricalenergytoproducemechanicalenergy, throughtheinteractionofmagneticfieldsandcurrentcarryingconductors. Thereverseprocess,producingelectricalenergyfrommechanicalenergy,is accomplishedbyageneratorordynamo. Tractionmotorsusedonvehiclesoftenperformbothtasks.Manytypesof electricmotorscanberunasgenerators,andviceversa.
INDUCTIONMOTOR
DEFINITION: Aninductionmotor orasynchronousmotororsquirrelcagemotor isatype ofalternatingcurrentmotor,wherepowerissuppliedtotherotorbymeans ofelectromagneticinduction. POWERCONVERSION: Anelectricmotorconvertselectricalpowertomechanicalpowerin itsrotor rotatingpart .Thereareseveralwaystosupplypowertotherotor. InaDCmotorthispowerissuppliedtothearmaturedirectlyfrom aDCsource,whileinaninductionmotorthispowerisinducedintherotating device. ROTATINGTRANSFORMER: Aninductionmotorissometimescalledarotatingtransformerbecause thestator stationarypart isessentiallytheprimarysideof thetransformerandtherotor rotatingpart isthesecondaryside.The primaryside'scurrentevokesamagneticfieldwhichinteractswiththe secondaryside'semftoproducearesultanttorque,henceforthservingthe purposeofproducingmechanicalenergy.
POW WERSYS STEMPR ROTECTIO ONLABM MANUAL L
CATIONS: APPLIC In nductionm motorsare ewidelyu used,especiallypoly yphaseind duction motors,wh m hicharefr requentlyu usedinindustrialdrives. In nductionm motorsare enowthepreferred dchoicefo orindustri ialmotors s duetotheirruggedc d construction, Absenceof A fbrushes whichare erequired dinmostD DCmotors andthanks s to omodernpowerele ectronicst theability ytocontro olthespee edofthe motor. m
ASADNA AEEM 2006RCETE 2 EE22
HISTORY: TheinductionmotorwasfirstrealizedbyGalileoFerrarisin1885inItaly.In 1888,FerrarispublishedhisresearchinapapertotheRoyalAcademyof SciencesinTurin later,inthesameyear,TeslagainedU.S.Patent381,968 whereheexposedthetheoreticalfoundationsforunderstandingthewaythe motoroperates. TheinductionmotorwithacagewasinventedbyMikhailDolivo Dobrovolskyaboutayearlater.Technologicaldevelopmentinthefieldhas improvedtowherea100hp 74.6kW motorfrom1976takesthesame volumeasa7.5hp 5.5kW motordidin1897. Currently,themostcommoninductionmotoristhecagerotormotor.
ACINDUCTIONMOTOR
Where n Revolutionsperminute rpm f ACpowerfrequency hertz p Numberofpolesperphase anevennumber Slipiscalculatedusing: Wheresistheslip Therotorspeedis:
STARTINGOFINDUCTIONMOTOR
THREEPHASE Directonlinestarting :
Thesimplestwaytostartathreephaseinductionmotoristoconnectits terminalstotheline.Thismethodisoftencalled"directonline"and abbreviatedDOL.
Inaninductionmotor,themagnitudeoftheinducedemfintherotorcircuitis proportionaltothestatorfieldandtheslipspeed thedifferencebetween synchronousandrotorspeeds ofthemotor,andtherotorcurrentdepends onthisemf.
A3phasepowersupplyprovidesarotatingmagneticfieldinaninductionmotor
Whenthemotorisstarted,therotorspeediszero.Thesynchronousspeedis constant,basedonthefrequencyofthesuppliedACvoltage.Sotheslipspeed isequaltothesynchronousspeed,theslipratiois1,andtheinducedemfin therotorislarge.Asaresult,averyhighcurrentflowsthroughtherotor.This issimilartoatransformerwiththesecondarycoilshortcircuited,which causestheprimarycoiltodrawahighcurrentfromthemains. WhenaninductionmotorstartsDOL,averyhighcurrentisdrawnbythe stator,intheorderof5to9timesthefullloadcurrent.Thishighcurrentcan, insomemotors,damagethewindings;inaddition,becauseitcausesheavy linevoltagedrop,otherappliancesconnectedtothesamelinemaybeaffected bythevoltagefluctuation.Toavoidsucheffects,severalotherstrategiesare employedforstartingmotors.
STARDELTASTARTERS
Aninductionmotor'swindingscanbeconnectedtoa3phaseAClineintwo differentways: 1 Star Wye
2 Delta
Wye starinEurope ,wherethewindingsareconnectedfromphasesof

thesupplytotheneutral; Delta sometimesmeshinEurope ,wherethewindingsareconnected betweenphasesofthesupply. Adeltaconnectionofthemachinewindingresultsinahighervoltageat eachwindingcomparedtoawyeconnection thefactoris . Astardeltastarterinitiallyconnectsthemotorinwye,whichproduces alowerstartingcurrentthandelta,thenswitchestodeltawhenthe motorhasreachedasetspeed. DISADVANTAGES: DisadvantagesofthismethodoverDOLstartingare: Lowerstartingtorque,whichmaybeaseriousissuewithpumpsorany deviceswithsignificantbreakawaytorque Increasedcomplexity,asmorecontactorsandsomesortofspeedswitch ortimersareneeded Twoshockstothemotor onefortheinitialstartandanotherwhenthe motorswitchesfromwyetodelta
VARIABLEFREQUENCYDRIVES
Keyinformationsare: Variablefrequencydrives VFD canbeofconsiderableuseinstarting aswellasrunningmotors. AVFDcaneasilystartamotoratalowerfrequencythantheACline,as wellasalowervoltage,sothatthemotorstartswithfullratedtorque andwithnoinrushofcurrent. Therotorcircuit'simpedanceincreaseswithslipfrequency,whichis equaltosupplyfrequencyforastationaryrotor, Sorunningatalowerfrequencyactuallyincreasestorque. Thusvariablefrequencydrivesareusedformultiplepurposes.
RESISTANCESTARTERS
Thismethodisusedwithslipringmotorswheretherotorpolescanbe accessedbywayofthesliprings.Usingbrushes,variablepowerresistorsare connectedinserieswiththepoles.Duringstartuptheresistanceislargeand thenreducedtozeroatfullspeed. Atstartuptheresistancedirectlyreducestherotorcurrentandsorotor heatingisreduced.Anotherimportantadvantageisthestartuptorquecanbe controlled.Aswell,theresistorsgenerateaphaseshiftinthefieldresultingin themagneticforceactingontherotorhavingafavorableangle
AUTOTRANSFORMERSTARTERS
Suchstartersarecalledasautostartersorcompensators,consistsofanauto transformer.
SERIESREACTORSTARTERS
Inseriesreactorstartertechnology,animpedanceintheformofareactoris introducedinserieswiththemotorterminals,whichasaresultreducesthe motorterminalvoltageresultinginareductionofthestartingcurrent;the impedanceofthereactor,afunctionofthecurrentpassingthroughit, graduallyreducesasthemotoraccelerates,andat95%speedthereactors arebypassedbyasuitablebypassmethodwhichenablesthemotortorunat fullvoltageandfullspeed.Aircoreseriesreactorstartersoraseriesreactor softstarteristhemostcommonandrecommendedmethodforfixedspeed motorstarting.
SYNCHRONOUSMOTOR
Asynchronousmotoralwaysrunsatsynchronousspeedwith0%slip.The speedofasynchronousmotorisdeterminedbythefollowingformula: Forexamplea6polemotoroperatingon60Hzpowerwouldhavespeed:
Where Visthespeedoftherotor inrpm , fisthefrequencyoftheACsupply inHz And nisthenumberofmagneticpoles. Noteontheuseofp:Sometextsrefertonumberofpolepairsperphase insteadofnumberofpolesperphase.Forexamplea6polemotor,operating on60Hzpower,wouldhave3polepairs.Theequationofsynchronousspeed thenbecomes:n 3
PARTSOFSYNCHRONOUSMOTOR
Asynchronousmotoriscomposedofthefollowingparts: Thestatoristheoutershellofthemotor,whichcarriesthearmature winding.ThiswindingisspatiallydistributedforpolyphaseAC current.Thisarmaturecreatesarotatingmagneticfieldinsidethe motor. Therotoristherotatingportionofthemotor.itcarriesfieldwinding, whichissuppliedbyaDCsource.Onexcitation,thisfieldwinding behavesasapermanentmagnet. Theslipringsintherotor,tosupplytheDCtothefieldwinding.
STARTINGOFSYNCHRONOUSMOTOR
Synchronousmotorsarenotselfstartingmotors.Thispropertyisduetothe inertiaoftherotor.Whenthepowersupplyisswitchedon,thearmature
windingandfieldwindingsareexcited.Instantaneously,thearmature windingcreatesarotatingmagneticfield,whichrevolvesatthedesignated motorspeed.Therotor,duetoinertia,willnotfollowtherevolvingmagnetic field.Inpractice,therotorshouldberotatedbysomeothermeansneartothe motor'ssynchronousspeedtoovercometheinertia.Oncetherotornearsthe synchronousspeed,thefieldwindingisexcited,andthemotorpullsinto synchronization. Thefollowingtechniquesareemployedtostartasynchronousmotor: Aseparatemotor calledponymotor isusedtodrivetherotorbeforeit locksinintosynchronization. Thefieldwindingisshuntedorinductionmotorlikearrangementsare madesothatthesynchronousmotorstartsasaninductionmotorand locksintosynchronizationonceitreachesspeedsnearitssynchronous speed.
ADVANTAGESOFSYNCHRONOUSMOTOR
Synchronousmotorshavethefollowingadvantagesovernonsynchronous motors: Speedisindependentoftheload,providedanadequatefieldcurrentis applied. Accuratecontrolinspeedandpositionusingopenloopcontrols,eg. steppermotors. TheywillholdtheirpositionwhenaDCcurrentisappliedtoboththe statorandtherotorwindings. Theirpowerfactorcanbeadjustedtounitybyusingaproperfield currentrelativetotheload.Also,a"capacitive"powerfactor, current phaseleadsvoltagephase ,canbeobtainedbyincreasingthiscurrent slightly,whichcanhelpachieveabetterpowerfactorcorrectionforthe wholeinstallation. Theirconstructionallowsforincreasedelectricalefficiencywhenalow speedisrequired asinballmillsandsimilarapparatus .
ONELINEDIAGRAM
POINTUNDERCONSIDERATION
Mtr1 Bus7
LOADFLOWANALYSISDIAGRAM

STATICMOTORSTARTINGANALYSISDIAGRAM

RESPONSEOFDIFFERENTPARAMETERSINCASEOFSTATIC MOTORSTARTINGANALYSIS MOTORREACTIVEPOWERDEMAND
MOTORREALPOWERDEMAND

MOTORTERMINALVOLTAGE
MOTORCURRENT

DYNAMICMOTORSTARTINGANALYSISDIAGRAM

RESPONSEOFDIFFERENTPARAMETERSINCASEOFDYNAMIC MOTORSTARTINGANALYSIS MOTORREACTIVEPOWERDEMAND
MOTORREALPOWERDEMAND

ACCELERATIONTORQUE
MOTORTERMINALVOLTAGE

MOTORCURRENT
MOTORSLIP

COMMENTS:
Inthisexperiment,weinvestigatetheeffectofmotorstartingcurrentonthe powersystemasmotorstartingcurrentismanytimeslargerthanthenormal current.Forthispurpose,wefirsttakethenormalloadflowanalysisreport andthenperformmotorstartinganalysistocomparethecurrentvaluefor bothcases. Incaseofstaticmotorstartinganalysis: Motorreactivepowerdemandinstantaneouslyincreasesfrom40KVAR to80KVARthenattainsthepreviousvaluewhichismuchlower Motorrealpowerdemandinstantaneouslyincreasesfrom108KWto 160KWthenattainsthepreviousvaluewhichismuchlower Busvoltagebecomesloweratstartinginstanttoavalueof66KVand thenachievestheprevioushighvoltagethatis73KV Motorterminalvoltagesuddenlybecomesloweratstartinginstanttoa valueof48KVandthenachievestheprevioushighvoltagethatis64KV Motorcurrentbecomesveryhighatstartinginstanttoavalueof280KA andthenachievesthepreviouslowercurrentvaluethatis160KA
Incaseofdynamicmotorstartinganalysis:
Motorreactivepowerdemandinstantaneouslyincreasesto165KVAR thenslowlydecreases Motorrealpowerdemandslowly exponentially increases Accelerationtorqueincreasesexponentiallyandaftersometime,it decreasesexponentially Motorterminalvoltageisalmostataconstantlevel Motorcurrentbecomesveryhighatstartinginstanttoavalueof360KA andthendecreaseslowly

EXPERIMENTNO:04
SELECTIONOFCIRCUITBREAKERFORDIFFERENT BRANCHESOFAGIVENPOWERSYSTEMUSINGETAP INTRODUCTION POWERSYSTEMPROTECTION
Powersystemprotectionisabranchofelectricalpowerengineeringthat dealswiththeprotectionofelectricalpowersystemsfromfaultsthroughthe isolationoffaultedpartsfromtherestoftheelectricalnetwork.Theobjective ofaprotectionschemeistokeepthepowersystemstablebyisolatingonlythe componentsthatareunderfault,whilstleavingasmuchofthenetworkas possiblestillinoperation.Thus,protectionschemesmustapplyavery pragmaticandpessimisticapproachtoclearingsystemfaults.Forthisreason, thetechnologyandphilosophiesutilizedinprotectionschemescanoftenbe oldandwellestablishedbecausetheymustbeveryreliable. COMPONENTSOFPROTECTIONSYSTEM Protectionsystemsusuallycomprisefivecomponents: Currentandvoltagetransformerstostepdownthehighvoltagesand currentsoftheelectricalpowersystemtoconvenientlevelsforthe relaystodealwith; Relaystosensethefaultandinitiateatrip,ordisconnection,order; Circuitbreakerstoopen/closethesystembasedonrelayandauto reclosurecommands Batteriestoprovidepowerincaseofpowerdisconnectioninthe system. Communicationchannelstoallowanalysisofcurrentandvoltageat remoteterminalsofalineandtoallowremotetrippingof equipment. Forpartsofadistributionsystem,fusesarecapableofbothsensingand disconnectingfaults.
Failuresmayoccurineachpart,suchasinsulationfailure,fallenorbroken transmissionlines,incorrectoperationofcircuitbreakers,shortcircuitsand opencircuits.Protectiondevicesareinstalledwiththeaimsofprotectionof assets,andensurecontinuedsupplyofenergy.
CIRCUITBREAKER
Acircuitbreakerisanautomaticallyoperatedelectricalswitchdesignedto protectanelectricalcircuitfromdamagecaused byoverloadorshortcircuit.Itsbasicfunctionisto detectafaultconditionand,byinterrupting continuity,toimmediatelydiscontinueelectrical flow.Unlikeafuse,whichoperatesonceandthen hastobereplaced,acircuitbreakercanbereset eithermanuallyorautomatically toresume normaloperation. Circuitbreakersaremadeinvaryingsizes,from smalldevicesthatprotectanindividualhousehold applianceuptolargeswitchgeardesignedto protecthighvoltagecircuitsfeedinganentirecity. OPERATIONOFBREAKER Allcircuitbreakershavecommonfeaturesintheir operation,althoughdetailsvarysubstantially dependingonthevoltageclass,currentratingand typeofthecircuitbreaker. Thecircuitbreakermustdetectafaultcondition; inlowvoltagecircuitbreakersthisisusuallydone withinthebreakerenclosure.Circuitbreakersforlargecurrentsorhigh voltagesareusuallyarrangedwithpilotdevicestosenseafaultcurrentandto operatethetripopeningmechanism.Thetripsolenoidthatreleasesthelatch isusuallyenergizedbyaseparatebattery,althoughsomehighvoltagecircuit breakersareselfcontainedwithcurrenttransformers,protectionrelays,and aninternalcontrolpowersource.
Onceafaultisdetected,contactswithinthecircuitbreakermustopento interruptthecircuit;somemechanicallystoredenergy usingsomethingsuch asspringsorcompressedair containedwithinthebreakerisusedto separatethecontacts,althoughsomeoftheenergyrequiredmaybeobtained fromthefaultcurrentitself.Smallcircuitbreakersmaybemanuallyoperated; largerunitshavesolenoidstotripthemechanism,andelectricmotorsto restoreenergytothesprings. Thecircuitbreakercontactsmustcarrytheloadcurrentwithoutexcessive heating,andmustalsowithstandtheheatofthearcproducedwhen interruptingthecircuit.Contactsaremadeofcopperorcopperalloys,silver alloys,andothermaterials.Servicelifeofthecontactsislimitedbytheerosion duetointerruptingthearc.Miniatureandmoldedcasecircuitbreakersare usuallydiscardedwhenthecontactsareworn,butpowercircuitbreakersand highvoltagecircuitbreakershavereplaceablecontacts. Whenacurrentisinterrupted,anarcisgenerated.Thisarcmustbecontained, cooled,andextinguishedinacontrolledway,sothatthegapbetweenthe contactscanagainwithstandthevoltageinthecircuit.Differentcircuit breakersusevacuum,air,insulatinggas,oroilasthemediuminwhichthearc forms.Differenttechniquesareusedtoextinguishthearcincluding: Lengtheningofthearc Intensivecooling injetchambers Divisionintopartialarcs Zeropointquenching ConnectingcapacitorsinparallelwithcontactsinDCcircuits
Finally,oncethefaultconditionhasbeencleared,thecontactsmustagainbe closedtorestorepowertotheinterruptedcircuit. ARCINTERUPTION Miniaturelowvoltagecircuitbreakersuseairalonetoextinguishthearc. Largerratingswillhavemetalplatesornonmetallicarcchutestodivideand coolthearc.Magneticblowoutcoilsdeflectthearcintothearcchute.

Inlargerratings,oilcircuitbreakersrelyuponvaporizationofsomeoftheoil toblastajetofoilthroughthearc. Gas usuallysulfurhexafluoride circuitbreakerssometimesstretchthearc usingamagneticfield,andthenrelyuponthedielectricstrengthofthesulfur hexafluoride SF6 toquenchthestretchedarc. Vacuumcircuitbreakershaveminimalarcing asthereisnothingtoionize otherthanthecontactmaterial ,sothearcquencheswhenitisstretcheda verysmallamount 23mm .Vacuumcircuitbreakersarefrequentlyused inmodernmediumvoltageswitchgearto35,000volts. Aircircuitbreakersmayusecompressedairtoblowoutthearc,or alternatively,thecontactsarerapidlyswungintoasmallsealedchamber,the escapingofthedisplacedairthusblowingoutthearc. Circuitbreakersareusuallyabletoterminateallcurrentveryquickly: typicallythearcisextinguishedbetween30msand150msafterthe mechanismhasbeentripped,dependinguponageandconstructionofthe device. SHORTCIRCUITCURRENT Circuitbreakersareratedbothbythenormalcurrentthatareexpectedto carry,andthemaximumshortcircuitcurrentthattheycansafelyinterrupt. Undershortcircuitconditions,acurrentmanytimesgreaterthannormalcan exist seemaximumprospectiveshortcircuitcurrent .Whenelectrical contactsopentointerruptalargecurrent,thereisatendencyforanarcto formbetweentheopenedcontacts,whichwouldallowthecurrentto continue.Therefore,circuitbreakersmustincorporatevariousfeaturesto divideandextinguishthearc. Inairinsulatedandminiaturebreakersanarcchutesstructureconsisting often ofmetalplatesorceramicridgescoolsthearc,andmagneticblowout coilsdeflectthearcintothearcchute.Largercircuitbreakerssuchasthose
usedinelectricalpowerdistributionmayusevacuum,aninertgassuchas sulphurhexafluorideorhavecontactsimmersedinoiltosuppressthearc. Themaximumshortcircuitcurrentthatabreakercaninterruptisdetermined bytesting.Applicationofabreakerinacircuitwithaprospectiveshortcircuit currenthigherthanthebreaker'sinterruptingcapacityratingmayresultin failureofthebreakertosafelyinterruptafault.Inaworstcasescenariothe breakermaysuccessfullyinterruptthefault,onlytoexplodewhenreset. Miniaturecircuitbreakersusedtoprotectcontrolcircuitsorsmallappliances maynothavesufficientinterruptingcapacitytouseatapanelboard;these circuitbreakersarecalled"supplementalcircuitprotectors"todistinguish themfromdistributiontypecircuitbreakers.
TYPESOFCIRCUITBREAKER
Manydifferentclassificationsofcircuitbreakerscanbemade,basedontheir featuressuchasvoltageclass,constructiontype,interruptingtype,and structuralfeatures. LOWVOLTAGECIRCUITBREAKER Lowvoltage lessthan1000VAC typesarecommonindomestic,commercial andindustrialapplication,include: MCB MiniatureCircuitBreaker ratedcurrentnotbemorethan 100A.Tripcharacteristicsnormallynotadjustable.Thermalor thermalmagneticoperation.Breakersillustratedaboveareinthis category. MCCB MoldedCaseCircuitBreaker ratedcurrentupto1000A. Thermalorthermalmagneticoperation.Tripcurrentmaybe adjustableinlargerratings. Lowvoltagepowercircuitbreakerscanbemountedinmultitiersin LVswitchboardsorswitchgearcabinets. ThecharacteristicsofLVcircuitbreakersaregivenbyinternationalstandards suchasIEC947.Thesecircuitbreakersareofteninstalledindrawout
enclosuresthatallowremovalandinterchangewithoutdismantlingthe switchgear. Largelowvoltagemoldedcaseandpowercircuitbreakersmayhaveelectrical motoroperators,allowingthemtobetripped opened andclosedunder remotecontrol.Thesemayformpartofanautomatictransferswitchsystem forstandbypower. Lowvoltagecircuitbreakersarealsomadefordirectcurrent DC applications,forexampleDCsuppliedforsubwaylines.Specialbreakersare requiredfordirectcurrentbecausethearcdoesnothaveanaturaltendency togooutoneachhalfcycleasforalternatingcurrent.Adirectcurrentcircuit breakerwillhaveblowoutcoilswhichgenerateamagneticfieldthatrapidly stretchesthearcwheninterruptingdirectcurrent. Smallcircuitbreakersareeitherinstalleddirectlyinequipment,orare arrangedinabreakerpanel. The10ampereDINrailmountedthermalmagneticminiaturecircuitbreaker isthemostcommonstyleinmoderndomesticconsumerunitsand commercialelectricaldistributionboardsthroughoutEurope.Thedesign includesthefollowingcomponents: 1. Actuatorleverusedtomanually tripandresetthecircuitbreaker. Alsoindicatesthestatusofthe circuitbreaker Onor Off/tripped .Mostbreakersare designedsotheycanstilltrip eveniftheleverisheldorlocked inthe"on"position.Thisis sometimesreferredtoas"free trip"or"positivetrip"operation. 2. Actuatormechanismforcesthe contactstogetherorapart. 3. ContactsAllowcurrentwhen touchingandbreakthecurrent
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
whenmovedapart. Terminals Bimetallicstrip Calibrationscrewallowsthemanufacturertopreciselyadjustthetrip currentofthedeviceafterassembly. Solenoid Arcdivider/extinguisher
MAGNETICCIRCUITBREAKER Magneticcircuitbreakersuseasolenoid electromagnet thatspullingforceincreases withthecurrent.Certaindesignsutilize electromagneticforcesinadditiontothoseofthe solenoid.Thecircuitbreakercontactsareheld closedbyalatch.Asthecurrentinthesolenoid increasesbeyondtheratingofthecircuit breaker,thesolenoid'spullreleasesthelatch whichthenallowsthecontactstoopenbyspring action.Sometypesofmagneticbreakers incorporateahydraulictimedelayfeatureusingaviscousfluid.Thecoreis restrainedbyaspringuntilthecurrentexceedsthebreakerrating.Duringan overload,thespeedofthesolenoidmotionisrestrictedbythefluid.Thedelay permitsbriefcurrentsurgesbeyondnormalrunningcurrentformotor starting,energizingequipment,etc.Shortcircuitcurrentsprovidesufficient solenoidforcetoreleasethelatchregardlessofcorepositionthusbypassing thedelayfeature.Ambienttemperatureaffectsthetimedelaybutdoesnot affectthecurrentratingofamagneticbreaker. THERMALMAGNETICCIRCUITBREAKER Thermalmagneticcircuitbreakers,whicharethetypefoundinmost distributionboards,incorporatebothtechniqueswiththeelectromagnet respondinginstantaneouslytolargesurgesincurrent shortcircuits andthe bimetallicstriprespondingtolessextremebutlongertermovercurrent conditions.
COMMONTRIPCIRCUITBREAKER
Threepolecommontripbreakerforsupplyingathreephasedevice.This breakerhasa2Arating Whensupplyingabranchcircuitwithmorethanoneliveconductor,eachlive conductormustbeprotectedbyabreakerpole.Toensurethatalllive conductorsareinterruptedwhenanypoletrips,a"commontrip"breaker mustbeused.Thesemayeithercontaintwoorthreetrippingmechanisms withinonecase,orforsmallbreakers,mayexternallytiethepolestogether viatheiroperatinghandles.Twopolecommontripbreakersarecommonon 120/240voltsystemswhere240voltloads includingmajorappliancesor furtherdistributionboards spanthetwolivewires.Threepolecommontrip breakersaretypicallyusedtosupplythreephaseelectricpowertolarge motorsorfurtherdistributionboards. Twoandfourpolebreakersareusedwhenthereisaneedtodisconnectthe neutralwire,tobesurethatnocurrentcanflowbackthroughtheneutralwire fromotherloadsconnectedtothesamenetworkwhenpeopleneedtotouch thewiresformaintenance.Separatecircuitbreakersmustneverbeusedfor disconnectingliveandneutral,becauseiftheneutralgetsdisconnectedwhile theliveconductorstaysconnected,adangerousconditionarises:thecircuit willappeardeenergized applianceswillnotwork ,butwireswillstaylive andRCDswillnottripifsomeonetouchesthelivewire becauseRCDsneed powertotrip .Thisiswhyonlycommontripbreakersmustbeusedwhen switchingoftheneutralwireisneeded.
MEDIUMVOLTAGECIRCUITBREAKERS Mediumvoltagecircuitbreakersratedbetween1and72kVmaybe assembledintometalenclosedswitchgearlineupsforindooruse,ormaybe individualcomponentsinstalledoutdoorsinasubstation.Airbreakcircuit breakersreplacedoilfilledunitsforindoorapplications,butarenow themselvesbeingreplacedbyvacuumcircuitbreakers uptoabout35kV . Likethehighvoltagecircuitbreakersdescribedbelow,thesearealsooperated bycurrentsensingprotectiverelaysoperatedthroughcurrenttransformers. ThecharacteristicsofMVbreakersaregivenbyinternationalstandardssuch asIEC62271.Mediumvoltagecircuitbreakersnearlyalwaysuseseparate currentsensorsandprotectionrelays,insteadofrelyingonbuiltinthermalor magneticovercurrentsensors. Mediumvoltagecircuitbreakerscanbeclassifiedbythemediumusedto extinguishthearc: Vacuumcircuitbreaker Withratedcurrentupto3000A,thesebreakersinterruptthecurrentby creatingandextinguishingthearcinavacuumcontainer.Thesearegenerally appliedforvoltagesuptoabout35,000V,whichcorrespondsroughlytothe mediumvoltagerangeofpowersystems.Vacuumcircuitbreakerstendto havelongerlifeexpectanciesbetweenoverhaulthandoaircircuitbreakers. Aircircuitbreakerratedcurrentupto10,000A.Trip characteristicsareoftenfullyadjustableincludingconfigurabletrip thresholdsanddelays.Usuallyelectronicallycontrolled,thoughsome modelsaremicroprocessorcontrolledviaanintegralelectronictrip unit.Oftenusedformainpowerdistributioninlargeindustrialplant, wherethebreakersarearrangedindrawoutenclosuresforeaseof maintenance. SF6circuitbreakersextinguishthearcinachamberfilledwithsulfur hexafluoridegas. Mediumvoltagecircuitbreakersmaybeconnectedintothecircuitbybolted connectionstobusbarsorwires,especiallyinoutdoorswitchyards.Medium voltagecircuitbreakersinswitchgearlineupsareoftenbuiltwithdrawout construction,allowingthebreakertoberemovedwithoutdisturbingthe
powercircuitconnections,usingamotoroperatedorhandcranked mechanismtoseparatethebreakerfromitsenclosure. HIGHVOLTAGECIRCUITBREAKERS Electricalpowertransmissionnetworksareprotectedandcontrolledbyhigh voltagebreakers.Thedefinitionofhighvoltagevariesbutinpower transmissionworkisusuallythoughttobe72.5kVorhigher,accordingtoa recentdefinitionbytheInternationalElectrotechnicalCommission IEC . Highvoltagebreakersarenearlyalwayssolenoidoperated,withcurrent sensingprotectiverelaysoperatedthroughcurrenttransformers.In substationstheprotectionrelayschemecanbecomplex,protecting equipmentandbussesfromvarioustypesofoverloadorground/earthfault. Highvoltagebreakersarebroadlyclassifiedbythemediumusedtoextinguish thearc. Bulkoil Minimumoil Airblast Vacuum SF6
SomeofthemanufacturersareABB,GE GeneralElectric ,AREVA, MitsubishiElectric,PennsylvaniaBreaker,Siemens ,Toshiba,KonarHVS, BHELandothers. Duetoenvironmentalandcostconcernsoverinsulatingoilspills,mostnew breakersuseSF6gastoquenchthearc. Circuitbreakerscanbeclassifiedaslivetank,wheretheenclosurethat containsthebreakingmechanismisatlinepotential,ordeadtankwiththe enclosureatearthpotential.HighvoltageACcircuitbreakersareroutinely availablewithratingsupto765kV. Highvoltagecircuitbreakersusedontransmissionsystemsmaybearranged toallowasinglepoleofathreephaselinetotrip,insteadoftrippingallthree poles;forsomeclassesoffaultsthisimprovesthesystemstabilityand availability.
ONELINEDIAGRAM
FAULTEDPOINTS
BUS7 BUS13
LOADFLOWANALYSISDIAGRAM

SHORTCIRCUITANALYSISDIAGRAM
BREAKERSOPERATED
CB1 CB3
BREAKERSDATA
BreakerID BeforeBUS CB1 CB2 CB3 CB5 CB6 BUS7 BUS6 BUS13 BUS17 BUS6 Normal Current Amp 249 19 9 243 19 Short Circuit Current 1.2KA 15KA Breaker Interrupting Current 0.5KA 0.1KA 0.1KA 0.5KA 0.1KA Breaker State OPEN CLOSED OPEN CLOSED CLOSED
ALERTDIAGRAM
COMMENTS:
WefindthenormalcurrentflowingthroughBUS7forwhichwehaveto designacircuitbreaker. NormalcurrentflowingthroughBUS7is246AmperewhilethroughBUS13is 9Amperes. Afterthatweperformtheshortcircuitanalysistocheckthathowmuch currentcanflowincaseoffault. Faultcurrentobtainedfromshortcircuitanalysisis1.3KAmperethatismany timeslargerthanthenormaloperatingcurrent Asfaultcurrentisgreaterinmagnitudeatthefaultoccurrenceeventand reducesuptosomeextent.Keepinginmindthisfact,weconnectacircuit breakerofsuitableoperatingvalueofcurrentatwhichcircuitbreakerwill operate. Inthisexperiment,wehaveselectedinterruptingbreakercurrentas 0.5KAmpereforCB1and0.1KAmpereforCB3thatcanbevariedtoany requiredvalueofcurrent. Afterconnectingthecircuitbreaker,weagainperformtheshortcircuit analysisandobservethatthebreakerconnectedtofaultybusisoperatedand faultysystemisisolated.
EXPERIMENTNO:05
Transientstabilityanalysisofagivenpowersystemusing ETAP
TransientsinElectricalpowersystem
Lightninghaslongfascinatedthetechnicalcommunity.BenFranklinstudied lightning'selectricalnatureovertwocenturiesagoandCharlesRSteinmetz generatedartificiallightninginhisGeneralElectriclaboratoryinthe1920's. Assomeoneconcernedwithpremisesdatacommunicationsyouneedto worryaboutlightning.HereIwillelaborateonwhy,whereandwhenyou shouldworryaboutlightning.I'llthendiscusshowtogetprotectionfromit. Itisunfortunate,butafactoflife,thatcomputers,computerrelatedproducts andprocesscontrolequipmentfoundinpremisesdatacommunications environmentscanbedamagedbyhighvoltagesurgesandspikes.Suchpower surgesandspikesaremostoftencausedbylightningstrikes.However,there areoccasionswhenthesurgesandspikesresultfromanyoneofavarietyof othercauses.Thesecausesmayincludedirectcontactwithpower/lightning circuits,staticbuilduponcablesandcomponents,highenergytransients coupledintoequipmentfromcablesincloseproximity,potentialdifferences betweengroundstowhichdifferentequipmentsareconnected,misswired systemsandevenhumanequipmentuserswhohaveaccumulatedlargestatic electricitychargebuildupsontheirclothing.Infact,electrostaticdischarges fromapersoncanproducepeakVoltagesupto15kVwithcurrentsoftensof Amperesinlessthan10microseconds. Amanufacturingenvironmentisparticularlysusceptibletosuchsurges becauseofthepresenceofmotorsandotherhighvoltageequipment.The essentialpointtorememberis,theeffectsofsurgesduetotheseothersources arenodifferentthanthoseduetolightning.Hence,protectionfromonewill alsoprotectfromtheother. Whenalightninginducedpowersurgeiscoupledintoyourcomputer equipmentanyoneofanumberofharmfuleventsmayoccur.
Semiconductorsareprevalentinsuchequipment.Alightninginducedsurge willalmostalwayssurpassthevoltageratingofthesedevicescausingthemto fail.Specifically,lightninginducedsurgesusuallyaltertheelectrical characteristicsofsemiconductordevicessothattheynolongerfunction effectively.Inafewcases,asurgemaydestroythesemiconductordevice. Thesearecalled"hardfailures."Computerequipmenthavingahardfailure willnolongerfunctionatall.Itmustberepairedwiththeresultingexpenseof "downtime"ortheexpenseofastandbyunittotakeitsplace.
LIGHTENINGSURGES:
Inseveralinstances,alightningderivedsurgemaydestroytheprintedtraces intheprintedcircuitboardsofthecomputerequipmentalsoresultinginhard failures. Alongwiththevoltagesource,lightningcancauseacurrentsurgeanda resultantinducedmagneticfield.Ifthecomputercontainsamagneticdisk thenthisinterferingmagneticfieldmightoverwriteanddestroydatastoredin thedisk.Furthermore,theaberrantmagneticfieldmayenergizethediskhead whenitshouldbequiescent.Toyou,theuser,suchbehaviorwillbeviewedas the"diskcrashing."
Somecomputerequipmentmayhavemagneticrelays.Thesameaberrant magneticfieldswhichcausediskcrashesmayactivaterelayswhenthey shouldn'tbeactivated,causingunpredictable,unacceptableperformance. Finally,thereistheeffectoflightningonprogramlogiccontrollers PLCS whicharefoundinthemanufacturingenvironment.ManyofthesePLCsuse programsstoredinROMS.Alightninginducedsurgecanalterthecontentsof theROMcausingaberrantoperationbythePLC. Sothesearesomeoftheunhappythingswhichhappenwhenacomputer experienceslightning. Thisisatypicalreactionandunfortunatelyitisbasedonignorance.True, peoplemaynever,orrarely,experience,directlightningstrikesonexposed, inbuildingcablefeedingintotheirequipment. However,itisnotuncommontofindcomputerequipmentbeingfedbyburied cable.Inthisenvironment,alightningstrike,evenseveralmilesaway,can inducevoltage/currentsurgeswhichtravelthroughthegroundandinduce surgesalongthecable,ultimatelycausingequipmentfailure.Theequipment userisundoubtedlyawareofthesefailuresbutusuallydoesnotrelatethemto theoccurrenceoflightningduringthunderstormactivitysincetheuserdoes notexperienceadirectstrike. Inaway,suchinducedsurgesareanalogoustochronichighbloodpressurein aperson;theyare"silentkillers."Inthemanufacturingenvironment,long cablerunsareoftenfoundconnectingsensors,PLCsandcomputers.These cablesareparticularlyvulnerabletoinducedsurges.
LIGHTENINGARRESTORS:
Metaloxidevaristors MOVS provideanimprovementovertheresponse timeproblemofgastubes.But,operationallifeisadrawback.MOVs protectioncharacteristicdecaysandfailscompletelywhensubjectedto prolongovervoltages.
Siliconavalanchediodeshaveprovento bethemosteffectivemeansofprotecting computerequipmentagainstover voltagetransients.Siliconavalanche diodesareabletowithstandthousands ofhighvoltage,highcurrentand transientsurgeswithoutfailure.While theycannotdealwiththesurgepeaks thatgastubescan,siliconavalanche diodesdoprovidethefastestresponse time.Thus,dependingupontheprincipal threatbeingprotectedagainst,devices canbefoundemployinggastubes, MOVS,orsiliconavalanchediodes.This maybeawkward,sincethethreatis neverreallyknowninadvance.Ideally, theprotectiondeviceselectedshouldberobust,usingallthreebasiccircuit breakerelements.ThearchitectureofsuchasdeviceisillustratedinFigure 20.Thisindicatestriplestageprotectionandincorporatesgastubes,MOVs andsiliconavalanchediodesaswellasvariouscouplingcomponentsanda goodground. WiththearchitectureshowninFigure20alightningstrikesurgewilltravel, alongthelineuntilitreachesagastube.Thegastubedumpsextremelyhigh amountsofsurgeenergydirectlytoearthground.However,thesurgerises veryrapidlyandthegastubeneedsseveralmicrosecondstofire. Asaconsequence,adelayelementisusedtoslowthepropagationofthe leadingedgewavefront,therebymaximizingtheeffectofthegastube.Fora 90Voltgastube,therapidriseofthesurgewillresultinitsfiringatabout650 Volts.Thedelayedsurgepulse,nowofreducedamplitude,isimpressedonthe avalanchediodewhichrespondsinaboutonenanosecondorlessandcan dissipate1,500Wattswhilelimitingthevoltageto18VoltsforEIA232 circuits.This18VoltlevelisthenresistivelycoupledtotheMOVwhichclamps to27Volts.TheMOVisadditionalprotectioniftheavalanchediodecapability isexceeded. Aspreviouslymentioned,theconnectiontoearthgroundcannotbeover emphasized.Thebestearthgroundisundoubtedlyacoldwaterpipe.
However,otherpipesandbuildingpowergroundscanalsobeused.While coldwaterpipesaregoodcandidatesyoushouldevenbecarefulhere.A plumbermayreplacesectionsofcorrodedmetalpipewithplastic.Thiswould renderthepipeuselessasaground.
TRANSIENTSTABILITYANALYSISINETAP
ThePowerStationTransientStabilityAnalysisprogramisdesignedto investigatethestabilitylimitsofapowersystembefore,duringandafter systemchangesordisturbances.Theprogrammodelsdynamiccharacteristics ofapowersystem,implementstheuserdefinedeventsandactions,solvesthe systemnetworkequationandmachinedifferentialequationsinteractivelyto findoutsystemandmachineresponsesintimedomain.Fromthese responses,userscandeterminethesystemtransientbehavior,makestability assessment,findprotectivedevicesettings,andapplythenecessaryremedy orenhancementtoimprovethesystemstability.TheTransientStability Toolbarsectionexplainshowyoucanlaunchatransientstabilitycalculation, openandviewanoutputreport,selectdisplayoptions,andviewplots.The StudyCaseEditorsectionexplainshowtocreateanewstudycase,todefine parametersforastudycase,tocreateasequenceofswitchingeventsand disturbances,togloballydefinemachinedynamicalmodelingmethod,to selectplot/tabulationdevices,etc. TheDisplayOptionssectionexplainswhatoptionsareavailablefordisplaying somekeysystemparametersandtheoutputresultsontheonelinediagram, andhowtosetthem. TheCalculationMethodssectionprovidessometheoreticalbackgroundsand quickreferenceforthefundamentalsontransientstabilitystudy,whichare veryhelpfulforuserswhodonothaveextensiveexperienceonrunning transientstabilitystudies.TheRequiredDatasectionisaverygoodreference foryoutocheckifyouhavepreparedallnecessarydatafortransientstability calculations. TheOutputReportssectionexplainsanddemonstratestheformatand organizationofthetransientstabilitytextreports.TheOneLineDiagram
DisplayedResultssectionexplainstheavailableonelinedisplayingresults andprovidesoneexample.ThePlotssectionexplainswhatplotsfortransient stabilityareavailableandhowtoselectandviewthem.
TRANSIENTSTABILITYTOOLBAR
TheTransientStabilityToolbarwillappearonthescreenwhenyouareinthe TransientStabilityStudymode.
RunTransientStability
SelectastudycasefromtheStudyCaseToolbar.ThenclickontheRun TransientStabilitybuttontoperformatransientstabilitystudy.Adialogbox willappeartoaskyoutospecifytheoutputreportnameiftheoutputfile nameissettoPrompt.Thetransientstabilitystudyresultswillappearonthe onelinediagramandstoredintheoutputreport,aswellasintheplotfile.

DisplayOptions
ClicktheDisplayOptionsbuttontocustomizetheonelinediagramannotation optionsunderthetransientstabilitystudymode.Alsotoedittheoneline diagramdisplayfortransientstabilitycalculationresults.
ReportManager
ClickonReportManagerButtontoselectaformatandviewtransientstability outputreport.Transientstabilityanalysisreportsarecurrentprovidedin ASCIIformatsonly,whichcanbeaccessedfromtheReportManager.
TransientStabilityPlots
ClickontheTransientStabilityPlotsbuttontoselectandplotthecurvesofthe lastplotfile.TheplotfilenameisdisplayedontheStudyCaseToolbar.The transientstabilityplotfileshavethefollowingextension:.tsp.Formore informationseeplottingsection.
StartingGeneratorData
Toperformageneratorstartupanalysis,thefollowingsynchronous generatormodelneedstobeselected.Thismodelisadaptedfromthelatest IEEEStandard1110IEEEGuideforSynchronousGeneratorModeling PracticesinStabilityAnalyses.Ithasonedampingwindingoneachofthe directandquadraticaxis.
TurbineGovernorModels
PracticallyanytypeofturbinegovernormodelinPowerStationcanbeusedin thegeneratorstartupstudy,providedtherearenootherspecialcontrol functionsrequired.
ONELINEDIAGRAM:
WAVEFORMSFORGENERATOR
GeneratorExciterCurrent
GeneratorExciterVoltage
Explanation Asitisclearfromgraphthatastransientsoccurinsystemthereisasudden dipingeneratorexcitationvoltageatstart,thisdipinvoltagethengetshigher valueafterdippingandaslongastransientsexistsitshowssomefluctuations andgetstablevaluewhentransientsgeteliminated.

GeneratorElectricalpower
Explanation Theeffectoftransientsongeneratorelectricalpowerisshowninfigure.there is slight dip and then alternation in the power values due to alternation in voltagevaluesduetotransients,andastransientsarebeingcontrolledweget stablevalueofelectricalpowerasobviousfromgraph. GeneratorMechanicalPower
Explanation Thesameisthecasewithmechanicalpoweraswaswithelectricalpower.
GeneratorFrequency
GeneratorRotorAngle:
Explanation As graph shows that there is vibration occurance in rotor of a generator at startduetotransient,butassoonasvalueoreffectoftransientbecomessmall the rotor angle degree slows down or it advances towards stable value in synchronouswithothergeneratorsofthesystem,
GeneratorTerminalCurrent:
Explaination: The effect of transients on generator terminal current is clear from the graph,where it is quite clear that there is sudden almost steep increment in the current magnitude of generator,and then it becomes less than original valueandthenagaincomestothesameoriginalcurrentlevel. BusVoltages
BUSWAVEFORMS
Explanation Themachinecurrentgraphshowsthatthevalueofcurrentincreasessharply atstartunlikemachinevoltageandthenitgraduallyhavedeclineinsinusoidal magnitude variation of current and finally levels off to the original value as clear from graph. As concerned to bus voltage, it is obvious from graph that thebusvoltagedipstozeroandremainatzeroasshownincircuitgraph.
BusVoltageAngle
ElectricalPower
SYNCHRONOUSMOTORWAVEFORMS
Explanation The electric power of synchronous motor after a slight increment decreases and then there is a dip in value which then again increases and after that it changed sinusoidaly but gradually decreasing value and at last becomes stable.
Mechanicalpower
MachineFrequency
RotorAngle
MachineConnectedVoltage
Explanation It is clear from graph that machine connected voltage decreases rapidly as shown by graph and then it got much value to become equal to the original value,butthatvalueslightlyincreasesinmagnitudeastimeproceedasshown ingraph. MachineCurrent

COMMENTS:
Transientsareveryfastincreaseinvoltagevaluethatexistsforaveryshort intervaloftimebutcandamagethesystemtosuchanextent,thatpower failuremayoccurduetocomponentfailure.Transientsareoftwotypes, externalduetoclouddischargingandinternalduetoswitching.Howeverboth thesecausethesystemvoltagetorisetoadangerousvaluelimits,thatmust beavoided. Theinternaloccurduetoswitchingoutinductiveloadorswitchingin capacitiveloadinthesystem.Becausecapacitorprovidevarstooursystem. Duetotransientssomevaluesrelatingtovoltageandcurrentparametersof differentcomponentshavedifferenteffects.Theexcitationvoltageofthe generatordecreaseswhileexcitationcurrentdecreases. Thesynchronousmotorcurrentincreaseswhilevoltagedecreasesrapidlyfor smalltimeandthenlevelsoff.Asconcernedtothefrequencyitjustfluctuates initsoriginalvaluebyjustasmallermagnitudewhichalmostnegligible.But remainconstantformostofthetime. Therotorofthegeneratorstartsvibratingandisnotmoresynchronizedwith thesystemthiscouldleadtomoreseverevibrationsandmayleadtomore rotorstovibrate.Thisisverydangeroussituationforthehealthofoursystem. Howeverafterthetransientstherotorisbroughttothesamerotoranglein ordertosynchronizewiththesystem,toavoidanyunwantedsituationinthe powersystem. Asbusbarisaprotectingdevicesowheneveratransientoccursinthesystem, thebusbarvoltageinstantlydroptozeroasshowningraph. Thustransienteitherinternalorexternalareveryharmfulforoursystemand theymustbediminishedassoonaspossiblebypropergroundingandother safetymeasurements.
EXPERIMENTNO:06
IntroductiontoGroundGridModelinginETAP
GROUNDGRID
Aneffectivesubstationgroundingsystemtypicallyconsistsof drivenground rods, buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid, equipment ground mats, connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structuresandequipment,connectionstogroundedsystemneutrals,andthe ground surface insulating covering material. Currents flowing into the groundinggridfromlightningarresteroperations,impulseorswitchingsurge flashover of insulators, and linetoground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. Without a properly designed grounding system, large potential differences can exist between differentpointswithinthesubstationitself.Undernormalcircumstances,itis current flowing through the grounding grid from linetoground faults that constitutesthemainthreattopersonnel. OBJECTIVESOFGROUNDING Aneffectivegroundingsystemhasthefollowingobjectives: Ensuresuchadegreeofhumansafetythatapersonworkingorwalking in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of a critical electric shock. The touch and step voltages produced in a fault condition have to be at safe values. A safe value is one that will not produceenoughcurrentwithinabodytocauseventricularfibrillation. Providemeanstocarryanddissipateelectriccurrentsintoearthunder normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipmentlimitsoradverselyaffectingcontinuityofservice. Providegroundingforlightningimpulsesandthesurgesoccurringfrom the switching of substation equipment, which reduces damage to equipmentandcable.
Provide a low resistance for the protective relays to see and clear ground faults, which improves protective equipment performance, particularlyatminimumfault.
IMPORTANTDEFINITIONS
DCOffset Difference between the symmetrical current wave and the actual current wave during a power system transient condition is called DCoffset. Mathematically,theactualfaultcurrentcanbebrokenintotwoparts: Symmetricalalternatingcomponentand Unidirectional dc component The unidirectional component can be of either polarity, but will not change polarityandwilldecreaseatsomepredeterminedrate. EarthCurrent Itisthecurrentthatcirculatesbetweenthegroundingsystemandtheground faultcurrentsourcethatusestheearthasthereturnpath. GroundFaultCurrent It is the current flowing into or out of the earth or an equivalent conductive pathduringafaultconditioninvolvingground. GroundPotentialRise GPR The maximum voltage that a ground grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the potential of remote earth. The GPR is equaltotheproductoftheearthcurrentandtheequivalentimpedanceofthe groundingsystem. MeshVoltage Itisthemaximumtouchvoltagewithinameshofagroundgrid.
SoilResistivity It is the electrical characteristic of the soil with respect to conductivity. The valueistypicallygiveninohmmeters. StepVoltage The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object. TouchVoltage Itisthepotentialdifferencebetweenthegroundpotentialriseandthesurface potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same time havinghishandsincontactwithagroundedstructure. TransferredVoltage Itisaspecialcaseofthetouchvoltagewhereavoltageistransferredintoor outofthesubstationfromortoaremotepointexternaltothesubstationsite.
AREAOFTHEGROUNDGRID
Theareaofthegroundgridshouldbeaslargeaspossible,preferablycovering theentiresubstationsite. All of the available area should be used since this variable has the greatest effectinloweringthegridresistance.Measuressuchasaddingadditionalgrid conductor are expensive and do not reduce the grid resistance to the extent thatincreasingtheareadoes. Ingeneral,theoutergridconductorsshouldbeplacedontheboundaryofthe substationsitewiththesubstationfenceplacedaminimumof3feetinsidethe outer conductors. This results in the lowest possible grid resistance and protectspersonsoutsidethefencefrompossiblyhazardoustouchvoltages.It is therefore imperative that the fence and the ground grid layout be coordinatedearlyinthedesignprocess.
The simplified design equations require square, rectangular, triangular, T shaped, or Lshaped grids. For preliminary design purposes, on a layout drawing of the substation site, draw in the largest square, rectangular, triangular, Tshaped, or Lshaped grids that will fit within the site. These representtheoutergridconductorsandwilldefinetheareaofthegridtobe used in the calculations. A square, rectangular, triangular, Tshaped, or L shapedgridsitegenerallyrequiresnoadditionalconductorsoncethedesign is complete. For irregular sites, once the design has been completed, additionalconductorswillberunalongtheperimeterofthesitethatwerenot includedintheoriginalgriddesignandconnectedtothegrid. This will take advantage of the entire site area available and will result in a moreconservativedesign.
GROUNDFAULTCURRENTS
When a substation bus or transmission line is faulted to ground, the flow of groundcurrentinbothmagnitudeanddirectiondependsontheimpedances of the various possible paths. The flow may be between portions of a substationgroundgrid,betweenthegroundgridandsurroundingearth,along connectedoverheadgroundwires,oralongacombinationofallthesepaths. The relay engineer is interested in the current magnitudes for all system conditions and fault locations so that protective relays can be applied and coordinatingsettingsmade.Thedesignerofthesubstationgroundingsystem is interested primarily in the maximum amount of fault current expected to flow through the substation grid, especially that portion from or to remote earth,duringtheservicelifetimeoftheinstalleddesign. Figureillustratesacasegoverninggroundfaultcurrentflow.Theworstcase forfaultcurrentflowbetweenthesubstationgroundinggridandsurrounding earthintermsofeffectonsubstationsafetyhastobedetermined.
Themaximumsymmetricalrmsfaultcurrentattheinstantoffaultinitiationis usuallyobtainedfromanetworkanalyzerstudyorbydirectcomputation.
SymmetricalGridCurrent
Thatportionofthesymmetricalgroundfaultcurrentthatflowsbetweenthe groundinggridandsurroundingearthmaybeexpressedby: Ig If.Sf Where: Ig rmssymmetricalgridcurrentinamperes If rmssymmetricalgroundfaultcurrentinamperes Sf Faultcurrentdivisionfactor Fortheassumptionofasustainedflowoftheinitialgroundfaultcurrent,the symmetricalgridcurrentcanbeexpressedby: Ig 3Io .Sf Where: Io SymmetricalrmsvalueofZeroSequencefaultcurrentinamperes Fortransmissionsubstations,calculatethemaximumIoforasinglephaseto ground fault for both the present station configuration and the ultimate stationconfiguration.Obtainvaluesforallvoltagelevelsinthestation.Use thelargestofthesefaultcurrentvalues.
For distribution stations, since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34 and 69 kV feeders, the future fault current can be modeledusingasuitablegrowthfactor suggestvalueof1.1xFordistribution stations, since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase significantlyoverthelifeofthestationasaresultofthehighimpedanceofthe 34and69kVfeeders,thefuturefaultcurrentcanbemodeledusingasuitable growthfactor suggestvalueof1.1xFordistributionstations,sincethefault current at distribution stations will not increase significantly over the life of thestationasaresultofthehighimpedanceofthe34and69kVfeeders,the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor suggest valueof1.1xIo . For an extremely conservative design, the interrupting rating of the equipment can be used for Io. This value may be as high as ten times the ultimatesinglephasetogroundfaultcurrent.Useofsuchalargesafetyfactor in the initial design may make it difficult to design the grid to meet the tolerabletouchandstepvoltagecriteriabyanymeans.
DeterminetheSplitFactor,Sf
The split factor is used to take into account the fact that not all the fault currentusestheearthasareturnpath.Someoftheparametersthataffectthe faultcurrentpathsare: Locationofthefault Magnitudeofsubstationgroundgridimpedance Buried pipes and cables in the vicinity of or directly connected to the substationgroundsystem Overheadgroundwires,neutrals,orothergroundreturnpaths The most accurate method for determining the percentage of the total fault currentthatflowsintotheearthistouseacomputerprogramsuchasEPRIs SMECC,SubstationMaximumEarthCurrentComputation.
ForthepurposesofthisBulletin,thegraphicalmethodwillbeused. Twotypesofgraphswillbepresented: 100percentremote,0percentlocalfaultcurrentcontribution 25, 50, and 75 percent local, which corresponds to 75, 50, and 25 percentremotefaultcurrentcontribution
TheDecrementFactor,Df
Thedecrementfactoraccountsfortheasymmetricalfaultcurrentwaveshape duringtheearlycyclesofafaultasaresultofthedccurrentoffset.Ingeneral, the asymmetrical fault current includes the subtransient, transient, and steadystate ac components, and the dc offset current component. Both the subtransient and transient ac components and the dc offset decay exponentially, each having a different attenuation rate. However, in typical applicationsofthisguide,itisassumedthattheaccomponentdoesnotdecay withtimebutremainsatitsinitialvalue. Thedecrementfactorcanbecalculatedusing:
Where: tf Timedurationoffaultinseconds Ta X/ wR thedcoffsettimeconstantinseconds
MaximumGridCurrent
Duringasystemfault,thefaultcurrentwillusetheearthasapartialreturn pathtothesystemneutral. Thecurrentthatisinjectedintotheearthduringafaultresultsinaground potentialrise.Typically,onlyafractionofthetotalfaultcurrentflowsfrom
thegroundingsystemintotheearth.Thisisduetothetransferofcurrent ontometallicpathssuchasoverheadstaticshields,waterpipelines,etc. Faultsoccurringwithinthesubstationgenerallydonotproducetheworst earthcurrentssincetherearedirectconductivepathsthatthefaultcurrent canfollowtoreachthesystemneutral assumingthesubstationhasa groundedwyetransformer .Thefaultsthatproducethelargestground currentsareusuallylinetogroundfaultsoccurringatsomedistanceaway fromthesubstation. Themaximumgridcurrentisthecurrentthatflowsthroughthegridto remoteearthandiscalculatedby: Where: IG Maximumgridcurrentinamperes Df Decrementfactorfortheentiredurationoffaultt,foundfort,givenin seconds Ig rmssymmetricalgridcurrentinamperes
AsymmetricalFaultCurrent
Theasymmetricalfaultcurrentincludesthesubtransient,transient,and steadystateaccomponents,andthedcoffsetcurrentcomponentandcanbe definedasshown: Where: IF Effectiveasymmetricalfaultcurrentinamperes If rmssymmetricalgroundfaultcurrentinamperes Df Decrementfactor
Thedcoffsetinthefaultcurrentwillcausetheconductortoreachahigher temperatureforthesamefaultconditions faultcurrentdurationand magnitude .Inaddition,ifpresent,dcoffsetcouldresultinmechanicalforces andabsorbedenergybeingalmostfourtimesthevalueofanequivalent symmetriccurrentcase.
GROUNDGRIDMODELINGINETAP
TheGroundGridSystemsprogramcalculatesthefollowing: TheMaximumAllowableCurrentforspecifiedconductors.Warnings areissuedifthespecifiedconductorisratedlowerthanthefaultcurrent level TheStepandTouchpotentialsforanyrectangular/triangular/L shaped/Tshapedconfigurationofagroundgrid,withorwithout groundrods IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 ThetolerableStepandMeshpotentialsandcomparesthemwithactual, calculatedStepandMeshpotentials IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 GraphicprofilesfortheabsoluteStepandTouchvoltages,aswellasthe tablesofthevoltagesatvariouslocations FiniteElementMethod Theoptimumnumberofparallelgroundconductorsandrodsfora rectangular/triangular/Lshaped/Tshapedgroundgrid.Thecostof conductors/rodsandthesafetyofpersonnelinthevicinityofthe substation/generatingstationduringagroundfaultareboth considered.Designoptimizationsareperformedusingarelativecost effectivenessmethod basedontheIEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 TheGroundResistanceandGroundPotentialrise GPR
GroundGridSystemsPresentation
TheGGSpresentationiscomposedoftheTopView,SoilView,and3DView. TheTopViewisusedtoeditthegroundconductors/rodsofagroundgrid. TheSoilViewisusedtoeditthesoilpropertiesofthesurface,top,andlower layersofsoil.The3DViewisusedforthethreedimensionaldisplayofthe groundgrid.The3DViewalsoallowsthedisplayofthegroundgridtorotate,
offeringviewsfromvariousangles.TheGGSpresentationallowsforgraphical arrangementoftheconductorsandrodsthatrepresentthegroundgrid,and toprovideaphysicalenvironmenttoconductgroundgriddesignstudies. EachGGSpresentationisadifferentandindependentgroundgridsystem. ThisconceptisdifferentfromthemultipresentationapproachoftheOne LineDiagram,whereallpresentationshavethesameelements.Thereisno limittothenumberofGGSpresentationsthatcanbecreated. CreateaNewGroundGridPresentation TocreateaGGSpresentation,agroundgridmustfirstbeaddedtotheOne LineDiagram.ClickontheGroundGridcomponentlocatedontheACtoolbar, anddroptheGGSsymbolanywhereontheOneLineDiagram. Rightclickonanylocationinsidethegroundgridbox,andselectProperties tobringuptheGridEditor.TheGridEditorDialogboxisusedtospecifygrid information,gridstyles,equipmentinformation,andtoviewcalculation results.ClickontheGridPresentationbuttontobringupaGGSpresentation.
DoubleclickingonthegroundgridboxlocatedontheOneLineDiagramwill bringuptheGroundGridProjectInformationdialogbox,usedtoselectan IEEEorFEMFiniteElementMethodStudyModel.
AfterselectingtheIEEEorFEMStudyModel,theGroundGridSystems graphicaluserinterfacewindowwillbedisplayed.BelowisaGGS presentationofagroundgridfortheFEMStudyModelcase.
FEMEditorToolbar
TheFEMEditorToolbarappearswhentheFEMStudyModelisselected,and whenintheGroundGridSystemsEditmode.Thistoolbarhasthefollowing functionkeys:
Pointer ThecursortakestheshapeoftheelementselectedfromtheEditToolbar. ClickonthePointericontoreturnthecursortoitsoriginalarrowshape,orto moveanelementplacedintheTopViewoftheGGSpresentation. Conductor ClickontheConductoricontocreateanewconductorandtoplaceitinthe TopViewoftheGGS.Formoreinformationonconductorsseethe Conductor/RodEditorsection forFEM . Rod ClickontheRodicontocreateanewrodandtoplaceitintheTopViewofthe GGS.FormoreinformationonrodsseetheConductor/RodEditorsection for FEM .
FEMRectangularShape ClickontheFEMRectangularShapeicontocreateanewFEMgridof rectangularshapeandtoplaceitintheTopViewoftheGGS.Formore informationongridsseetheFEMGroupEditorsection. FEMTShape ClickontheFEMTShapeicontocreateanewFEMTshapedgridandtoplace itintheTopViewoftheGGS.FormoreinformationongridsseetheFEM GroupEditorsection. FEMLShape ClickontheFEMLShapeicontocreateanewFEMLshapedgridandtoplace itintheTopViewoftheGGS.FormoreinformationongridsseetheFEM GroupEditorsection. FEMTriangularShape ClickontheFEMTriangularShapeicontocreateanewFEMgridoftriangular shapeandtoplaceitintheTopView.Formoreinformationongridsseethe FEMGroupEditorsection.
IEEEEditToolbar
TheIEEEEditorToolbarappearswhentheIEEEStudyModelisselected,and whenintheGroundGridSystemsEditmode.Thistoolbarhasthefollowing functionkeys: Pointer ThecursortakestheshapeoftheelementselectedfromtheEditToolbar. ClickonthePointericontoreturnthecursortoitsoriginalarrowshape,orto moveanelementplacedintheTopViewoftheGGSpresentation.
IEEERectangularShape ClickontheIEEERectangularShapeicontocreateanewIEEEgridof rectangularshapeandtoplaceitintheTopViewoftheGGS.Formore informationongridsseetheIEEEGroupEditorsection. IEEETShape TheIEEETShapegridisvalidonlyfortheIEEEStd.802000method.Click ontheIEEETShapeicontocreateanewIEEETshapedgridandtoplaceitin theTopViewoftheGGS.FormoreinformationongridsseetheIEEEGroup Editorsection. IEEELShape TheIEEELShapegridisvalidonlyfortheIEEEStd802000method.Clickon theIEEELShapeicontocreateanewIEEELshapedgridandtoplaceitinthe TopViewoftheGGS.FormoreinformationongridsseetheIEEEGroup Editorsection. IEEETriangularShape TheIEEETriangularShapegridisvalidonlyfortheIEEEStd802000method. ClickontheIEEETriangularShapeicontocreateanewIEEEgridoftriangular shapeandtoplaceitintheTopView.Formoreinformationongridsseethe IEEEGroupEditorsection.
GroundGridStudyMethodToolbar
TheGroundGridStudyMethodToolbarappearswhentheGGSStudymodeis selected.Thistoolbarhasthefollowingfunctionkeys:
GroundGridCalculation
ClickontheGroundGridCalculationbuttontocalculate: StepandTouch mesh Potentials GroundResistance GroundPotentialRise TolerableStepandTouchPotentialLimits PotentialProfiles onlyfortheFEMmethod
OptimizedConductors
ClickontheOptimizedConductorsbuttontocalculatetheminimumnumber ofconductors thatsatisfythetolerablelimitsfortheStepandTouch potentials forafixednumberofgroundrods.Thisoptimizationfunctionis forIEEEStdmethodsonly.
OptimizedConductorsandRods
ClickontheOptimizedConductorsbuttontocalculatetheoptimumnumbers ofconductorsandgroundrodsneededtolimittheStepandTouchpotentials. ThisoptimizationfunctionisforIEEEStdmethodsonly.
SummaryandWarning
ClickonthisbuttontoopentheGRDAnalysisAlertViewdialogboxof SummaryandWarningfortheGroundGridSystemsCalculation.
PlotSelection
Thisfunctionisvalidonlyforthe FEMmethod.Clickonthisbuttonto openthePlotSelectiondialogboxto selectavarietyofpotentialprofile plotstoreview,andclickOKto generatetheoutputplots.
ReportManager
Clickonthisbuttonto opentheGroundGrid DesignReportManager dialogboxtoselecta varietyofpreformatted outputplotstoreview. Selectaplottypeand clickOKtobringupthe outputplot. OutputReportfilescan beselectedfromthe OutputReportListBox ontheStudyCase Toolbarshownbelow:
Stop TheStopSignbuttonisnormallydisabled,andbecomesenabledwhena GroundGridSystemsCalculationisinitiated.Clickingonthisbuttonwill terminatecalculationsinprogress,andtheoutputreportswillbeincomplete.
EditAGGS
Conductors,rods,andgridsofvariousshapesaretheelementsavailablefor addingtotheTopViewoftheGroundGridSystemspresentation.These elementsarelocatedontheEditToolbaroftheGGSmodule. SelectElements PlacethecursoronanelementlocatedontheEdittoolbarandclicktheleft mousebutton.Notethatwhenagridshapeisselected,regardlessofthe numberofconductorsorrodsitcontains,theshapeisconsideredtobeone element.Ifaselectedshapeisdeletedorcopied,theshapeanditscontents willalsobedeletedorcopied.Pressthe Ctrl keyandclickonmultiple elementstoeitherselectordeselectthem. AddElements ToaddanewelementtotheGGSpresentation,selectanewelementfromthe EditToolbarbyclickingontheappropriateelementbutton.Noticethatthe shapeofthecursorchangestocorrespondtothatoftheselectedelement. PlacetheselectedelementbyclickingthemouseanywhereintheTopView sectionoftheGGSpresentation,andnotethatthecursorreturnstoitsoriginal shape.DoubleclickonanyelementintheEditToolbartoplacemultiple copiesofthesameelementintheTopViewsectionoftheGGSpresentation.
Rules ElementscanbeaddedONLYinEditmode Twoconductors/rodscannotbeaddedontopofeachother ElementscannotbeaddedintheStudymode OnlyoneIEEEshapecanbeaddedintheTopView FEMgroupshapescanoverlapeachother AddConductors ClickontheConductorbuttonontheFEMEditToolbar,movethecursorto theGGSpresentation,andclicktoplacetheelementintheTopView. PowerStationcreatesthenewconductorusingdefaultvalues. AddRods ClickontheRodbuttonontheFEMEditToolbar,movethecursortotheGGS presentation,andclicktoplacetheelementintheTopView.PowerStation createsthenewrodusingdefaultvalues. AddGridShapes ClickonthedesiredShapebuttonontheFEMEditToolbar,movethecursorto theGGSpresentation,andclicktoplacetheelementintheTopView. PowerStationcreatesthenewgridshapeusingdefaultvalues. AddConductorsbyUngroupingFEMShapes AnFEMshapeaddedintheTopViewofaGGSpresentationcanbe ungroupedintoindividualconductors.Toungroup,movethecursorinside theselectedshape,rightclickandselectUngroup. Move/RelocateElements WhenanelementisaddedtoaGGSpresentationitspositioncoordinates x,y andz areupdatedautomaticallyintheeditor/spreadsheetandintheHelp lineatthebottomofyourscreen.Theelementmayberelocatedtonew coordinatesbychangingthecoordinatevaluesattheeditor/spreadsheet xs, yesandzsforconductors/rods,andLx,Ly,Depth,#ofRodsand#of
ConductorsinX/YDirectionsforvarioustypicalgridshapes orbydragging theelementandwatchingtheHelplinechangetothedesiredposition. Todraganelement,firstselecttheelementtobemoved.Placethecursoron topoftheselectedelement,Clickandholdtheleftmousebutton,dragthe elementtothedesiredposition,andreleasetheleftbutton. MoveConductors/Rods Selecttheelement,clickandholdtheleftmousebutton,dragtheelementto thenewpositionandreleasetheleftbutton. MoveShapes ShapescanbegraphicallymovedwithintheTopView.Selecttheshape,click andholdtheleftmousebutton,dragtheshapetothenewlocationandrelease theleftbutton. Cut Delete Elements SelecttheelementorgroupofelementsandpresstheDeletekeyonthe keyboard. CopyElements Selectanelementorgroupofelements,clicktherightmousebutton,and selectCopy. Paste UsethePastecommandtocopytheselectedcellsfromtheDumpsterintothe GGSpresentation.
SizeofElements
WhenanelementisaddedtoaGGSpresentation,itssizeissetbydefault.The widthandheightofgridshapesandthelengthofconductorscanbe graphicallychanged.Selecttheelementandmovethecursortoacorneror edgeoftheelement.Oncethecursorchangesitsform,clickandholdtheleft
mousebuttontodragtheelementtoitsnewsize.Releasetheleftmouse buttononcethedesiredsizehasbeenobtained. Conductor/rodsizescanbechangefromthespreadsheetorshapeeditors. WhentheLengthisaltered,X1,Y1andZ1willremainunchanged,andX2,Y2 andZ2willchangeaccordingly.Thecrosssectionalareaofaconductor,the outsidediameterand/orlengthofarodcanonlybechangedfromthe conductororrodEditor. Rules SizingelementscanbedoneinEditmodeONLY Elementscannotoverlapeachother
StudyCaseEditor
TheGGSStudyCaseEditorcontainsAverageWeight,AmbientTemperature, CurrentProjectionFactor,FaultCurrentDurations,optiontoinputor computeFaultCurrentParameters i.e.,zerosequencefaultcurrent,current divisionfactor,andX/Rratio ,andPlotParameters fortheFiniteElement Methodonly . PowerStationallowsforthecreationandsavingofanunlimitednumberof studycasesforeachtypeofstudy,allowingtheusertoeasilyswitchbetween differentGGSstudycases.Thisfeatureisdesignedtoorganizethestudy effortsandtosavetime.TocreateanewGGSstudycase,gototheStudyCase MenuonthetoolbarandselectCreateNewtobringuptheGGSStudyCase Editor.
StudyCaseID AstudycasecanberenamedbysimplydeletingtheoldStudyCaseIDand enteringanewone.TheStudycaseIDcanbeupto25alphanumeric characters.UseoftheNavigatorbuttonatthebottomoftheStudyCaseEditor allowstheusertogofromonestudycasetoanother. Options Inthissection,selecttheaveragebodyweightforthepersonworkingabove thegroundgrid,andtheambienttemperature.Theweightisusedtocalculate thetolerableStepandTouchpotentials.

Reports&Plots Specifythereport/plotparameters. ReportDetails CheckthisboxtoreportintermediateresultsforanIEEEStd.Methodor voltageprofilesfortheFiniteElementMethod. AutoDisplayofSummary&Alert CheckthisboxtoautomaticallyshowtheresultwindowforSummary& Warning. PlotStep PlotStepisvalidonlyfortheFEMStudyModel.Thisvalueisenteredinm/ft, anditisusedtofindthepoints orlocations whereAbsolute/Step/Touch potentialsneedtobecomputedandplotted.Notethatthesmallerthis number,themorecalculationsarerequired,increasingcalculationtime,but yieldingsmootherplots.Therecommendedvalueis1meter.Ifhigher resolutionisneeded,decreasethisnumber. BoundaryExtension Entertheboundaryextensioninm/ft.Thisvalueisusedtoextendthegrid boundariesinsidewhichtheAbsolute/Step/Touchpotentialsneedtobe computed. FaultDurations AllowstheusertospecifyFaultCurrentdurations
tf
Enterthedurationoffaultcurrentinsecondstodeterminedecrementfactor. TheFaultduration tf ,tc,andShockduration ts arenormallyassumedtobe equal,unlesstheFaultdurationisthesumofsuccessiveshocks.
tc
EnterinsecondsthedurationofFaultCurrentforsizinggroundconductors.
ts
EnterinsecondsthedurationofShockCurrenttodeterminepermissible levelsforthehumanbody.
GridCurrentFactors
Inthissection,theCorrectiveProjectionFactorandtheCurrentDivision Factorcanbespecified.
Cp
EntertheCorrectiveProjectionFactorinpercent,accountingfortherelative increaseoffaultcurrentsduringthestationlifespan.Forazerofuturesystem growth,Cp 100.
Sf
EntertheCurrentDivisionFactorinpercent,relatingthemagnitudeofFault currenttothatofitsportionflowingbetweenthegroundinggridandthe surroundingearth. Update Checkthisboxtoupdate/replacethenumberofconductors/rodsinthe Conductor/RodEditor,withthenumberofconductors/rodscalculatedby usingoptimizationmethods.ThisboxisonlyvalidwiththeIEEEmethods.
RequiredData
TorunaGroundGridSystemsstudy,thefollowingrelateddataisnecessary: SoilParameters,GridData,andSystemData.Asummaryofthesedatafor differenttypesofcalculationmethodsisgiveninthissection.
SystemData SystemFrequency AverageWeightofWorker AmbientTemperature ShortCircuitCurrent ShortCircuitCurrentDivisionFactor ShortCircuitCurrentProjectorFactor DurationsofFault SystemX/RRatio PlotStep forFEMmodelonly BoundaryExtension forFEMmodelonly SoilParameters SurfaceMaterialResistivity SurfaceMaterialDepth UpperLayerSoilResistivity UpperLayerSoilDepth LowerLayerSoilResistivity GroundConductorLibrary MaterialConductivity ThermalCoefficientofResistivity KoFactor FusingTemperature GroundConductorResistivity ThermalCapacityFactor GridData IEEEStd.sOnly Shape MaterialType ConductorCrossSection GridDepth MaximumLengthoftheGridintheXDirection
MaximumLengthoftheGridintheYDirection MinimumLengthoftheGridintheXDirection forIEEEStd802000L ShapedorTShapedGridsOnly MinimumLengthoftheGridintheYDirection forIEEEStd802000L ShapedorTShapedGridOnly NumberofConductorsintheXDirection NumberofConductorsintheYDirection Cost RodData IEEEStd.sOnly MaterialType NumberofRods AverageLength Diameter Arrangement Cost ConductorData FEMmodelonly MaterialType Insulation CrossSection X,YandZCoordinatesofOneEndofConductor X,YandZCoordinatesofOtherEndofConductor Cost RodData FEMmodelonly MaterialType Insulation Diameter X,YandZCoordinatesofOneEndofRod X,YandZCoordinatesofOtherEndofRod Cost
OptionalFEMModelGridGroupData Shape MaterialType ConductorCrossSection GridDepth MaximumLengthoftheGridintheXDirection MaximumLengthoftheGridintheYDirection MinimumLengthoftheGridintheXDirection forLShapedorT ShapedGrids MinimumLengthoftheGridintheYDirection forLShapedorT ShapedGrids NumberofConductorsintheXDirection NumberofConductorsintheYDirection Cost
GroundGridSystemsReportManager
ClickontheReportManagerButtonontheGroundGridStudyMethod ToolbartoopentheGround GridSystemsReportManager dialogbox.TheGroundGrid SystemsReportManager consistsoffourpagesand providesdifferentformatsfor theCrystalReports.

PlotSelection
PlotsareusedonlywiththeFEM method,andareavailablefor Absolute/Step/TouchVoltages.To selectaplot,openupthePlot Selectiondialogboxbyclickingon thePlotSelectionbuttonlocatedon theGroundGridSystemsToolbar.
PlotSelection
Thefollowing3DPotentialprofilesareavailableforanalysisofGGSstudy caseresults: AbsoluteVoltage SelecttoplotanAbsolutePotentialprofile. TouchVoltage SelecttoplotaTouchPotentialprofile. StepVoltage SelecttoplotaStepPotentialprofile.
PlotType
ThefollowingplottypesareavailableforanalysisofGGSstudycaseresults:
3D Plota3DPotentialprofilefortheAbsolute/Touch/Stepvoltage. Contour PlotaContourPotentialprofilefortheAbsolute/Touch/Stepvoltage. DisplayoverLimitVoltage Showareaswithpotentialsexceedingthetolerablelimitsfor3DTouch/Step Potentialprofiles.ThisfunctionisdisabledwhentheContourplottypeis selected.Asetofsampleplotsisshownbelow.

COMMENTS:
SomeofthemainfeaturesoftheGroundGridSystemsAnalysisStudyare summarizedbelow: CalculatethetolerableStepandTouchpotentials Comparepotentialsagainsttheactual,calculatedStepandTouch potentials Optimizenumberofconductorswithfixedrodsbasedoncostandsafety Optimizenumberofconductors&rodsbasedoncostandsafety Calculatethemaximumallowablecurrentforspecifiedconductors Compareallowablecurrentsagainstfaultcurrents CalculateGroundSystemResistance CalculateGroundPotentialRise Userexpandableconductorlibrary Allowatwolayersoilconfigurationinadditiontothesurfacematerial Groundgridconfigurationsshowingconductor&rodplots Display3D/contourTouchVoltageplots Display3D/contourStepVoltageplots Display3D/contourAbsoluteVoltageplots CalculateAbsolute,Step&Touchpotentialsatanypointinthe configuration Conductor/Rodcanbeorientedinanypossible3Dimensionaldirection Handleirregularconfigurationsofanyshape
EXPERIMENTNO:07
GroundGridModelingofaGivenSystemusingETAP GROUNDGRID
Aneffectivesubstationgroundingsystemtypicallyconsistsof drivenground rods, buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid, equipment ground mats, connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structuresandequipment,connectionstogroundedsystemneutrals,andthe ground surface insulating covering material. Currents flowing into the groundinggridfromlightningarresteroperations,impulseorswitchingsurge flashover of insulators, and linetoground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. Without a properly designed grounding system, large potential differences can exist between differentpointswithinthesubstationitself.Undernormalcircumstances,itis current flowing through the grounding grid from linetoground faults that constitutesthemainthreattopersonnel.
TheGroundGridSystemsprogramcalculatesthefollowing: TheMaximumAllowableCurrentforspecifiedconductors.Warnings areissuedifthespecifiedconductorisratedlowerthanthefaultcurrent level TheStepandTouchpotentialsforanyrectangular/triangular/L shaped/Tshapedconfigurationofagroundgrid,withorwithout groundrods IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 ThetolerableStepandMeshpotentialsandcomparesthemwithactual, calculatedStepandMeshpotentials IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 GraphicprofilesfortheabsoluteStepandTouchvoltages,aswellasthe tablesofthevoltagesatvariouslocations FiniteElementMethod Theoptimumnumberofparallelgroundconductorsandrodsfora rectangular/triangular/Lshaped/Tshapedgroundgrid.Thecostof
conductors/rodsandthesafetyofpersonnelinthevicinityofthe substation/generatingstationduringagroundfaultareboth considered.Designoptimizationsareperformedusingarelativecost effectivenessmethod basedontheIEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 TheGroundResistanceandGroundPotentialrise GPR
ONELINEDIAGRAM
CreateaNewGroundGridPresentation TocreateaGGSpresentation,agroundgridmustfirstbeaddedtotheOne LineDiagram.ClickontheGroundGridcomponentlocatedontheACtoolbar, anddroptheGGSsymbolanywhereontheOneLineDiagram.

DIAGRAMWITHGROUNDGRID
Rightclickonanylocationinsidethegroundgridbox,andselectPropertiesto bringuptheGridEditor.TheGridEditorDialogboxisusedtospecifygrid information,gridstyles,equipmentinformation,andtoviewcalculation results.ClickontheGridPresentationbuttontobringupaGGSpresentation.
DoubleclickingonthegroundgridboxlocatedontheOneLineDiagramwill bringuptheGroundGridProjectInformationdialogbox,usedtoselectan IEEEorFEMFiniteElementMethodStudyModel.
AfterselectingtheIEEEStudyModel,theGroundGridSystemsgraphicaluser interfacewindowwillbedisplayedasshownbelow.SelecttheTshapegrid.
RightclickontheTshapeandadjustthedimensionsandnumberof conductorsinthefollowingwindow:
Aftercompletingthisprocess,wegetthefollowingshapeofgroundgrid:
GroundGridStudy
TheGroundGridStudy MethodToolbarappears whentheGGSStudymodeis selected. ClickingontheGroundGrid Calculationtabandthe followingshownAlertView windowisdisplayed.

SummaryandWarning
Observations:
CalculatedVolts TolerableVolts Touch 1260.6 427.1 Step 2209.3 1216.4 GPR 5677.9Volts Rg 2.83Ohm

SummaryandWarningsafterCompletedesigning
UsingFEMmethod
TheFEMEditorToolbarappearswhentheFEMStudyModelisselected,and whenintheGroundGridSystemsEditmode.Ifweusethismethod,thenwe getfollowingplotsoftouchpotentialandsteppotentialasshownbelow:
COMMENTS:
GroundGridCalculationsareusedtocalculate: StepandTouch mesh Potentials GroundResistance GroundPotentialRise TolerableStepandTouchPotentialLimits PotentialProfiles onlyfortheFEMmethod Inthisexperiment: Weperformgroundgridmodelingwithlownumberofrods Weobservethatthestepvoltageandthetouchvoltageareoutof tolerablelimitsasshowninalertview Thenweperformtheanalysisafteraddingmorenumberofrods Finallyweachieveapositionwherewedonotgetanyalertandthestep voltageandthetouchvoltagearewithintolerablelimits ThatmeansthatwehavemodeledtheGroundGridaccordingtoour requirements
EXPERIMENTNO:08
ModelingofSinglePhaseInstantaneousOverCurrentRelay usingMATLAB RELAY
Arelayisanelectricallyoperatedswitch.Manyrelaysuseanelectromagnetto operateaswitchingmechanism,butotheroperatingprinciplesarealsoused. Relaysfindapplicationswhereitisnecessarytocontrolacircuitbyalow powersignal,orwhereseveralcircuitsmustbecontrolledbyonesignal.The firstrelayswereusedinlongdistancetelegraphcircuits,repeatingthesignal cominginfromonecircuitandretransmittingittoanother. TYPESOFRELAYS OvercurrentRelay DistanceRelay DifferentialRelay Andmanymore
OverCurrentRelay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the overcurrent protection. Over current includes shortcircuit protection; Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earthfaults,Windingfaults.Shortcircuitcurrentsaregenerallyseveraltimes 5 to 20 full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of overcurrent protection are: The protectionshouldnotoperateforstartingcurrents,permissibleovercurrent, currentsurges.Toachievethis,thetimedelayisprovided incaseofinverse relays. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection.Overcurrentrelayisabasicelementofovercurrentprotection.
In order for an over current protective device to operate properly, over currentprotectivedeviceratingsmustbeproperlyselected. Theseratingsincludevoltage,ampereandinterruptingrating. Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most important and most often overlookedistheinterruptingrating. If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipmentandpersonnelwillexist. Currentlimitingcanbeconsideredasanotherovercurrentprotectivedevice rating, although not all over current protective devices are required to have thischaracteristic.
TypesofOverCurrentRelay InstantaneousTimeoverCurrentRelay:
It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pickup value. It has operatingtimeisconstant.Init,thereisnointentionaltimedelay.Itoperates in0.1sorless
DefiniteTimeoverCurrentRelay:
It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Itsoperatingtimeisconstant.Itsoperationisindependentofthemagnitude of current above the pickup value. It has pickup and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism.
InverseTimeoverCurrentRelay:
Over current relay function monitors the general balanced overloading and has current/time settings. This is determined by the overall protective discriminationscheme.Thereadvantageoverdefinitetimerelaysisthatthey
canhavemuchshortertrippingtimescanbeobtainedwithoutanyrisktothe protection selection process. These are classified in accordance with there characteristiccurves,thisindicatesthespeedoftheoperation.Basedonthis they are defined as being inverse, very inverse or extremely inverse. The typical settings for these relays are 0.72In normal or rated generator current in110second.
InverseDefiniteMinimumTimeoverCurrentRelay:
It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current anddefinitetimecharacteristicsathighervalues.Aninversecharacteristicis obtainedifthevalueofplugsettingmultiplierisbelow10,forvaluesbetween 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. It is widelyusedfortheprotectionofdistributionlines.
VeryInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay:
ItgivesmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMT.Itisusedwherethere is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularlyeffectivewithgroundfaultsbecauseoftheirsteepcharacteristics
ExtremelyInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay:
IthasmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMTandvery inverseover currentrelay.Itissuitablefortheprotectionofmachinesagainstoverheating. Itisfortheprotectionofalternators,transformers,expensivecables,etc
SimulinkDiagraminMATLABforSinglePhaseInstantaneous TimeOverCurrentRelay

WaveformResultsinMATLABforSinglePhase InstantaneousTimeOverCurrentRelay

COMMENTS:
In this experiment, we designed an instantaneous overcurrent relay in MATLABSimulinkandthenobservedthebehaviorofthisrelay. We observed that the normal current flowing through the system is 100 Amperes, but when the fault occurs in the system, the current flowing is increasedfrom100Amperes. We modeled the circuit such that the breaker must be open just after the currentlevelisincreasedover100Amperes. In this experiment, we take the results on scope and observed that when current exceeds over 100 Amperes, the breaker is opened instantaneously andourrequiredresultsareverified.
Experiment#09
Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous OverCurrent Relay using MATLAB Relay:

Arelayisanelectricallyoperatedswitch.Manyrelaysuseanelectromagnetto operateaswitchingmechanism,butotheroperatingprinciplesarealsoused. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low powersignal,orwhereseveralcircuitsmustbecontrolledbyonesignal.The firstrelayswereusedinlongdistancetelegraphcircuits,repeatingthesignal cominginfromonecircuitandretransmittingittoanother. TypeofRelays OvercurrentRelay DistanceRelay DifferentialRelay Andmanymore
FunctionsofRelays: Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit
OverCurrentRelay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the overcurrent protection. Over current includes shortcircuit protection; Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earthfaults,Windingfaults.Shortcircuitcurrentsaregenerallyseveraltimes 5 to 20 full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of overcurrent protection are: The protectionshouldnotoperateforstartingcurrents,permissibleovercurrent, currentsurges.Toachievethis,thetimedelayisprovided incaseofinverse relays. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection.Overcurrentrelayisabasicelementofovercurrentprotection.In orderforanovercurrentprotectivedevicetooperateproperly,overcurrent protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage,ampereandinterruptingrating.Ofthethreeoftheratings,perhaps themostimportantandmostoftenoverlookedistheinterruptingrating.Ifthe interrupting rating is not properly, selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all over current protective devicesarerequiredtohavethischaracteristic.
TypesofOverCurrentRelay
InstantaneousTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pickup value. It has operatingtimeisconstant.Init,thereisnointentionaltimedelay.Itoperates in0.1sorless. DefiniteTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Itsoperatingtimeisconstant.Itsoperationisindependentofthemagnitude of current above the pickup value. It has pickup and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. InverseDefiniteMinimumTimeoverCurrentRelay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current anddefinitetimecharacteristicsathighervalues.Aninversecharacteristicis obtainedifthevalueofplugsettingmultiplierisbelow10,forvaluesbetween 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. It is widelyusedfortheprotectionofdistributionlines. VeryInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: ItgivesmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMT.Itisusedwherethere is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularlyeffectivewithgroundfaultsbecauseoftheirsteepcharacteristics ExtremelyInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: IthasmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMTandvery inverseover currentrelay.Itissuitablefortheprotectionofmachinesagainstoverheating. Itisfortheprotectionofalternators,transformers,expensivecables,etc.
SimulinkDiagraminMATLABforThreePhaseInstantaneous TimeOverCurrentRelay
Subsystem:
Inst.Relay:
WaveformResultsinMATLABforThreePhaseInstantaneous TimeOverCurrentRelay

COMMENTS:
Inthisexperiment,weimplimentedathreephaseinstantaneousovercurrent relayinMATLABSimulink. Inthisexperimentwehaveusedterminatorsattheoutputsthatarenot needed. Wehaveimplimentedathreephasefaultataspecifiedtimetoensurethe breakeroperationat0.02ontimeaxis. Whenathreephasefaultoccursinthesystem,currentexceedsfromthis value. Breakerisoperatedinstantaneouslyatthetimewhenfaultoccursandsystem isprotectedagainsttheveryhighcurrent. Thisthreephaserelaycanoperatealsoforsinglephaseortwophasesfault.
Experiment#10
ModelingofaDifferentialRelayUsingMATLAB WHATISARELAY?
Arelayisanelectricallyoperatedswitch.Manyrelaysuseanelectromagnetto operateaswitchingmechanism,butotheroperatingprinciplesarealsoused. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low powersignal,orwhereseveralcircuitsmustbecontrolledbyonesignal.The firstrelayswereusedinlongdistancetelegraphcircuits,repeatingthesignal coming in from one circuit and retransmitting it to another. Relays found extensiveuseintelephoneexchangesandearlycomputerstoperformlogical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electricmotoriscalledacontractor.Solidstaterelayscontrolpowercircuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multipleoperatingcoilsareusedtoprotectelectricalcircuitsfromoverloador faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protection relays. A protective relay is a
automatic sensing device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to isolate faulty element from system. Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical power system and no part of it is left unprotectedchoiceofprotectiondependsuponseveralaspectslike Typeandratingofprotectedequipmentanditsimportance Location Probableabnormalcondition Cost Selectivity,Sensitivity,Stability,Reliability,Faultclearancetime FunctionsofRelays Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit PurposeofRelay Control Protection Regulation TypeofRelays OvercurrentRelay DistanceRelay DifferentialRelayetc.
DifferentialRe elay
Differen ntial protection is a unit sch a heme that compar resthecurrentont theprimarysideof f a trans sformer with that on the s w secondary side. W Where a difference exists ot d ther than that du to the voltage ra ue atio it is assumed that th transfor he rmer has develope a fault ed t and the plant is automati e ically disc connected circuit by tripping t the relevant breaker rs.Thepr rincipleof foperation nismadepossibleb byvirtueo ofthefactthat large t transforme are v ers very effici ient and hence un nder norm opera mal ation power inequals powerou ut.Differe entialprot tectiondet tectsfault tsonallof fthe plant a and equipment with the p hin protected zone, incl luding int terturn short circuits s. PrincipleofOperation Theope eratingpr rincipleem mployedbytransfor rmerdiffer rentialpro otectionis sthe circulat tingcurrentsystem masshown nbelow.U Undernor rmalcondi itionsI1an 2 ndI are equ and op ual pposite su that t resulta curren through the rela is uch the ant nt h ay zero. A intern fault p An nal produces an unba alance or 'spill' cu urrent tha is at detecte edbyther relay,leadingtoope eration.
DesignConsidera ations A numb of factors have to be tak into account in designing a schem to ber ken g me meetth heseobjec ctives.The eseinclude:
ThematchingofCTratios Currentimbalanceproducedbytapchanging Dealingwithzerosequencecurrents Phaseshiftthroughthetransformer Magnetizinginrushcurrent
Eachoftheseisconsideredfurtherbelow: TheMatchingofCTRatios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1etc.Thiscouldmeanthatthecurrentsfedintotherelayfromthetwo sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Any imbalance mustbecompensatedforandmethodsusedincludetheapplicationofbiased relaysand/ortheuseoftheinterposingCTs. CurrentImbalanceProducedbyTapChanging Atransformerequippedwithanonloadtapchanger OLTC willbydefinition experienceachangeinvoltageratioasitmovesoveritstappingrange.Thisin turnchangestheratioofprimarytosecondarycurrentandproducesoutof balance or spill current in the relay. As the transformer taps further from thebalanceposition,sothemagnitudeofthespillcurrentincreases.Tomake thesituationworse,astheloadonthetransformerincreasesthemagnitudeof thespillcurrentincreasesyetagain.Andfinallythroughfaultscouldproduce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable i.e. it mustnotoperate.Biasedrelaysprovidethesolution. MagnetizingInrushCurrent When a transformer is first energized, magnetizing inrush has the effect of producing a high magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and could be interpreted as an internal
fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation.Solutionsinclude buildingatimedelayfeature intotherelayand the use of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonicassociatedwithinrushcurrent.
OtherIssues
BiasedRelays Theuseofabiasfeaturewithinadifferentialrelaypermitslowsettingsand fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an onload tap changer.Theeffectofthebiasistoprogressivelyincreasetheamountofspill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. InterposingCTs ThemainfunctionofaninterposingCTistobalancethecurrentssuppliedto the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of themainCTs.InterposingCTsareequippedwithawiderangeoftapsthatcan beselectedbytheusertoachievethebalancerequired. As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary windingofthemainCTandtherelay.Theycanbeusedonthe primaryside or secondary side of the power transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. ModernRelays Itshouldbenotedthatsomeofthenewerdigitalrelayseliminatetheneedfor interposingCTsbyenablingessentialssuchasphaseshift,CT ratiosandzero sequencecurrenteliminationtobeprogrammeddirectlyintotherelay.
SimulinkDiagraminMATLABforDifferentialRelay
SUBSYSTEM

SUBSYSTEM1
WaveformResultsinMATLABforDifferentialRelay
Comments:
Itisimportanttonotethedirectionofthecurrentsaswellasthemagnitudeas theyarevectors.Itrequiresasetofcurrenttransformers smaller transformersthattransformcurrentsdowntoalevelwhichcanbemeasured ateachendofthepowerlineoreachsideofthetransformer. Inthisexperiment,wemodeledadifferentialrelayinMATLABwhichprovides theessentialprotectionagainsttransformerinternalfaultsanditisusefulin powertransformerslike500,220and132KV. Howeveritcanalsobeusedfortheprotectionofdistributiontransformer. Firstofallwehaveappliedafaultonthesecondarysideoftransformerand ensuretheoperationofcircuitbreakerattheinstantoffaultthatwassetbyus throughthetimerblock. Thenweappliedafaultontheprimarysideandagainverifythetrippingof circuitbreaker. Itwasobservedthatbreakertakesalittlemoretimewhenthefaultisonthe secondarysideascomparedtothefaultoccurrenceonprimarysideof transformerduetolargerdistance. Itisverifiedthatthedifferentialrelaymodeledcandetectthreephasefaultas wellasfaultonanysinglephaseoneachsideoftransformer.
Experiment#11
ComparisonbetweentheStepandTouchPotentialofaTModeland Square Model of Ground Grids under Tolerable and Intolerable in ETAP THEORY
GROUNDGRID Aneffectivesubstationgroundingsystemtypicallyconsistsof drivenground rods, buried interconnecting grounding cables or grid, equipment ground mats, connecting cables from the buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structuresandequipment,connectionstogroundedsystemneutrals,andthe ground surface insulating covering material. Currents flowing into the groundinggridfromlightningarresteroperations,impulseorswitchingsurge flashover of insulators, and linetoground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth. Without a properly designed grounding system, large potential differences can exist between differentpointswithinthesubstationitself.Undernormalcircumstances,itis current flowing through the grounding grid from linetoground faults that constitutesthemainthreattopersonnel.Currentsflowingintothegrounding gridfromlightningarresteroperations,impulseorswitchingsurgeflashover of insulators, and linetoground fault currents from the bus or connected transmissionlinesallcausepotentialdifferencesbetweengroundedpointsin thesubstationandremoteearth.
TheGroundGridSystemsprogramcalculatesthefollowing: The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors. Warnings areissuedifthespecifiedconductorisratedlowerthanthefaultcurrent level The Step and Touch potentials for any rectangular/triangular/L shaped/Tshaped configuration of a ground grid, with or without groundrods IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 ThetolerableStepandMeshpotentialsandcomparesthemwithactual, calculatedStepandMeshpotentials IEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 GraphicprofilesfortheabsoluteStepandTouchvoltages,aswellasthe tablesofthevoltagesatvariouslocations FiniteElementMethod The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for a rectangular/triangular/Lshaped/Tshaped ground grid. The cost of conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the substation/generating station during a ground fault are both considered. Design optimizations are performed using a relative cost effectivenessmethod basedontheIEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 TheGroundResistanceandGroundPotentialrise GPR OBJECTIVESOFGROUNDING Aneffectivegroundingsystemhasthefollowingobjectives:
Ensuresuchadegreeofhumansafetythatapersonworkingorwalking in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of a critical electric shock. The touch and step voltages produced in a fault condition have to be at safe values. A safe value is one that will not produceenoughcurrentwithinabodytocauseventricularfibrillation. Providemeanstocarryanddissipateelectriccurrentsintoearthunder normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating and equipmentlimitsoradverselyaffectingcontinuityofservice. Providegroundingforlightningimpulsesandthesurgesoccurringfrom the switching of substation equipment, which reduces damage to equipmentandcable. Provide a low resistance for the protective relays to see and clear ground faults, which improves protective equipment performance, particularlyatminimumfault. StepVoltage The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object. TouchVoltage Itisthepotentialdifferencebetweenthegroundpotentialriseandthesurface potential at the point where a person is standing while at the same time havinghishandsincontactwithagroundedstructure.
SINGLELINEDIAGRAM

INTOLERABLERECTANGULARSHAPEGROUNDGRID
ALERTS
TOLERABLERECTANGULARSHAPEGROUNDGRID
ALERTS
INTOLERABLETSHAPEGROUNDGRID
ALERTS
TOLERABLETSHAPEGROUNDGRID
ALERTS
Comments
Therearefollowingmajortypesofgroundgridsaccordingtotheirshape: Rectangular Triangular Lshaped Tshaped In this experiment, we have used two types of ground grid for comparison thatareRectangularshapedandTshaped. First we perform the analysis for intolerable limits for both types of ground grids.Thenperformtheanalysisfortolerablelimits. We observed that the number of rods used in case of Tshaped ground grid are required in greater quantity for tolerable limits as compared to Rectangularshapedgroundgrid. Due to greater number of rods requirement, Tshaped ground grid is much expensive than the Rectangular shaped ground grid. That is why we can say thattheRectangularshapedgroundgridisbetterthanTshaped.
Experiment#12
ModelingofanOverCurrentRelayusingETAP WHATISARELAY?
OverCurrentRelay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the overcurrent protection. Over current includes shortcircuit protection; Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earthfaults,Windingfaults.Shortcircuitcurrentsaregenerallyseveraltimes 5 to 20 full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of overcurrent protection are: The protectionshouldnotoperateforstartingcurrents,permissibleovercurrent, currentsurges.Toachievethis,thetimedelayisprovided incaseofinverse relays. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection.Overcurrentrelayisabasicelementofovercurrentprotection.In orderforanovercurrentprotectivedevicetooperateproperly,overcurrent protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage,ampereandinterruptingrating.Ofthethreeoftheratings,perhaps themostimportantandmostoftenoverlookedistheinterruptingrating.Ifthe interrupting rating is not properly; Selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all over current protective devicesarerequiredtohavethischaracteristic.
InstantaneousTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pickup value. It has operatingtimeisconstant.Init,thereisnointentionaltimedelay.Itoperates in0.1sorless.
DefiniteTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Itsoperatingtimeisconstant.Itsoperationisindependentofthemagnitude of current above the pickup value. It has pickup and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. InverseDefiniteMinimumTimeoverCurrentRelay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current anddefinitetimecharacteristicsathighervalues.Aninversecharacteristicis obtainedifthevalueofplugsettingmultiplierisbelow10,forvaluesbetween 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. It is widelyusedfortheprotectionofdistributionlines. VeryInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: ItgivesmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMT.Itisusedwherethere is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularlyeffectivewithgroundfaultsbecauseoftheirsteepcharacteristics. ExtremelyInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: IthasmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMTandvery inverseover currentrelay.Itissuitablefortheprotectionofmachinesagainstoverheating. Itisfortheprotectionofalternators,transformers,expensivecables,etc.
CURRENTTRANSFORMER CT
Inelectricalengineering,acurrenttransformer CT isused formeasurementofelectriccurrents.Currenttransformers, together with voltage transformers VT potential transformers PT ,areknownasinstrumenttransformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in
thecircuit,whichcanbeconvenientlyconnectedtomeasuringandrecording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electricalpowerindustry. AccuracyofCT TheaccuracyofaCTisdirectlyrelatedtoanumberoffactorsincluding: Burden Burdenclass/saturationclass Ratingfactor Load Externalelectromagneticfields Temperatureand Physicalconfiguration. Theselectedtap,formultiratioCT's
CIRCUITBREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automaticallyoperated electrical switch designed to protectanelectricalcircuitfromdamagecaused byoverloadorshortcircuit.Itsbasicfunctionis to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity,toimmediatelydiscontinueelectrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and thenhastobereplaced,acircuitbreakercanbe reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protectanindividualhouseholdapplianceuptolargeswitchgeardesignedto protecthighvoltagecircuitsfeedinganentirecity.
SINGLELINEDIAGRAM

SINGLELINEDIAGRAMWITHFAULT1
ALERTSDIAGRAM

SINGLELINEDIAGRAMWITHFAULT2 ALERTSDIAGRAM
COMMENTS:
An"overcurrentrelay"isatypeofprotectiverelaywhichoperateswhenthe load current exceeds a preset value. The ANSI device number is 50 for an instantaneous over current IOC , 51 for a time over current TOC . In a typicalapplicationtheovercurrentrelayisconnectedtoacurrenttransformer andcalibratedtooperateatoraboveaspecificcurrentlevel.Whentherelay operates, one or more contacts will operate and energize to trip open a circuitbreaker. Inthisexperimentwehaveusedonecurrenttransformerthatisconnectedto theovercurrentrelay. Whenafaultoccurinthesystem,theamountofcurrentflowingthroughthat sectionincreasesandcurrenttransformerprovidestherelayasenseoffault bychangingitscurrent. After sensing the fault, the relay operates the circuit breaker and isoltes the faultysystemfromthenormalsystem. Wehaveverifiedthattherelayisoperatingforbothfaultsaddedinthesystem byselectingtwodifferentfaultypoints.
Experiment#13
ModelingofaDifferentialRelayUsingETAP WHATISARELAY?
Arelayisanelectricallyoperatedswitch.Manyrelaysuseanelectromagnetto operateaswitchingmechanism,butotheroperatingprinciplesarealsoused. Relays find applications where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low powersignal,orwhereseveralcircuitsmustbecontrolledbyonesignal.The firstrelayswereusedinlongdistancetelegraphcircuits,repeatingthesignal coming in from one circuit and retransmitting it to another. Relays found extensiveuseintelephoneexchangesandearlycomputerstoperformlogical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electricmotoriscalledacontractor.Solidstaterelayscontrolpowercircuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multipleoperatingcoilsareusedtoprotectelectricalcircuitsfromoverloador faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protection relays. A protective relay is a
automatic sensing device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to isolate faulty element from system. Protective relaying is necessary with almost every electrical power system and no part of it is left unprotectedchoiceofprotectiondependsuponseveralaspectslike Typeandratingofprotectedequipmentanditsimportance Location Probableabnormalcondition Cost Selectivity,Sensitivity,Stability,Reliability,Faultclearancetime FunctionsofRelays Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit PurposeofRelay Control Protection Regulation TypeofRelays OvercurrentRelay DistanceRelay DifferentialRelayetc.
DifferentialRe elay
Differen ntial protection is a unit sch a heme that compar resthecurrentont theprimarysideof f a trans sformer with that on the s w secondary side. W Where a difference exists ot d ther than that du to the voltage ra ue atio it is assumed that th transfor he rmer has develope a fault ed t and the plant is automati e ically disc connected circuit by tripping t the relevant breaker rs.Thepr rincipleof foperation nismadepossibleb byvirtueo ofthefactthat large t transforme are v ers very effici ient and hence un nder norm opera mal ation power inequals powerou ut.Differe entialprot tectiondet tectsfault tsonallof fthe plant a and equipment with the p hin protected zone, incl luding int terturn short circuits s. PrincipleofOperation Theope eratingpr rincipleem mployedbytransfor rmerdiffer rentialpro otectionis sthe MerzP Price circu ulating cu urrent sy ystem as shown b below. U Under nor rmal conditions I1 and I2 are equal and opposite such that the resu d t ultant current through the rela is zero. An inter h ay rnal fault produces an unbalance or 's spill' current tthatisde etectedby ytherelay, ,leadingtooperatio on.
DesignConsidera ations A numb of factors have to be tak into account in designing a schem to ber ken g me meetth heseobjec ctives.The eseinclude:
ThematchingofCTratios Currentimbalanceproducedbytapchanging Dealingwithzerosequencecurrents Phaseshiftthroughthetransformer Magnetizinginrushcurrent
Eachoftheseisconsideredfurtherbelow: TheMatchingofCTRatios The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1etc.Thiscouldmeanthatthecurrentsfedintotherelayfromthetwo sides of the power transformer may not balance perfectly. Any imbalance mustbecompensatedforandmethodsusedincludetheapplicationofbiased relaysand/ortheuseoftheinterposingCTs. CurrentImbalanceProducedbyTapChanging Atransformerequippedwithanonloadtapchanger OLTC willbydefinition experienceachangeinvoltageratioasitmovesoveritstappingrange.Thisin turnchangestheratioofprimarytosecondarycurrentandproducesoutof balance or spill current in the relay. As the transformer taps further from thebalanceposition,sothemagnitudeofthespillcurrentincreases.Tomake thesituationworse,astheloadonthetransformerincreasesthemagnitudeof thespillcurrentincreasesyetagain.Andfinallythroughfaultscouldproduce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable i.e. it mustnotoperate.Biasedrelaysprovidethesolution. MagnetizingInrushCurrent When a transformer is first energized, magnetizing inrush has the effect of producingahighmagnitudecurrentforashortperiodoftime.
ThiswillbeseenbythesupplysideCTsonlyandcouldbeinterpretedasan internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation.Solutionsinclude buildingatimedelayfeature intotherelayand the use of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonicassociatedwithinrushcurrent.
OtherIssues
BiasedRelays Theuseofabiasfeaturewithinadifferentialrelaypermitslowsettingsand fast operating times even when a transformer is fitted with an onload tap changer.Theeffectofthebiasistoprogressivelyincreasetheamountofspill current required for operation as the magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by the manufacturer. InterposingCTs ThemainfunctionofaninterposingCTistobalancethecurrentssuppliedto the relay where there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of themainCTs.InterposingCTsareequippedwithawiderangeoftapsthatcan beselectedbytheusertoachievethebalancerequired. As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary windingofthemainCTandtherelay.Theycanbeusedonthe primaryside or secondary side of the power transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is necessary. ModernRelays Itshouldbenotedthatsomeofthenewerdigitalrelayseliminatetheneedfor interposingCTsbyenablingessentialssuchasphaseshift,CT ratiosandzero sequencecurrenteliminationtobeprogrammeddirectlyintotherelay.
CURRENTTRANSFORMER CT
Inelectricalengineering,acurrenttransformer CT isused formeasurementofelectriccurrents.Currenttransformers, together with voltage transformers VT potential transformers PT ,areknownasinstrumenttransformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in thecircuit,whichcanbeconvenientlyconnectedtomeasuringandrecording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electricalpowerindustry. AccuracyofCT TheaccuracyofaCTisdirectlyrelatedtoanumberoffactorsincluding: Burden Burdenclass/saturationclass Ratingfactor Load Externalelectromagneticfields Temperatureand Theselectedtap,formultiratioCT's
CIRCUITBREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automaticallyoperated electrical switch designed to protectanelectricalcircuitfromdamagecausedbyoverloadorshortcircuit. Itsbasicfunctionistodetectafaultconditionand,byinterruptingcontinuity, toimmediatelydiscontinueelectricalflow.Unlikeafuse,whichoperatesonce
and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset either manually or automatically to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltagecircuitsfeedinganentirecity.
SINGLELINEDIAGRAM
ALERTSDIAGRAM
ALERTSDIAGRAM
Comments:
Itisimportanttonotethedirectionofthecurrentsaswellasthemagnitudeas theyarevectors.Itrequiresasetofcurrenttransformers smaller transformersthattransformcurrentsdowntoalevelwhichcanbemeasured ateachendofthepowerlineoreachsideofthetransformer. Inthisexperiment,wemodeledadifferentialrelayinETAPwhichprovides theessentialprotectionagainsttransformerinternalfaultsanditisusefulin powertransformerslike500,220and132KV. Howeveritcanalsobeusedfortheprotectionofdistributiontransformer. HerewehaveusedtwoCTs,oneonprimarysideoftransformerandtheother onsecondaryside.TheseCTsaredirectlyconnectedtothedifferentialrelay thatissensingthedifferencebetweenthesecondarysidecurrentsofboth CTs. Firstofallwehaveappliedafaultonthesecondarysideoftransformerand ensuretheoperationofcircuitbreakerattheinstantoffaultthroughthe signalprovidedbytherelay. Thenweappliedafaultontheprimarysideandagainverifythetrippingof circuitbreakerthroughtherelaysignal. Itisverifiedthatthedifferentialrelaymodeledcandetectthreephasefaultas wellasfaultonanysinglephaseoneachsideoftransformer. Moreoverthedifferentialrelaycanonlysensethefaultsthatarepresentin theinternalzoneofbothCTs.
Experiment#14
ModelingofaDefiniteTimeOverCurrentRelayusingMATLAB WHATISARELAY?
OverCurrentRelay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level is known as the overcurrent protection. Over current includes shortcircuit protection; Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earthfaults,Windingfaults.Shortcircuitcurrentsaregenerallyseveraltimes 5 to 20 full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of overcurrent protection are: The protectionshouldnotoperateforstartingcurrents,permissibleovercurrent, currentsurges.Toachievethis,thetimedelayisprovided incaseofinverse relays. The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over current protection.Overcurrentrelayisabasicelementofovercurrentprotection.In orderforanovercurrentprotectivedevicetooperateproperly,overcurrent protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings include voltage,ampereandinterruptingrating.Ofthethreeoftheratings,perhaps themostimportantandmostoftenoverlookedistheinterruptingrating.Ifthe interrupting rating is not properly; Selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all over current protective devicesarerequiredtohavethischaracteristic.

InstantaneousTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pickup value. It has operatingtimeisconstant.Init,thereisnointentionaltimedelay.Itoperates in0.1sorless. DefiniteTimeoverCurrentRelay: It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pickup value. Itsoperatingtimeisconstant.Itsoperationisindependentofthemagnitude of current above the pickup value. It has pickup and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism. InverseDefiniteMinimumTimeoverCurrentRelay: It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current anddefinitetimecharacteristicsathighervalues.Aninversecharacteristicis obtainedifthevalueofplugsettingmultiplierisbelow10,forvaluesbetween 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards definite time characteristics. It is widelyusedfortheprotectionofdistributionlines. VeryInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: ItgivesmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMT.Itisusedwherethere is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularlyeffectivewithgroundfaultsbecauseoftheirsteepcharacteristics. ExtremelyInverseTimeoverCurrentRelay: IthasmoreinversecharacteristicsthanthatofIDMTandvery inverseover currentrelay.Itissuitablefortheprotectionofmachinesagainstoverheating. Itisfortheprotectionofalternators,transformers,expensivecables,etc.
SimulinkDiagraminMATLABforDefiniteTimeOverCurrent Relay

WaveformResultsinMATLABforDefiniteTimeOverCurrent Relay

COMMENTS:
Asclearfromthename,thedefinitetimeovercurrentrelayoperatesaftera predeterminedtime,ascurrentexceedsitspickupvalue.Itsoperatingtimeis constant.Itsoperationisindependentofthemagnitudeofcurrentabovethe pickupvalue.Ithaspickupandtimedialsettings,desiredtimedelaycanbe setwiththehelpofanintentionaltimedelaymechanism. Therelaymodeledinthisexperimenthasaconstanttimedelayof1second. Whenanyfaultoccursinthepowersystem,therelaysensestheoccurrenceof fault and check it upto the time delay provided in the setting. If the fault is removedinbetweenthattime,thenrelaywillnotoperatethecircuitbreaker. Relaywilloperatethecircuitbreakeriffaultoccurrencetimeisgreaterthan thetimedelaygiveninthesetting. For example in this experiment, there is a fault in the system from 0 to 0.5 secondbutthisfaulttimeissmallerthanthetimedelay 1second thatiswhy therelaydoesnotoperateduringthisfault.Afterthatanotherfaultoccurfrom 1 to 2.1 seconds, now the fault time 1.1 second is greater than the delay time 1second .Itisobservedthattherelayisoperatedduringthisfaulttime whichverifiesthedefinitetimerelayoperation.

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LABM UAL MANU

PO OWER RSYSTEMPR ROTEC CTION

MATLABcanmakeothergraphtypes aswell,withaxislabels. bar b xlabel 'Sample#' ylabel 'Pounds'

Orconvolveagainandplottheresult. r conv p,q plot r ; r 1159027848048027890151

MatrixManipulation: WestartbycreatingamagicsquareandassigningittothevariableA. A magic 3 A 816 357 492

ETAPisthemostcomprehensiveanalysisplatformforthedesign,simulation, operation,control,optimization,andautomationofgeneration,transmission, distribution,andindustrialpowersystems.

ETAPisthemostcomprehensiveanalysisplatformforthedesign,simulation, operation,control,optimization,andautomationofgeneration,transmission, distribution,andindustrialpowersystems.Thissoftwareisusedtoanalyze

Theovervoltagemaybeeitherinternal duetoswitching orexternal dueto lightening .

Assumingthat; Internalvoltage Ip.u Synchronousimpedance Xd 2p.u

Atthisstage,wecanconsidertherelayasablackboxhavingcurrentand voltageatitsinput,andanoutput,intheformoftheclosureofanormally opencontact.Thisoutputoftherelayiswiredinthetripcircuitofthe associatedcircuitbreaker s soastocompletethiscircuit.Theconceptual diagramofageneralizedrelayisshowninFigure:

Faultswithinthezonearetermedinternalfaultswhereasthefaultsoutside thezonearecalledexternalfaults.Externalfaultsarealsoknownasthrough faults.Thefarthestpointfromtherelaylocation,whichisstillinsidethezone, iscalledthereachpoint.

Indeedthesenecessarytoselectprotectionschemeforanypowersystem elementtounderstandthebasicsoffaulteffectsandregardingprotection system.

POW WERSYS STEMPR ROTECTIO ONLABM MANUAL L

ASADNA AEEM 2006RCETE 2 EE22

Inaninductionmotor,themagnitudeoftheinducedemfintherotorcircuitis proportionaltothestatorfieldandtheslipspeed thedifferencebetween synchronousandrotorspeeds ofthemotor,andtherotorcurrentdepends onthisemf.

Wye starinEurope ,wherethewindingsareconnectedfromphasesof

RESPONSEOFDIFFERENTPARAMETERSINCASEOFSTATIC MOTORSTARTINGANALYSIS MOTORREACTIVEPOWERDEMAND

RESPONSEOFDIFFERENTPARAMETERSINCASEOFDYNAMIC MOTORSTARTINGANALYSIS MOTORREACTIVEPOWERDEMAND

Failuresmayoccurineachpart,suchasinsulationfailure,fallenorbroken transmissionlines,incorrectoperationofcircuitbreakers,shortcircuitsand opencircuits.Protectiondevicesareinstalledwiththeaimsofprotectionof assets,andensurecontinuedsupplyofenergy.

whenmovedapart. Terminals Bimetallicstrip Calibrationscrewallowsthemanufacturertopreciselyadjustthetrip currentofthedeviceafterassembly. Solenoid Arcdivider/extinguisher

However,otherpipesandbuildingpowergroundscanalsobeused.While coldwaterpipesaregoodcandidatesyoushouldevenbecarefulhere.A plumbermayreplacesectionsofcorrodedmetalpipewithplastic.Thiswould renderthepipeuselessasaground.

DisplayedResultssectionexplainstheavailableonelinedisplayingresults andprovidesoneexample.ThePlotssectionexplainswhatplotsfortransient stabilityareavailableandhowtoselectandviewthem.

Explanation Asitisclearfromgraphthatastransientsoccurinsystemthereisasudden dipingeneratorexcitationvoltageatstart,thisdipinvoltagethengetshigher valueafterdippingandaslongastransientsexistsitshowssomefluctuations andgetstablevaluewhentransientsgeteliminated.

Where: tf Timedurationoffaultinseconds Ta X/ wR thedcoffsettimeconstantinseconds

Thedcoffsetinthefaultcurrentwillcausetheconductortoreachahigher temperatureforthesamefaultconditions faultcurrentdurationand magnitude .Inaddition,ifpresent,dcoffsetcouldresultinmechanicalforces andabsorbedenergybeingalmostfourtimesthevalueofanequivalent symmetriccurrentcase.

DoubleclickingonthegroundgridboxlocatedontheOneLineDiagramwill bringuptheGroundGridProjectInformationdialogbox,usedtoselectan IEEEorFEMFiniteElementMethodStudyModel.

AfterselectingtheIEEEorFEMStudyModel,theGroundGridSystems graphicaluserinterfacewindowwillbedisplayed.BelowisaGGS presentationofagroundgridfortheFEMStudyModelcase.

Stop TheStopSignbuttonisnormallydisabled,andbecomesenabledwhena GroundGridSystemsCalculationisinitiated.Clickingonthisbuttonwill terminatecalculationsinprogress,andtheoutputreportswillbeincomplete.

conductors/rodsandthesafetyofpersonnelinthevicinityofthe substation/generatingstationduringagroundfaultareboth considered.Designoptimizationsareperformedusingarelativecost effectivenessmethod basedontheIEEEStd80andIEEEStd665 TheGroundResistanceandGroundPotentialrise GPR

CreateaNewGroundGridPresentation TocreateaGGSpresentation,agroundgridmustfirstbeaddedtotheOne LineDiagram.ClickontheGroundGridcomponentlocatedontheACtoolbar, anddroptheGGSsymbolanywhereontheOneLineDiagram.

Rightclickonanylocationinsidethegroundgridbox,andselectPropertiesto bringuptheGridEditor.TheGridEditorDialogboxisusedtospecifygrid information,gridstyles,equipmentinformation,andtoviewcalculation results.ClickontheGridPresentationbuttontobringupaGGSpresentation.

DoubleclickingonthegroundgridboxlocatedontheOneLineDiagramwill bringuptheGroundGridProjectInformationdialogbox,usedtoselectan IEEEorFEMFiniteElementMethodStudyModel.

Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous OverCurrent Relay using MATLAB Relay:

FunctionsofRelays: Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit

POW WERSYS STEMPR ROTECTIO ONLABM MANUAL L

ThematchingofCTratios Currentimbalanceproducedbytapchanging Dealingwithzerosequencecurrents Phaseshiftthroughthetransformer Magnetizinginrushcurrent

FunctionsofRelays: Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit

POW WERSYS STEMPR ROTECTIO ONLABM MANUAL L

ThematchingofCTratios Currentimbalanceproducedbytapchanging Dealingwithzerosequencecurrents Phaseshiftthroughthetransformer Magnetizinginrushcurrent

FunctionsofRelays: Todetectthepresenceoffault Identifythefaultedcomponents Initiateappropriatecircuitbreaker Removetheeffectivecomponentfromcircuit

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