Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics

CENT-112: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics
Dr. Van de Graaff (MIT Professor) designed and built this generator as a research tool in early atom-smashing and high energy X-ray experiments. This is the standard of excellence we should aspire to.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Course Outline
Section 1: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics Section 2: Basic Circuits Section 3: Motors, Generators, & Power Distribution Section 4: Advanced Electrical Circuits Section 5: Electronic Communication & Data Systems
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Interest
The great end in life is not knowledge but action. Take your knowledge and use it as soon as you can. Use technology as a blessing to mankind and not as a curse. Einstein 1879-1955 Improvement ideas: tomsic@hawaii.edu Website: http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/~tomsic 12 labs, 2 projects (audio amplifier & PS) 3 exams
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Introduce Yourself
Where are you from? How do you like Honolulu Community College? What experience do you have in electronics? What is something interesting about yourself? What do you want to learn in this class?
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Section 1: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics

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Safety Precautions Basic Electrical Terms and Circuits Basic Measuring Instruments Basic Electrical Circuit Materials Energy Sources of Electricity
A GOOD THING TO KEEP IN MIND!
THE BEST TOOLS EVER INVENTED HANDS!
SAFETY SHIELDS ARE EYE INSURANCE!
SAFETY SHOES ARE NOT FOR DEFEAT!
HEARING PROTECTION IS FOR WINNERS!
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Always check Electrical Circuits Deenergized

Discharge capacitors. Check Power Leads (T1-T3) Check Capacitors discharged. < 30VAC is deenergized.
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Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

Invisible Threat 1 touch can ruin this card. Wear a wrist strap.
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General Safety Rules

1. Do not work when you are tired or taking medicine that makes you drowsy. 2. Do not work in poor light. 3. Do not work in damp areas or with wet or damp clothing and shoes. 4. Use approved tools, equipment, & protective devices. 5. Remove all metal items when working around exposed circuits.
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General Safety Rules Continued

6. Never assume that a circuit is off. Doublecheck it with an instrument that you are sure is operational. 7. Buddy system is used at circuit breaker supplying power if working on circuit. 8. Never override safety interlocks. 9. Keep all tools and test equipment in good working condition. 10. Discharge capacitors.
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General Safety Rules Continued

11. Do not remove grounds and do not use adapters that defeat the equipment ground. 12. Use CO2 or halogenated-type fire extinguisher to put out electrical fires. Water conducts electricity! (i.e. galley fire in oven). 13. Store solvents and other chemicals in appropriate areas. (i.e. fire personnel incident). 14. Do not work on unfamiliar circuits. 15. Do not cut corners or rush. No horseplay or practical jokes in the labs (i.e. throwing caps, meggering). 15
Shock Victim
Do not become part of the problem. Use non-conductive belt and break free shock victim. Call for medical assistance. (911)
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Review CPR
Check for response. Have someone call 911. Clear airway. Look, listen and feel for breathing. Give 2 full breaths. 15 compressions (1 and 2 and 3) Continue till medical help arrives, you are relieved or are too tired to continue.
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Questions
Q1. Who is responsible for safety? A1. Everybody is responsible for their safety. Q2. What protects electronic circuits from ESD? A2. ESD packaging & wrist straps. Q3. What is the worst electrical shock you have heard of or experienced? A3. Various.
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Prefix
Symbol
Scientific Notation
Decimal
Power of Ten
tera giga mega kilo basic unit milli micro nano pico
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T G M k m n p
1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 1 .001 .000001 .000000001 .000000000001

1012 109 106 103 103 106 109 1012
Ohms Law
E I
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Given: E = Voltage I = Current R = Resistance
R
E=IR I = E/R R = E/I
Basic Electrical Terms

Definitions
Current (I): Flow of electrons past a point. 1A = 1 coulomb of charge flowing past a point for 1 second. Unit of measure is amps. Resistance (R): Opposition to the flow of electrons. Unit of measure is ohms. Voltage: (E): Force behind electrical flow. Unit of measure is the volt.
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Questions
Q4. Given a 1 Megohm resistor with a 120 volt potential applied to it, what current will pass through it? A4. .12 milliamps Q5. Can this current kill you if you touch it? A5. No. .1 Amp for 1 second can be fatal. Q6. How many students know CPR? A6. It is a good thing to be qualified in CPR when working on or near electrical circuits.
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Questions Continued
Q7. Given a 1.5 Amp battery charger with a total circuit resistance of 8 ohms, what supply voltage is generated? A7. 12 volts Q8. What amperage is present when you place the new chip in your cellular phone? A8. micro amps. Q9. What amperage is present when you put leads on a new car battery? A9. milliamps
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Definitions
Atomic Theory Foundation for Solid State Devices Atom - Smallest part of an element that retains the characteristics of that element. Molecule Smallest part of a compound. Compound - 2 or more elements chemically combined.
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The Atom
Atom Parts:
Electrons: Negative part of an atom. Protons: Positive part of an atom. Neutrons: Negative part of an atom.
E E P N N P E E E E E E E
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Static Electricity
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. Walking across a wool or nylon rug , you can generate a static charge of electricity, discharging several thousand volts of electricity to a metallic object like a door handle.
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Definitions
Coulomb: Practical unit of measurement of the amount of electricity. Used to describe the flow of electricity.
1 Coulomb = 6.24 X 1018 electrons.
Electrostatic or Dielectric field: The field or force surrounding a charged body. Charge Transfer
Direct Contact Induction: Electron flow due to charged object in close proximity.
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Energy Band Diagrams

Valence Electrons are those electrons which are located in the outermost or Valence shell of an atom. The number of valence electrons an atoms has determines the electrical properties of that atom. < 4 electrons => Conductor > 4 electrons => Insulator 4 electrons => Semiconductor
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Energy Band Diagrams Continued

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Valence Band
Forbidden Band
Conduction Band
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Bonding
Covalent vs. Ionic Bonding Octet Rule and Covalent Bonding
N and P Crystals
Base Material - Silicon or Germanium Doping - Process by which impurity atoms are added into a pure base material to create a compound with improved electrical properties. This process is used when making semiconductors.
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Static Device Application

Electrostatic Precipitator: Collector Plates need cleaning.
Mechanical Filter Ionizer Plate: Positively charges Particles in air Collector Plate: Negative plates collects + ions.
Oil Mist
Clean Air
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Basic Electrical Circuit
Power Supply (Source) Load (Light) Conductor
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Types of Current
AC: Alternating Current
+ 0
DC: Direct Current

+ 0
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Circuit Flow
Conventional Current Flow: Hole flow.
Electron Flow
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit Series/parallel Circuit

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Basic Instruments & Measurements
Simpson 260
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Fluke 177
Interest
One of the first meter instruments was used by the Greeks (0 BC) and was the Sun Dial.
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Outline
Types of meter movement Types of meters
Voltmeter Ammeter Ohmmeter
Electrical diagrams
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Basic Multimeters
A meter is a measuring instrument. Ammeter: measures current. Voltmeter: measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points. Ohmmeter measures resistance. Multimeter: combines these functions and others into a single instrument.
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Ammeter
Measures current in amperes, milliamperes, microamperes depending on the meter scale. The coil in the meter movement is wound with many turns of fine wire. If a large current was allowed to flow the coil, it would burn it out, so a shunt or alternate path is provided for current. Most of the current flows through the shunt. Safety: Connect an ammeter is series with a circuit device. Never in parallel!
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Determining Shunt Resistors

Meter movement requires 1mA for full scale deflection. The resistance of the coil is 100. The ranges of the meter are: 0-1mA, 0-10mA, 050mA, 0-100mA.
E=IR = (.001)(100) = .1V without a shunt. For full scale deflection, .1V is required.
A shunt must carry 90% of the current for the 010mA scale.
Rs =E/I = .1/.009 = 11.1
Calculate the other shunt resistors.

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Voltmeter
To ensure voltages across the coil never exceed . 1V, multiplier resistors are placed in series with the meter movement coil using a switch. Voltage ranges 0-1V, 0-10V, 0-100V, 0-500V .1V can be placed across meter at any one time, therefore a resistor must drop .9V to use a 0-1V scale. Full scale current deflection is 1mA or . 001A Rm = E/I + .9V/.001A = 900 Calculate multiplier resistors for other scales.
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Ohmmeter
Uses non-linier scale: zero-infinite. Calibrate prior to use for analog meter. Check leads at 0 for good lead connections. Electrical leads safety story for finger stop.
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Moving Iron Vane Meter
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Moving Iron Vane Meter

Measure either AC or DC. It depends on induced magnetism for its operation. It utilizes the principle of repulsion between two concentric iron vanes, one fixed and one movable, placed inside a solenoid. A pointer is attached to the movable vane. When current flows through the coil, the two iron vanes become magnetized with north poles at their upper ends and south poles at their lower ends for one direction of current through the coil. Because like poles repel, the unbalanced component of force, tangent to the movable element, causes it to turn against the force exerted by the springs.
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D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

The permanent-magnet moving-coil movement used in most meters .
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D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

D'Arsonval meter movement is capable of indicating current in only one direction. Without a rectifier, or direct current of the wrong polarity, the meter would be severely damaged. Since the pointer will vibrate (oscillate) around the average value indication, damping is used.
1. 2. Airtight chamber containing a vane The movement of the coil (conductor) through a magnetic field causes a current to be induced in the coil opposite to the current that caused the movement of the coil.
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Digital Multimeters (DMM)

DMM are smaller and more accurate in measurement. Analog meters can measure transients information better. Measures resistance, DC & AC voltage, amperage, and diode testing.
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Questions
Q. What is the difference between diode testing and resistance checking? A. The diode check is more sensitive with an audible sound for continuity. Q. What are some experiences that you have with different meters? A. Various
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Electrical Diagrams
One line Diagram Wiring Diagram
i. e. Ceiling Fan
Antenna Speaker RF AMP Detector AF AMP
L1 M
Not Connected Connected
L2
i.e. Motor Controllers
Block Diagram
i. e. Car Stereo
Schematic Diagram
i. e. VCR player
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RC RB Q1
Schematic Diagram
INPUT FROM LOGIC
Logic Output Amplifier Using a UJT and a SCR

+15 VDC LOGIC SUPPLY
10K
1K
LOAD
115 VAC
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Wiring Diagram
A>B A=B A0 A<B A1 A2 A3 B0 B1 B2 B3 U300 A=B A<B A>B A2 A3 A=B A<B U301 U300
U304 +12V
A0 A1
A>B A=B A>B A=B A<B A<B A0 A1 A2 A3 B0 B1 B2 B3
U302
S300
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 C Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q 10
B0 B1 B2 B3
A=B
D S Q
Q 11 R Q 12
U306
C Q R
D S Q M305B C R Q1
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Conclusion
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Basic Electrical Circuit Materials
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Interest
Optical fiber is a long, cylindrical, transparent material that confines and transmits light waves. Carries information in the form of light giving the fiber thousands of times more information-carrying capacity than copper, which uses electricity to transmit signals. 3 LAYERS:
1. Core: carries the light (silica glass) 2. Cladding: confines the light to the core (silica glass) 3. Coating: provides protection for the cladding (plastic)
Carries information so fast that you could transmit 3 television show episodes in just one second. This is impossible with copper wire.
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Basics
Conductor: Pathways that allow electrons to flow through an electrical circuit.
Electron flow Hole flow (+ charge flow, opposing viewpoint). Materials:
Copper: Most common. Silver: Better conductor, more expensive Aluminum: Used in high voltage lines because of its light weight. Center core is steel for strength. Brass: Used in electro-mechanical parts like relays and contactors.
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Conductor Sizes
American Wire Gauge System
The larger the gauge number, the smaller the cross-sectional area the wire will have.
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Circular Mils (cmil)

cmil = Diameter2 4 cmil = (2 mil wire diameter) 2 1 inch by inch wire = (1000 mils)(250 mils)/.7854 = 318,309 cmils
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Conductor Insulation
Insulation: Conductor protective coating.
Materials: Rubber, plastic and other synthetic materials Factors: Extreme heat, cold, chemicals, and oil. Codings:
R: Rubber H: Heat C: Corrosion resistant
Types: High voltage, Coaxial, multiple conductors, stranded conductors, solid conductors, 3 conductor lighting cord.
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Conductor Resistance
Factors that effect resistance.
Cross-sectional area of the conductor: Larger diameter, lower resistance. Type of conductor resistance: Aluminum 1000 feet = 2.57 ohms. Copper 1000 feet = 1.619 ohms. Length of conductor: Longer conductor, higher resistance. Temperature of material: Higher temperature, higher resistance.
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Safety Standards
National Electrical Code (NEC) is a collection of electrical standards that must be followed to ensure safety of personnel and prevent electrical fires.
Maximum voltage drop for branch circuits (i.e. breaker panel to outlet) is 3%. CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD where CMA = area in cmil, K = constant (K=12 for copper and 18 for aluminum), I = current, L = length of conductor, VD = voltage drop.
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Questions
Q. Given a copper conductor for a 20A drill 75 feet away, what size wire is needed? W. Length = (75)(2)=150 VD = (120)(.03)=3.6
CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD CMA = (12)(20)(150)/3.6 = 10,000 cmils or No. 10 wire.
A. No. 10 wire
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Breadboards
Copper strips are run in parallel under the rows of holes and are used as conductor pathways. Jumper wires are used to connect all the solid state devices. Used to prototype a circuit.
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Breadboards
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Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
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Heat Sink Conductor Path
Connection Pad
Edge Connectors
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Chassis
Chassis: Circuit using metal frame providing conduction path for the negative side (ground)
i.e. Tail light being supplied by car battery. i. e. Power supply using chassis resisters.
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Switches
Classified by the actuator which is the mechanical device that causes the circuit to open and close. SPST: Single Pole Single Throw
Single Pole: 1 path for electron flow to be turned on & off. Single Throw: Switch controls only one circuit.
DPDT: Double Pole Double Throw

Double Pole: 2 paths for electron flow to be turned on & off. Double Throw: Switch controls two circuits.
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Toggle Switch
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Slide Switch
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Rocker Switch
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Rotary Switch
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Rotary Switch Application
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Wafer Switch
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Limit Switch
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Dip Switch
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Questions
Q. What is something that uses a limit switch? A. Computer, Camera, Shredder, etc. Q. What is something that uses a dip switch? A. Back of computer to switch 120 to 240 VAC Q. What is something that uses a rocker switch? A. Light switch
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Switch ratings
Current: Maximum amperage rating to handle current safely. High current causes high heat. Voltage: Maximum voltage rating so that electromechanical circuitry will not fail.
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Splice lug: Connects 2 wires.
Connectors
Wire nut connector: Connect motor with controller.
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Wire Cutter Tools
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Fuses: Open/ blow for circuit protection.

120V5A
Circuit Protective Devices
Circuit Breakers: Protect larger rated equipment.

-Positions: on, off, trip-free -Explain troubleshooting ACBs.
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Incandescent Lamp
In 1879 Thomas Edison developed the 1st incandescent lamp. The tungsten replaced the carbon filament. The heat produced from current flow is usually what burns out the filament with time.
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Tungsten
Fluorescent Lamp
When the tube is energized, the filaments at the end will glow producing heat and little light. The heat vaporizes the mercury in the tube. Once the mercury is vaporized, electrons flow in the mercury vapor. Ultraviolet light is produced. The light strikes the phosphor coating and causes it to glow creating phosphorous light. (very little heat)
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Lighting Physical Diagram
Ballast
Starter
Light Clip
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Fluorescent Lighting Schematic
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Neon Light
2 Electrodes inserted in the ends of a long glass tube. Tube is filled with neon gas. A neon light transformer (10,000V) is used to create current through the neon gas. After the light is energized, the neon tube will glow. To create a variety of colors, other gasses are added. (i.e. argon and helium)
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LED Light
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Halogen Lamp
A tungsten filament is inserted through a glass tube filled with halogen gas. Produces more light. The halogen gas returns boiled of tungsten particles back to the filament making the filament last longer. Creates high heat. Filaments can be damaged from oil on fingers.
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light
filament
Fiber Lighting from the Sun

Future of lighting
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Camera Flash Circuit
NE: Neon Lamp
FL: Flash
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Resistors
Demonstrate resistor software.
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Chip Resistors
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Potentiometers
Rotary knob varies resistance. Can use an eraser to clean carbon deposits between arm and resistor. Uses: voltage and speed adjust.
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Variable Resisters
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Wire Wound Resistors

Starting Resistors
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Conclusion
Q. When do a use a resistor in a circuit? A. provide opposition to current flow or develop a voltage drop. Q. What can cause a potentiometer to no longer work? A. Loose or broken arm.
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Sources of Electricity
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Interest
Solar power device use is on the increase. Devices include cars to radios.
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Basic Sources of Electricity

Friction Chemical Action Light Heat Pressure Magnetism
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Battery History
Luigi Galvani (1790): Frog supported on copper wires leg twitched when touched with a steel scalpel. Alessandro Volta: Invented electric/ voltaic cell by placing 2 dissimilar elements in a chemical building an electric potential creating electricity from chemical action.
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Battery Experiment
A grapefruit can be used to produce enough electricity to operate a small radio.
Nickel Penny
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Zinc Carbon Battery Cell

Zn + H2SO4 + H2O ZnSO4 + H2O + H2 - plate + electrolyte + water sulfated - plate + water + hydrogen gas.
- End of Life due to H2 blanketing around carbon rod.
Zn C H2
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+
H2SO4 + H2O
Primary Cells
D Cell C Cell
AAA Cell
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AA Cell
Primary Cells
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Primary Cells
Can not be recharged. Chemical action can not be reversed. Defect: Polarization: H2 blanketing around electrode. Depolarization agent is added to prevent the H2 blanketing around electrode . Compounds rich in oxygen (i.e. MnO2) are used. The O2 in the depolarization agent combines with H2 to form H2O. (2MnO2 + H2 2MnO3 + H2O): Local Action: Does not contribute to electrical energy.
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Battery Dry Cell

Flashlight Batteries: Zinc-carbon Cell
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AA Alkaline Cell
Anode: Manganese Dioxide Cathode: Zinc Powder Electrolyte: Caustic Alkali Separator: Separates + & -
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Mercury Cell
New type of dry cell. 1.34 VDC from chemical action between zinc (-) and mercury oxide (+). Costly to make Creates 5 times more current then other dry cells. Maintains terminal voltage longer. Uses: field instruments & portable communications.
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Lithium Cell
Lithium is bonded to a thin layer of conductive metal and has a porous separator between it and the cathode. This design allows for a large surface area, providing a large reaction surface & higher discharge rates compared to other Lithium cells.
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Silver Oxide Cell

Uses amalgamated zinc anode, silver oxide as the cathode material, & a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Silver oxide cells are ideal for miniature devices where space is limited. Voltage: 1.5 to 1.2 V Uses: Watches
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Silver Oxide Cell
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Secondary Cells
Can be recharged or restored. Chemical action can be reversed.
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Battery Chargers
Used to restore the charge on rechargeable batteries. Used for: AA batteries and car batteries.
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Battery Chargers Schematic
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Battery Chargers P/S Schematic
Parts of a Power Supply

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Stepdown Transformer Bridge Rectifier Filters Regulator

Battery Charges
Normal: Done when battery is discharged Equalizing: Done to drive sulphates off of positive plate. Float: Keep at full charge. Freshening: New batteries
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Incidents
Battery fire due to charging battery.
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Battery Wet Cell
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Measuring Specific Gravity
Determines state of the charge on the battery.

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Lead Acid Battery
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Lead Acid Battery

Primary Chemical Reactions
Pb + PbO2 + 2H2 SO
-2 4
2PbSO4-2 + 2H2O + 5 echarge discharge
Half Cell Chemical Reactions

Pb + SO4-2 = PbSO4-2 + 2 e+ PbO2 PbO4 H+ + 2 e- + SO4-2 = PbSO4-2 Pb
2
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H2 SO4-2
H2 O
Electrolyte Separator
Lead Acid Battery Description

In a wet cell, the metals are sponge lead (Pb) and lead peroxide (PbO2), and the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The reaction begins as sulfate (SO4) breaks away from the acid and unites with the lead of both the positive and negative plates to form lead sulfate (PbSO4). The oxygen (O2) is thereby liberated from the lead peroxide and joins with the hydrogen (H2 -- what's left over after the sulfate left the acid) to produce ordinary water (H2O), which dilutes the electrolyte.
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Lead Acid Battery

Terminal Post Terminal Post Plastic Case
Se pa ra to r
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Pl
at es
Lead Acid Battery

Batteries self- discharge 1-25% per month in storage Lead sulfation starts occurring when the state-ofcharge drops below 100%. If left in a vehicle, disconnecting the negative cable will reduce the level of discharge by eliminating the load. Cold will slow the self-discharge process down and heat will speed it up. Batteries are recycled by law.
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Battery Safety
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
Chemical Reaction:
2 NiOOH + 2H2O + Cd
Oxy-Nickel hydroxide charge discharge
2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
Nickel hydroxide
Cadmium hydroxide
These batteries contain a Ni(OH)2 cathode, Cd anode and aqueous KOH electrolyte. Ni(OH)2 has a layered CdI2 structure, and NiOOH is apparently a complex, multiphase material. Advantages: High cycles (often 1000's) and long shelf life (possibly months without significant self-discharge). Disadvantages: Relative to Pb acid include lower power densities, greater cost, and a "memory" effect.
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
Memory effect: Unused capacity of a cell cannot be utilized if the cell is not fully discharged. Related to the formation of a passive surface on the electrodes that forms a barrier to further cell reaction.
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
Applications:
Cassette players and recorders Dictating machines Instruments Personal Pagers Photoflash equipment Portable communications equipment Portable hand tools and appliances Shavers Tape recorders Toothbrushes
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Questions
Q. What do you use batteries for? A. Radios, lights, fans, cars, toys, calculators, cameras, laptops. Q. What is the largest battery you have seen? A. Submarine battery. Q. What is the difference between rechargeable and disposable batteries? A. Rechargeable batteries are made of NiCAD while disposable batteries are alkaline because NiCAD can be cycled more.
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Dirty Cells cause grounds
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Cell Damage
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Questions
Q. What is the chemical reaction for a lead-acid battery? A. Pb+PbO2+2H2 SO4-2 2PbSO4-2+2H2O+5 e-.
charge discharge
Q. What is a button battery made of? A. Silver Oxide. Q. If your battery is grounded, how do you repair it? A. clean it & retest or take it to Sears to check the internal resistance.
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Batteries in Series
Physical Description _
1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A
Electrical Schematic _ + _ + _ + _ +
Output 6 VDC 1A
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Batteries in Parallel
Physical Description +
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
_ Electrical Schematic _ _ _ _ + + + +
Output 1.5 VDC 4A
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Batteries in Series-Parallel
Physical Description
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
_
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
Electrical Schematic _ _ _ _ + + + + _ _ _ _ + + + +
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Output 6 VDC 2A
Battery Capacity
Look at manufacture chart for specifications. Capacity in Amp-Hours (AH) is the ability to produce current over a period of time. Rate of discharge must be considered in order to get maximum AH out of battery. Factors effecting capacity of battery:
Number of plates per cell. Kind of separators effect capacity & battery life. General condition of the battery. (i.e. age, grounds, state of charge).
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Other Sources of Electricity

Solar Heat Crystals Fuel Cells Diesels Generators
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Photovoltaic Cell
139
Photovoltaic Cell
Schematic symbol
_ +
Physical description
L _ +
Sunlight
N type semiconductor P type semiconductor
Specifications: 1 cell produces 1 Watt and .5 Volts

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Cells can be connected into arrays. Arrays are build with cells in series and parallel.
Photovoltaic Cell Application

Used to keep solar powered cars charged when not being driven.
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Questions
Q. What are some applications that you have used a solar cell for? A. Cars, calculators, heat new houses. Q. What is the current and voltage of 6-6 volt, 2 amp batteries placed in parallel in a spotlight? A. 6 Volts and 12 Amps.
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Photoresistive Cells
Schematic symbol
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Photoresistive Cell Application

Resistance is proportional to the light source applied. The circuit below uses a photoresistive call to bias the base of a transistor. The output of this amplifier could be used to power a light (Street +V Light). PILOT DEVICE
C C
+VOUT AC OR DC
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Thermocouple
Schematic symbol
_ +
Physical Description
Iron Wire
Copper Wire Thermocouple Match
Galvanometer: Measures very Small currents.
Thermocouple + Galvanometer = Pyrometer
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Group of thermocouples = Thermopile

Piezoelectric Effect
Definition: The property of some crystals (i.e. Quartz) that when a pressure is exerted on one axis, a proportional voltage is present on the other axis. Physical Description:
pressure electrical waves eSound waves Quartz Crystal Output
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Fuel Cells
Schematic symbol
FC
Operation
H2 gas supplied develops a potential on electrode & ionizes the electrolyte. O2 gas supplied develops a + potential on electrode & ionizes the electrolyte. H2O is waste product of chemical reaction with no heat loss. Used in the space program. Ratings: 1.23V, 2KW
Physical description
L Electrode Electrode
Hydrogen Gas
_ Potassium +
Hydroxide KOH
Oxygen Gas
Electrolyte
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Magnetohydrodynamic Generator
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) electricity is generated when ionized gas is passed through a magnetic field. MHD converter
Gas heated by solar power > 2000F + _ Coil for Magnetic Field _ + Output Anode Plate Cathode Plate Ionizing Gas (Argon or Helium)
Ionizing Gas
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Generator
Schematic symbols
G
Output waveform
Phase A Phase B Phase C
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Generator
Generates 450 VAC, 60 Hz, 3 phase electricity.
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Conclusion
Q. Explain a way to produce electricity? A. Various Q. What is the output waveform of the Hawaiian Electric Company? A. 3 Phase Sine Wave.
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Series Circuits
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Interest
Knowing how to do calculations in series circuits is one of the basic building blocks in electronics. Electronics software products let you download software to run on your computer testing your knowledge of circuit calculations. Demonstrate in class. Resistor calculator software.
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Series Circuit Formulas

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN
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Voltage in a Series Circuit

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN Kirchhoffs voltage law: The source voltage of a series circuit is equal to the total value of each individual voltage drop. Example:
ER1 = 7V R1 ER2 = 8v R2 ER3 = 4V R3 ET = 19V
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Current in a Series Circuit

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN Total amperes into the circuit is the same across each component that current travels through in a series circuit. Example:
IR1 = 2mA R1 IR2 = 2mA R2 IR3 = 2mA R3 IT = 2mA
156
Resistance in a Series Circuit

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN Total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances in a series circuit. Total resistance is additive. Example:
R1 = 12 R1 R2 = 7 R2 R3 = 6 R3 RT = 25
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Determining Unknown Voltage

ER1 = 5V R1 ET = 24VDC ER5 = 1V R5 ER4 = 2V R4 R3 ER3 = ?V ER2 = 7V R2
Q. What is the voltage drop across R3? W. 24-(5+7+1+2)= A. 9 VDC
158
Determining Power
ER1 = 2V R1 IT = 3A ER5 = 6V R5 ER4 = 5V R4 R3 ER3 = 4V ER2 = 3V R2
Given: Power = EI
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. (2V)(3A) + (3V)(3A) + (4V)(3A) + (5V)(3A) + (6V)(3A) = 6W + 9W + 12W + 15W + 18W = A. 60 Watts
159
Questions
ER1 = 1V R1 IT = 5A ER5 = 2V R5 ER4 = 9V R4 R3 ER3 = 3V ER2 = 2V R2
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. (1V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) + (3V)(5A) + (9V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) = 5W + 10W + 15W + 45W + 10W = A. 85 Watts
160
Questions Continued
ER1 = 1V R1 ET = ?VDC ER5 = 1V R5 ER4 = 2V R4 R3 ER3 = 5V ER2 = 3V R2
Q. What is the voltage of the power supply? W. 1+3+5+2+1= A. 12 VDC
161
Questions Continued
ER1 = ?V R1 ET = 2, 555VDC ER5 = 500V R5 ER4 = .001MV R4 R3 ER3 = 45V ER2 = 1KV R2
Q. What is the voltage of R1? W. 2,555-(1000+45+1000+500)= A. 10 VDC
162
Using Ohms Law in Series Circuits

ER2 = 12V R1 R2 R2 = 4 R3 R5 R4
Given: E = IR
Q. What is the total current in the circuit? W. 12/4= A. 3A
163
Troubleshooting a Lighting Circuit

Half Wave Isolation Rectifier Transformer
IL1 =4A L1 R1
D1 24VAC T1
Q. RI has an open (is damaged), what will be the rating Of the new resistor? W. 24/4= A. 6
164
D2
Using a Voltmeter
Voltmeter 1 = 6 VDC Voltmeter 2 = 0 VDC
_ 6VDC +
F1
_ + SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Open
165
Using a Voltmeter Continued

Voltmeter 1 = 0 VDC Voltmeter 2 = 1.5 VDC
_ 6VDC +
F1
_ + SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Shut
166
R1 Shorted
_ 6VDC +
F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3 +
167
R1 Open
_ 6VDC +
F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3 +
168
Questions
Voltmeter 1 Voltmeter 2
_ 6VDC +
_ F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across it? A. 6 VDC Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across R1? A. 0 VDC
169
Conclusion
Q. How is E, I, R calculated in series circuits? A. 1. ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN 2. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN 3. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN Q. What voltage is read across a shorted resister in a series circuit? A. 0 V
170
Parallel Circuits
171
The resistors in chips
Interest
2X scale
10X scale
172
Parallel Circuit Formulas

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + IN ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = EN RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN) RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
173
Parallel Circuit Voltage

ET = E1 = E2 = E3 = EN
R1 ER1 = 24V R2 ER2 = ?V R3 ER3 = 24V R4 ER4 = 24V
ET = 24VDC
Q. What is the voltage drop across R2? W. ET = ER2 A. 24 V
174
Kirchhoffs Current Law

The algebraic sum of all currents entering any point will equal the sum of all currents leaving that point. Simply stated: The current flowing into a junction of parallel resistance is equal to the current flowing out of the same junction. Branch current: Individual currents. Mainline current: Total current.
175
Parallel Circuit Current

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + IN
IT = 16A R1 IR1 = 5A IT = 16A R2 IR2 = ?A R3 IR3 = 8A R4 IR4 = 1A
Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. IR2 = IT (IR1 + IR3 + IR4 ) = 16 (5 + 8 + 1) A. 2A
176
Parallel Circuit Resistance

RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN)
R1 RR1 = 34 R2 RR2 = 17 R3 RR3 = 8.5 R4 RR4 = 4.25
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 ) = 1/(1/34 + 1/17 + 1/8.5 + 1/4.25) = 1/(1/34 + 2/34 + 4/34 + 8/34) = 1/(15/34) = 34/15 A. RT = 2.27CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
177

RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
R1 RR1 = 34 R2 RR2 = 17
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (34)(17)/(34 +17) = 578/51 A. RT = 11.33
178

RT =R1R2/(R1 + R2)
R1 RR1 = 7.5K R2 RR2 = 250
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (7500)(250)/(7500 + 250) = 1,875,000/7750 A. RT = 241.94
179

RT = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/RN)
R1 RR1 = 3.4K R2 RR2 = 2.1K R3 RR3 = 1.6K R4 RR4 = 2.1K
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 ) = 1/(1/3.4 + 1/2.1 + 1/1.6 + 1/2.1) = 1/(.294 + .476 + .625 + .476) = 1/(1.871) A. RT = .534K
180
Parallel Circuit Equal Resistance

RT = R/N
R1 RR1 = 8K R2 RR2 = 8K R3 RR3 = 8K R4 RR4 = 8K
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RRT = R/N = 8K/4 A. RT = 2K

181
Parallel Circuit Troubleshooting

Voltmeter = 0 VAC
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC L1 R1 R2 R3 R4
Fuses Removed
T1
Q. What must be checked before working on a circuit? A. No voltage in circuit.
182
Questions
Q. What law can be used to do calculations in parallel circuits A. Ohms Law Q. Given a total resistance of 12K, what would be the equal parallel resistance for 4 resistors in parallel? W. R = RRT/N = 12K/4 A. 4K
183

Ohmmeter = 0
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC R1 R2 R3
RR4 = 250 R4
Fuses Blown
T1
RR1 = 250 RR2 = 250 RR3 = 250 L1
Q. What caused the fuses to blow? A. R1 shorted.
184

Ohmmeter = 4
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC L1 R1 RR1 = 12 R2 RR2 = 12 R3
RR4 = 12 R4
Fuses Removed
T1
RR3 = 12
Q. What fault is present in this circuit and why? A. R4 is open. Rt should be 3 for 4 parallel equal resistors. R4 is visually open.
185

Ammeter = ?A
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC R1 RR1 = 4 R2 RR2 = 2 R3
RR4 = 4 R4
RR3 = 2
T1
L1
Q. What is total circuit current indicated on the ammeter? A. 667mA?

186
Conclusion
Q. How must an ammeter always be connected in a circuit? A. In series Q. What is a fault condition that can cause fuses to blow or circuit breakers to trip open? A. Shorted circuit component.
187
Series-Parallel (Combination) Circuits
188
Camera resistors: small and precise.
Interest
189
Reducing a Complex Circuit

Total Resistance: Equivalent resistance in a circuit. Series-Parallel Circuit: Combination circuit. Reduce combination circuit to a simple series circuit.
190
Reducing to a Simple Series Circuit

Step 1
RT = ? R1 RR1 = 6K R2 RR2 = 400 R3 RR3 = 1.6K
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (6)(.4)/(6 + .4) = 2.4/6.4 RR1-R2 = .375 K RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 + R3 = .375 + 1.6 A. RT = 1.975K 191 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Step 1
RT = ? R1 RR1 =4 R2 RR2 =20
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
R3 RR3 = 12
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 4 + 20 = 24 RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (24)(12)/(24 + 12) = 288/36 = 8 RR1-R2-R3-R4 = RR1-R2-R3 + R4 = 8 + 12 A. RT = 20
192

Step 1
RT = ? ET = 10VDC R1 RR1 =3 R3 RR3 = 9 R2 RR2 =6
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
193
Step 4 Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 3 + 6 = 9 RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (9)(9)/(9 + 9) = 81/18 = 4.5 RR5-R6 = R5 + R6 = 18 + 9 = 27 RR4-R5-R6 = RR5-R6 R4/(RR5-R6 + R4) = (27)(12)/(27 + 12) = 324/39 = 8.308 RR1-6 = RR1-R2-R3 + RR4-R5-R6 = 4.5 + 8.308 A. RT = 12.808
Formulas for the last circuit:

Determine overall values. ET/RT=IT
Using Ohms Law
Determine individual values using series & parallel rules. ER1-R2-R3 =ITRR1-R2-R3 ER1-R2-R3 =ER3 ER3 /RR3 =IR3 IT-IR3 =IR1-R2 IR1 =IR2 =IR1-R2 ER1 =IR1 RR1
194
ER2 =IR2 RR2
Ohms Law Combination Circuit 1

Step 1
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4 Q. What is the total current in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=10/ 12.808 A. IT=.7808A Q. What is the current passing through R4? W. ER4-R5-R6 =ITRR4-R5-R6 =(. 7808)(8.308)=6.487V ER4-R5-R6 =ER4 =6.487V IR4 =ER4 /RR4 =6.487/12 A. IR4 =.5406A
195

Step 1
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the current passing through R5? W. IR5 =IT-IR4 = (.7808)-(.5406) A. IR5 =.2402A Q. What is the current passing through R6? W. IR6 =IR5 A. IR6 = . 2402A
196

Step 1
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the voltage passing through R5? W. ER5 =IR5 RR5 = (.2402)(18) A. ER5 =4.3236V Q. What is the voltage passing through R6? W. ER6 =IR6 RR6 = (.2402)(9) or ER6 =ER5-R6 -ER5 =6.487- 4.324 A. ER6 =2.1618V
197

Step 1
RT = ? ET = 10VDC R1 RR1 =3 R3 RR3 = 9 A R2 RR2 =6
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4 Q. What is the ammeter reading in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=10/12.808 A. IT=.7808A Q. What is the current passing through R3? W. ER1-R2-R3 =ITRR1-R2-R3 =(.7808)(4.5)=3.5136V ER1-R2-R3 =ER3 =3.5136V or Et-ER4-R5-R6 =10-6.487=3.513V IR3 =ER3 /RR3 =3.5136/9 A. IR3 =.3904A
198

Step 1
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the current passing through R1? W. IR1 =IT-IR3 = (.7808) - (.3904) A. IR1 =.3904A Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. IR1 =IR2 A. IR2 = .3904A
199

Step 1
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the voltage passing through R1? W. ER1 =IR1 RR1 = (.3904)(3) A. ER1 =1.1712V Q. What is the voltage passing through R2? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2 = (.3904)(6) or ER2 =ER1-R2 -ER2 =3.513-1.171 A. ER2 =2.342V
200
A RT = ? ET = 12VDC
Sample Problem 1
R1 RR1 =6 R2 RR2 =2 R3 RR3 = 6 R4 RR4 = 4 R5 RR5 = 8
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR4-R5 = R4 + R5 = 4 + 8 = 12 RR3-R4-R5 = RR4-R5 R3/(RR4-R5 +R3)=(12)(6)/(12+6) = 72/18 = 4 RR2-R3-R4-R5 = RR3-R4-R5 +RR2 =4+2=6 RR1-5 =RR2-R3-R4-R5 RR1 /(RR2-R3-R4-R5 +RR1 )=(6)(6)/(6+6) A. R = = 36/12 3
T
201
Sample Problem 1 Continued 1

A RT = ? ET = 12VDC R1 RR1 =6 R2 RR2 =2 R3 RR3 = 6 R4 RR4 = 4 R5 RR5 = 8
Q. What does the ammeter read in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=12/3 A. IT=4A Q. What is the current passing through R1? W. ET=ER1 =12V IR1 =ER1 /RR1 =12/6 A. IR1 =2A
202
Sample Problem 1 Continued II

Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. ET=ER2-R3 =12V IR2 =IR2-R3 =ER2-R3 /RR2+(R3,R4,R5) =12/(2+4) A. IR2 =2A Q. What is the voltage drop across R2? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2= (2)(2) A. ER2 =4V Q. What is the voltage drop across R3? W. ER3 =ET- ER2 = 12-4 A. ER3 =8V
203
Sample Problem 1 Continued III

Q. What is the current passing through R4? W. ER3 =ER4-R5 =8V IR3 =ER3 /RR3 =8/6=1.3A IR4 =IR2 - IR3 =2 - (1.333) Kirchhoffs Current Law A. IR4 =.6667A Q. What is the voltage drop across R4? W. ER4 =IR4 RR4= (. 6667)(4) A. ER4 =2.667V Q. What is the voltage drop across R5? W. ER5 =IR5 RR5= (. 6667)(8) A. ER5 =5.333V
204
Sample Problem 1 Continued IV

A RT = ? ET = 12VDC R1 RR1 =6 Point 1 R2 RR2 =2 R3 RR3 = 6 R4 RR4 = 4 R5 RR5 = 8 Point 3 Point 2
Q. Explain Kirchhoffs Current Law. W. IT=Ipoint1 + Ipoint2 + Ipoint3 =2 + (1.333) + (.666) = 4A A. Total current in circuit = current out of circuit. Q. Why isnt the voltage drop across R3 = 12VDC? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2= (2)(2) = 4VDC A. 4 VDC is subtracted because of the nature of voltage in a series circuit within a combination circuit.
205
A RT = ? ET = 9VDC R1 RR1 =3
Questions
R2 RR2 =9 R3 RR3 = 9 R4 RR4 = 6 R5 RR5 = 3 R6 RR6 = 18 R7 RR7 = 9
Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. RR6-R7 =RR6 + RR7 =18+9=27 RR5-R6-R7 =RR6-R7 R5/(RR6-R7 +R5)=(27)(3)/(27+3)=81/30= 2.7 RR4-7 =RR5-7 + RR4 =2.7+6=8.7 RR3-7 = RR4-7 R3/(RR4-7 +R3)=(8.7)(9)/(8.7+9)=78.3/16.7=4.689 RR2-7 =RR3-7 + RR2 = 4.689 +9=13.689 RT = RR2-7 RR1 /(RR2-7 +RR1 )=(13.689)(3)/(13.689+3)= 41.066/16.689 =2.461 IT=ET/RT=9/2.461= 3.657A A. IIR12=ER1 /RR1 =9/3=3A IR2 =IT- IR1 = 3.657- 3 R =.6667A
206
Power
Power = Work/Time = (Force)(Distance)/Time P=EI given: Power (watts), E (volts), I (current) Watt: 1 volt of electrical pressure moves 1 coulomb of electrons past a given point in a circuit in 1 second.
207
I E
Ohms Law and Watts Law
EI E/R 2 P/E IR
P/R E /R E/I IR 2 PR E /P 2 P/I P/I
2
208
P I RE
A RT = ? ET = 9VDC R1 RR1 =3
Questions
R2 RR2 =9 R3 RR3 = 9 R4 RR4 = 6 R5 RR5 = 3 R6 RR6 = 18 R7 RR7 = 9
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. PT = IT2RT = (3.657A)2(2.461 ) = (13.274)(2.461) A. PT = 32.913 W Q. What is the minimum power rating for R1? W. PR1 = ER1 RR1 = (9V)(3 ) A. PR1 = 27 Watts
209
Troubleshooting
Eliminate parallel paths when checking electrical components.
210
Conclusion
A G ET = 120VAC
R1 RR1 =2.4K
R2 RR2 =3.6K R3 RR3 = 1.2K
Q. What is the total power in the circuit in KW? W. W. RR2+R3 = RR2 + RR3 = (3600)+(1200 )= 4800 RT=RR2+R3 RR1 / RR2+R3 +RR1 =(4800)(2400)/4800+2400= 11520000/7200=1600 PT = ETRT = (120V)(1600 ) A. PT = 192KW
211
Tuned Circuits
Series Tuned Circuits
1 . Theory
a . Ideal Series resonant circuit contains no resistance. It contains only inductance and capacitance that are in series with each other and with the source voltage.
2 . Operation
a . At Resonance ( XL = XC ); therefore, XL + XC = 0. The resultant reactance is equal to 0. Impedance ( Z ) is minimum. b . Since Z is minimum, current is maximum for a given voltage. Maximum current flow causes maximum voltage drops across individual reactances.
212
Questions
Q. What is the formula for XL? A. XL = 2 II f L. Q. What is the formula for XC? A. XC = 1 / 2 II f C. Q. What is the resonant frequency in a typical tuned circuit? A. XL = XC, Fr = .159/Square root LC.
213
Tuned Circuit Operation

2 . Operation (Continued)
c . When Frequency is < Resonance: - XC => current is lower => voltage drops across reactances are lower. d . When Frequency is > Resonance: - XL => current is lower => voltage drops across reactances are lower.
214

e . Series Tuned Circuit (Schematic)
C1 GEN
L1
R1
215

f . Series Tuned Circuit Analysis
R=Z 0o XL XL
IMPEDANCE CURRENT
XL
o
XC
RESONANCE
XL - XC
o
XC - XL XC
o
XC
ABOVE RESONANCE
BELOW RESONANCE
100
200
300
Fr
500
600
700
216
Z=R
Parallel Tuned Circuits

1. Theory a . Called a tank circuit because it can store energy. b . It has the ability to take the energy fed to it from a power source and store this energy alternately in the inductor and capacitor. c . The resulting output is a continuous ac sine wave. 2 . Operation a . Voltage is the same across the inductor and capacitor. (parallel) b . Current through the components varies inversely with their reactances. c . Total current through the circuit is the vectoral sum of the two individual component currents. d . IL and IC are 180o out of phase. e . At resonance, IL and IC cancel each other out => no current from source.
217
3 . Application
a . At resonance, the circuit has a maximum impedance which results in minimum current drawn from the source.
218

4. Schematic Circuit
L1 GEN C1 R1
219

IL
5 . Circuit analysis
IC IC
IMPEDANCE CURRENT
o
IC
RESONANCE
I o
IC - IL
o
IL
IL - IC IL
Z
100 200 300
BELOW RESONANCE
ABOVE RESONANCE
Fr
500
600
700
220

6 . Applications a . Tuned Amplifier +
0
RB C1
VIN
+VCC
L1
IM X A
CC
RL
221
Questions
Q. What are some examples of a parallel tuned amplifiers? A. Antenna tuners, air signal tracker, ham radio, transponders (ID aircraft etc). Q. What crystal can replace the RLC circuit to make it last longer? A. Piezoelectric Crystal.
222
Pulsed Amplifier
b . Pulsed Amplifier: 3 main sections
1. Gain Amp 2. Input Gate Signal 3. +V R1 Tank Circuit

C C
+
0
C1
VIN
OUTPUT SIGNAL C2 L1
223
Pulsed Amplifier
T0 INPUT GATE
T1
T2
T3
OUTPUT SIGNAL
224
Tuned Amplifier
c. Tuned Amplifier: 3 main sections 1. Gain Amp 2. Positive +V Feedback Circuit 13. Frequency Determining R Device
C C
+
0
C1
VIN
OUTPUT SIGNAL Cy1 L1
225
Overdriven Amplifier
SATURATION CUTOFF
C1 Q1 R2 C2
R1
INPUT
-VEE +VCC
OUTPUT
SATURATION CUTOFF
226
Overdriven Amplifier
a . The input signal drives the transistor into and out of saturation and cutoff. b . When the transistor is in saturation and / or cutoff, that portion of the input waveform is clipped and the output is distorted.
227
Magnetism and Relays
228
The magnetic field of the sun
Interest
229
Experiments Using Magnets

Horseshoe magnet Ring magnets Bar magnets Coils Ferris magnets
230
Phobos Large Magnet
231
Magnetic Poles
Basic Magnetic Principles
South Pole North Pole Magnetic lines of force exist between the north and south poles. Like poles repel. Opposite poles attract. Each magnetic line of force is an independent line. None of the lines cross or touch a bordering line.
Natural Magnets: Lodestones were used by mariners for navigation. The Earth is a large magnet surrounded by a 232magnetic field. (i.e. degaussing coils).
Questions
Q. What are some uses for magnets? A. Relays, Levetron, hold things in place. Q. How can a magnet loose its magnetism? A. Pounding or dropping magnets upsets the molecular alignment and weakens the magnet. Heat sources also destroy magnets by causing increased molecular activity, expansion and a return to the molecules random positions.
233
Magnetic flux: The many invisible lines of magnetic force surrounding a magnet. B=/A
B=Flux density in gauss (webers per square centimeter) (phi)=Number of lines A=Cross sectional area in square centimeters
Magnetic Flux
3rd Law of Magnetism:

The attractive force increases as the distance of the distance between the magnets decrease. Magnetic force varies inversely with (Distance)2 234
LHR for Coils

Thumb: Points in direction Of flux Fingers: Wrap around coil In direction of current
235
Magnetism in a Coil
Q. What is the direction of flux in this coil? W. Use LHR for coils. A. Thumb points right.
236
LHR for Conductors
Fingers: Wrap around coil In direction of circular magnetic Field. Thumb: Points in direction of current.
237
Magnetism Tools
Magneprobe
238
Magnetism Computer Programs

Used for component design.
239
Reluctance
=F/R
= Total number of lines of magnetic force in gilberts. F= Force producing the field. R= Resistance to the magnetic field. (Reluctance)
240
Electromagnets
Parts of Electromagnets
Iron Core Coil
Residual Magnetism:
Retentivity of the iron core.
241
Electromagnet Diagram
Q. What type of diagram is this? A. Wiring Diagram.
242
Magnetic Relay
243
Magnetic Relay Continued

Relay: Device used to control a large flow of current by means of a low voltage, low current circuit. A relay is a magnetic switch.
Coil: Attracts armature because of magnetism. Armature: Lever Arm. Contacts: Normally open (NO) Normally closed (NC)
Relay Maintenance:
Burnishing tool cleans contacts Silver plated armatures should be replaced if there is exposed copper.
244
Magnetic Relay Physical Description
245
Timing Relay
Timing Relays energize contacts for a specific amount of time based on the adjustable setting. Contacts are timed on and off.
246
Relay Controller Schematic

M1
20A
~ 120 VAC, 60 HZ, 1
M2
20A
M1 E M2
TR2 TR1
A B TR C D E
A E
C D
Start Button
Reset Button
Stop Button
M
247
Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Parts
Operating Mechanism Tripper Bar Arc Chutes Frame Rack out mechanism Indication
248
Manual Breakers
Manual breakers are shut locally at the switchboard. Magnetic circuit breakers are shut remotely from a control station.
249
Doorbell
250
Buzzer Circuit
251
Shielding is done using the permeability of some other substance. Magnetic lines of force flow through the path of least resistance.
Magnetic Shields
Shield
252
Magnetic Levitation Transportation
253
Magnetic Levitation Transportation

HSST is a magnetic levitation transportation system that has been developed in Japan by HSST Development Corporation established in 1993. The HSST is magnetically-levitated (not supported by wheels) and is propelled by a linear induction motor (LIM), not by conventional rotary electric motors.
254
Conclusion
Q. How does a relay work? A. Coil energizes, armature engages, secondary contact shuts/opens. Q. When would a use a magnetic circuit breaker? A. Used in electric plants to parallel generators and switchboards. Q. What is the LHR for conductors? A. Fingers: wrap around coil. Thumb: points in direction of current.
255
Diodes
Impurity Atoms: Trivalent: Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (ln). Has three (3) valence electrons. Known as an Acceptor Impurity. Pentavalent: Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi). Has five (5) valence electrons. Known as a Donor Impurity.
256
PN Material
N - Type Material: Pure base material doped with a Donor Impurity. Majority Current Carrier: Electrons Minority Current Carrier: Holes P - Type Material: Pure base material doped with an Acceptor Impurity. Majority Current Carrier: Holes Minority Current Carrier: Electrons
257
Construction
Old Method: Grown Crystals. Newer Methods: Alloy Fused: N & P material made using heat / pressure. Diffused: N & P gas and heat. Both methods are used to produce a PN Junction.
258
Questions
Q) What is meant by a donor impurity? A) 5 valiant electrons in outer shell. Q) What are 4 examples of a donor impurity? A) Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth.
259
Diode Definitions
Potential Hill (Junction Barrier) : Electrostatic field set up across a PN junction which prevents further combination of majority current carriers. The value of the voltage of the potential hill depends on the type of base material used during diode construction. 1. Silicon (.5 - .8V) 2. Germanium (.2V) Rated for up to 1500A / 3000V. Used primarily in Rectifiers.
260
Operations & Definitions

Forward Bias: External voltage applied which opposes the potential hill, effectively reducing the width and resistance of the depletion region. => Majority Current Carriers flow through the PN junction. Reverse Bias: External voltage applied which aids the potential hill, effectively increasing the width and resistance of the depletion region. => No Majority Current Carriers flow through the PN junction.
261
Rectifier Diode Block Diagram

Depletion Region Anode + + + + +
----++ ++ ++ ++
- - - N - -
Cathode
P + + +
Potential Hill (Junction Barrier)

262
Rectifier Diode Schematic Diagram
Anode
Cathode
263
Diode Forward Bias

Depletion Region Anode + + + +
+ + + +
- - - N - -
Cathode
P + + +

264
Diode Reverse Bias

Depletion Region Anode + + + P + + + + +
- - - - - - - - +++ +++ +++ +++
- - - N - -
Cathode

265
Characteristic Curve
+I (mA)
Forward Bias
-V a -c
+V a -c
Reverse Bias
Avalanche Breakdown 266
-I (uA)
Zener Diode
The Zener diode is a heavily doped diode which, as a result of doping, has a very narrow depletion region. This allows the diode to be operated in the reverse biased region of the characteristic curve without damaging the PN junction. Zener Effect: The area of Zener diode operation (<5V) where the Diode maintains a constant voltage output while operating reverse biased. Avalanche Effect: >5V applied to the diode while reverse biased which tends to cause the diode to eventually breakdown due to heat generation within the lattice structure of the crystal.
267
Zener Diode Schematic Symbol
Anode
Cathode
268
Characteristic Curve
I (mA) Operating Region -Va-c Forward Bias
+Va-c
Reverse Bias
I (uA)
269
Zener Operation
Ratings: .25V to 1500V Used in SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulator for the reference circuit.
When a higher constant voltage is desired, the zener diodes will be Stacked together in series and their voltages will add together to make the higher desired voltage. This is the case in the SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulators where four (4) 6v zener diodes are stacked to provide a 24V reference to the comparison circuit.
270
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

R1 Vin CR1 Vout
271
Signal Diode
Same construction as the Rectifier Diode except that it is designed to operate with a very short reverse recovery time to allow it to rectify high frequency AC inputs.
272
Power Supplies
Components and their function
Transformer - Receives the AC input from the distribution system and either steps up or down the voltage. Rectifier - Converts the AC input voltage from the transformer to a pulsating DC voltage. Filter - Smoothes out the DC pulsations or ripple received from the rectifier. Regulator - Receives a smoothed DC voltage from the Filter Stage and produces a steady DC voltage to be used by electronic circuitry.
273
Half - Wave Rectifier
1:1
CR1
VIN T1
R1
VOUT
274
Half - Wave Rectifier Operation

Positive half-cycle the diode is Forward Bias (FB), negative half-cycle the diode is Reverse Bias (RB).
VDC = VPK X .318

Where: VDC = Average DC voltage VPK = Peak input voltage .318 = Constant
275
Full - Wave Rectifier

1:1 CR1
VIN T1
R1
VOUT
CR2
276
Full - Wave Rectifier Operation

Positive half-cycle, 1 diode is FB, negative half-cycle the other diode is FB.
VDC = VPK X .637

277
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

1:1
CR1 CR4 CR3 CR2
T1 R1 VIN
278
VOUT
Full - Wave Bridge Rectifier Operation

Positive half-cycle, 1 diode is FB, negative half-cycle the other diode is FB.
VDC = VPK X .637

279
Filters
A filter uses the characteristics of Inductors and Capacitors to smooth the pulsating DC waveform supplied by the Rectifier. Types
High Pass - A series RC filter whose output is taken from the resistor. Series / Parallel - A filter configuration which uses combinations of capacitors and inductors to smooth the voltage and current pulsations from the rectifier output.
280
Ideal filter characteristics

Rapid charge time constant for filter capacitors and inductors. Slow discharge time constant for filter capacitors and inductors.
281
Capacitor Filter Configuration

Capacitor Input Filter Schematic Diagram
C1 VIN RB VOUT
282
Capacitor Filter Operation

Charge RC time constant is developed from the internal resistance of the rectifier diodes and the capacitance of the filter capacitor. The net result is that the low resistance of the rectifier diodes develop a rapid charge RC time constant. Discharge RC time constant is developed from the filter capacitor and the load resistance. Since the load resistance is rather large, the discharge RC time constant is somewhat long. RB is called the Bleeder Resistor because it provides a path for the filter capacitor(s) to discharge when power is removed from the circuit. RB has a very large resistance and usually draws <10% of normal operating current.
283
LC Choke Filter Configuration

LC Choke Filter Schematic Diagram
L1 VIN VOUT RB
C1
284
LC Choke Filter Operation

Charge RC time constant is developed from the internal resistance of the rectifier diodes, the Low DC resistance of the inductor (L1), and the capacitance of the filter capacitor. The net result is that the low resistance of the rectifier diodes and inductor (L1) develop a rapid charge RC time constant. Discharge RC time constant is developed from the filter capacitor and the load resistance. Since the load resistance is rather large, the discharge RC time constant is somewhat long. The Inductor acts to smooth out the current pulsations produced by the rectifier and / or transformer stage of the power supply.
285
RC PI Filter Configuration
RC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path Discharge Path VIN R1 VOUT RB
C1
C2
VOUT(C1) 286
VOUT(C2)
RC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action. Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage filtering. Resistor limits current flow to the desired value and establishes the RC time constants for both filter capacitors.
287
LC PI Filter Configuration
LC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path Discharge Path VIN
L1
C1
C2
RB
VOUT(C1) 288
VOUT(C2)
LC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action. Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage filtering.
Inductor opposes changes in current flow to reduce current spikes and establishes the RC time constants for both filter capacitors.
289
Voltage Regulators
Series Regulator
Acts as a variable resistor in series with the load.
Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Schematic R1 Vin CR1 Vout
290
Voltage Regulator Operation
Vin
R1
Vout CR1
VIN
VOUT
291
Transistor Voltage Regulators
Vin
Vout
292
OPAMP Voltage Regulators
Vin
Vout
293
Tubes, Transistors and Amplifiers
294
Interest
In 1947, Bardeen & Brattain at Bell Laboratories created the first amplifier! Shockley (boss), came near to canceling the project. The three shared a Nobel Prize. Bardeen and Brattain continued in research (and Bardeen later won another Nobel). Shockley quit to start a semiconductor company in Palo Alto. It folded, but its staff went on to invent the integrated circuit (the "chip") & to found the Intel Corporation. 295
Tetrode Tube
(+) Plate
Control Grid: Controls amplification rate & electron flow with bias voltage. Shield: Screen gridincreases electron speed cathode to + plate. Heater: Heats gas to gas amplification state. Inert Gas: Mercury or Argon gas.
(-) Shield Control Grid (-) Cathode Inert Gas Heater

296
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
3 Electron Beams (Red, Green, Blue)
(-) Cathode (+) Anode
Grids
Conductive Coating
The cathode is a heated filament (like light bulb filament) in a vacuum inside a glass tube. The ray is a stream of electrons that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the vacuum. The + anode attracts the electrons pouring off the cathode. In a TV's CRT, the stream of electrons is focused by a focusing anode into a tight beam and then accelerated by an accelerating anode. This tight, high-speed beam of electrons flies through the vacuum in the tube and hits the flat screen at the other end of the tube. This screen is coated with phosphor, which glows when struck by the beam.
Phosphor Coated Screen
297
Bipolar Transistors
History Created in 1948 in the AT&T Bell Laboratories. Scientists were performing doping experiments on semiconductor material (diodes) and developed a semiconductor device having three (3) PN junctions.
298
Bipolar Transistor Construction

NPN / PNP Block Diagrams
Emitter N Base P N Collector
Emitter P N P Base
Collector
299
Bipolar Transistor Theory

For any transistor to conduct, two things must occur. The emitter - base PN junction must be forward biased. The base - collector PN junction must be reverse biased.
300
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (NPN)
FB
RB
Emitter
Collector
Base +
301
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (PNP)

FB RB
Emitter P
Collector P
Base +
302
Bipolar Transistor Operation (PNP)

The + emitter repels the majority current carriers towards the emitter - base PN junction. Majority current carriers pass through the forward biased emitter - base junction and flow into the base. Once in the base, these current carriers now become minority current carriers and are attracted to the strong negative voltage applied to the collector. 90% of the current carriers pass through the reverse biased base - collector PN junction and enter the collector of the transistor. 10% of the current carriers exit transistor through the base. The opposite is true for a NPN transistor.
303
Amplifier Operation
The transistor below is biased such that there is a degree of forward bias on the base - emitter PN junction. Any input received will change the magnitude of forward bias & the amount of current flow through the transistor. The magnitude of the output will be on the order of 1000x larger depending on the value of +VCC . RC +VCC Q1 +
0
+
0
RB
Input Signal
304
Output Signal
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation

When the input signal is large enough, the transistor can be driven into saturation & cutoff which will make the transistor act as an electronic switch. Saturation - The region of transistor operation where a further increase in the input signal causes no further increase in the output signal. Cutoff - Region of transistor operation where the input signal is reduced to a point where minimum transistor biasing cannot be maintained => the transistor is no longer biased to conduct. (no current flows)
305
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation

Transistor Q-point
Quiescent point : region of transistor operation where the biasing on the transistor causes operation / output with no input signal applied.
The biasing on the transistor determines the amount of time an output signal is developed.
Transistor Characteristic Curve

This curve displays all values of IC and VCE for a given circuit. It is curve is based on the level of DC biasing that is provided to the transistor prior to the application of an input signal.
306 The values of the circuit resistors, and VCC will determine the location of the Q-point.
Transistor Characteristic Curve

IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA 20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
IB Q-Point
Cutoff
VCE
307
Transistor Maintenance
When troubleshooting transistors, do the following: Remove the transistor from the circuit, if possible. Use a transistor tester, if available, or use a digital multimeter set for resistance on the diode scale. Test each PN junction separately. ( A front to back ratio of at least 10:1 indicates a 308 good transistor).
Transistor Maintenance
This chart shows the readings for a good transistor.
Test Lead Connection (+/ - ) Base- Emitter Emitter- Base Base - Collector Collector- Base Emitter- Collector Collector- Emitter
309
Transistor Maintenance Chart

HI GH LOW HI GH HI GH HI GH
NPN PNP Resistance Reading Resistance Reading (High / Low) (High / Low) LOW HI GH LOW HI GH LOW HI GH HI GH
Transistor Maintenance Chart

Advantages of junction transistors over point contact transistors: -Generate less noise. -Handles more power. -Provides higher current and voltage gains. -Can be mass produced cheaply.
310
Questions
Q) What is the 7 step troubleshooting method? A) Symptom recognition, symptom elaboration, list possible faulty functions, identify faulty function, identify faulty component, failure analysis, repair, retest. Q) What was the most difficult problem you ever troubleshot? A) Various
311
Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers

Amplifier Classification
Amplifiers can be classified in three ways:
Type (Construction / Connection)
Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector
Bias (Amount of time during each half-cycle output is developed).

Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C
Operation
312 Amplifier Electronic Switch
Common Emitter Schematic

Output Signal Flow Path RB RC +VCC Q1 +
0
+
0
Input Signal Input Signal Flow Path
Output Signal
313
Kirchoff Voltage Law

DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths
+VCC
Base - Emitter Circuit

RB RC Q1
IBRB + VBE - VCC = 0 Collector - Emitter Circuit ICRC + VCE - VCC = 0
314
Common Emitter Operation

+
0
RC
Positive Going Signal

Base becomes more (+) WRT Emitter FB IC VRC VC VOUT ( Less + )
Input Signal
RB Q1
Output Signal
315
+
0
Base becomes less (+) WRT Emitter FB IC VRC VC VOUand ( More + ) CENT-112 Fundamentals of ElectricityT Electronics
Negative Going Signal
Common Base Schematic

Q1
Input Signal Flow Path +

0
RE CC
RB
RC
+
0
+VCC
Output Signal Flow Path

316

Q1
RE CC
RB
RC
Base - Emitter Circuit IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0 Collector - Emitter Circuit ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
+VCC
317
Common Base Operation

Q1

RB RC
RE CC
+VCC
Base becomes more (+) WRT Emitter FB IC VRC VC VOUT ( More + )
+
Input 318 Signal 0 0
Output Signal Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics CENT-112
Base becomes less (+) WRT Emitter FB IC VRC VC VOUT ( Less + )
Common Collector Schematic

Output Signal Flow Path +VCC +
0
RB Q1 + RE
0
Input Signal Input Signal Flow Path
Output Signal
319

+VCC RB Q1 RE Base - Emitter Circuit IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0 Collector - Emitter Circuit ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
320
Common Collector Operation

+VCC RB Q1 RE + 0
321

Base becomes more (+) WRT Emitter FB IE VRE VE VOUT ( More + ) Base becomes less (+) WRT Emitter FB IE VRE VE VOUT ( Less + )
+ Input Signal 0 Output Signal
AZAZA VOPINI & House of BEC

Common Common Common Common Common Common B B E E C C
Av = Voltage Gain Av = Voltage Gain Zo = Output Impedance Zo = Output Impedance Ap = Power gain Ap = Power gain Zin = Input Impedance Zin = Input Impedance Ai = Current Gain Ai = Current Gain
322
Transistor Bias Stabilization

Used to compensate for temperature effects which affects semiconductor operation. As temperature increases, free electrons gain energy and leave their lattice structures which causes current to increase.
323
Types of Bias Stabilization

Self Bias: A portion of the output is fed back to the input 180o out of phase. This negative feedback will reduce overall amplifier gain. Fixed Bias: Uses resistor in parallel with Transistor emitterbase junction. Combination Bias: This form of bias stabilization uses a combination of the emitter resistor form and a voltage divider. It is designed to compensate for both temperature effects as well as minor fluctuations in supply (bias) voltage. Emitter Resister Bias: As temperature increases, current flow will increase. This will result in an increased voltage drop across the emitter resistor which opposes the potential on the emitter of the transistor.
324
Self Bias Schematic

+ o Initial Input +VCC
++ o
Self Bias Feedback + o RB
RC + Q1 o VOUT
=
325
Resulting Input CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Emitter Bias Schematic

DC Component AC Component
+VCC RC RB
+ ++
+ Q1 o VOUT CE
+ o Initial Input
326
RE
+
Combination Bias Schematic

DC Component AC Component
+VCC RC
++ +
+ o Initial Input
RB1 RB2 RE
+ Q1 o VOUT CE
327
Amplifier Frequency Response

The range or band of input signal frequencies over which an amplifier operates with a constant gain. Amplifier types and frequency response ranges.
Audio Amplifier
15 Hz to 20 KHz
Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier

10 KHz to 100,000 MHz
Video Amplifier (Wide Band Amplifier)

10 Hz to 6 MHz 328
Class A Amplifier Curve
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA
IB
Q-Point VCE
20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
Cutoff 329
Class B Amplifier Curve
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA
IB
Q-Point VCE
20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
Cutoff 330
Class AB Amplifier Curve

Can be used for guitar distortion.
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA 20 uA
IB
Q-Point
Cutoff 331
10 uA 0 uA
VCE
Class C Amplifier Curve
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA 20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
IB
Cutoff 332
VCE
Q-Point
Amplifier Coupling Methods

Direct: The output of the first stage is directly connected to the input of the second stage. Best Frequency Response No frequency sensitive components. Impedance (LC) Coupling: Similar to RC coupling but an inductor is used in place of the resistor. Not normally used in Audio Amplifiers. RC Coupling: Most common form of coupling used. Poor Frequency Response. Transformer Coupling: Most expensive form coupling used. Mainly used as the last stage or power output stage of a string of amplifiers.
333
Direct Coupling Schematic

+VCC 2 +VCC 1 RC1 RB2 Q2 RB1 Q1
334
RC2
RC Coupling Schematic
+VCC 2 +VCC 1 RC1 CC Q1
335
RC2 RB2 Q2
RB1
Impedance Coupling Schematic

+VCC 2 +VCC 1 RB2 CC Q1
336
RC2
Q2
RB1
Transformer Coupling Schematic

+VCC 2 +VCC 1 RC1 RB2 Q2 RB1 Q1
337
RC2
T1
Silicon Controlled Rectifiers

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
Construction
Block Diagram
Anode P Left Floating Region N P N Gate
Cathode
338
OPAMP Voltage Regulators
Vin
Vout
339
SCR Schematic
Anode
Cathode
Gate
340
SCR Bias
When the SCR is forward biased and a gate signal is applied, the lightly doped gate regions holes will fill with the free electrons forced in from the cathode.
FB Anode FB Cathode P N RB P N Gate
+
341
SCR Operation
Acts as an electronic switch Essentially a rectifier diode which has a controllable Turn - on point. Can be switched approximately 25,000 times per second. Once the SCR conducts, the gate signal can be removed. The difference in potential across the anode & cathode of the SCR will maintain current flow. When the voltage across the SCR drops to a level below the Minimum Holding value, the PN junctions will reform and current flow through the SCR will stop.
342
SCR Phase Control

The term Phase Control refers to a process where varying the timing of the gate signal to an SCR will vary the length of time that the SCR conducts.
This will determine the amount of Voltage or Power delivered to a load.
343
Unijunction Transistors (UJT)

Construction: Originally called Double-based
Diodes. P Type material doped into the N type base material. Placement of the Emitter into the Base determines the voltage level (%) at which the the UJT fires.
This % is called the Intrinsic Standoff Ratio ( ).
Once constructed, the Intrinsic Standoff Ratio cannot be changed.
The actual voltage value at which the UJT fires is determined by the amount of source voltage applied.
344
UJT Block Diagram

Base 2
Equivalent Circuit
Base 2
Emitter
Emitter
Base 1
Base 1
345
UJT Schematic Symbol

Base 2 Emitter
Base 1
346
UJT No Operation
When VE is less than or equal to the voltage base one to emitter requirement (VE-B1 ), the UJT will not fire.
Base 2 Depletion Region Emitter
++
No Current Flow
Base 1
347
UJT Operation
When VE is more than the voltage base one to emitter requirement (VE-B1 ), the UJT will fire.
Base 2
++
UJT Fires
Emitter VE > VE-B1
Base 1
348
UJT Sawtooth Generator
R1 E VOUT C1 Charge C1 Discharge C1
Q1
B2 B1 SW1
VBB
349
UJT Relaxation Oscillator

VOUT VOUT
+
1
R1 Q1 VOUT
1
RB2 VOUT
2
VBB
+ 2 +
3
VOUT
C1 RB1
VOUT
SW1
3
C1 Charge C1 Discharge 350


The output of the Oscillator can be used for sweep generators, gating circuit for SCRs, as well as timing pulses for counting and timing circuits.
351
Lessons Learned
Video Card ruined from ESD < 20 V (Improper Handling). Bad Inductor in a regulator detected with Huntron Tracker. Slightly different oval.
352
Summary
Q) What is the phase relationship between input and output voltage in a common emitter circuit? A) 180 degrees.
353
Summary Continued
Q) What type of transistor bias uses both self and fixed bias? A) Combination bias. Q) What is the frequency response range of an RF amplifier? A) 10Khz 100, 000 Mhz.
354
4 . Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

a . Construction
J1 P N
J2 P
A1
A2
A2 G
355
A1
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode 2 A2
Anode 1 A1
Gate
356
c . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse Breakover Voltage Breakback Voltage
V A2-A1
Forward Breakover Voltage
Holding Current (IHO )
357
d . Characteristics
1 . More vigorous switching characteristic. V to almost zero. 2 . More temperature stable. 3 . More symmetrical wave form output. 4 . Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits.
e . Theory
1 . Lower breakover voltages than Diac. (+/- 8V is most popular). 2 . SBS has more pronounced Negative Resistance region. 3 . Its decline in voltages is more drastic after it enters the conductive state.
358
f . Operation
1 . As shown below, if a zener diode is placed in the gate circuit between G and A1, the forward breakover voltage (+VBO) can be altered to approximately that of the zener voltage (VZ).
a . -VBO is unaffected. SBS A2 A1
G 359
2 . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse Breakover Voltage Breakback Voltage
V A2-A1
Holding Current (IHO )
360
5 Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)

a Construction
Anode
Cathode P N P N
Gate
361
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode
Cathode
Gate
362
c Theory
1 Similar to the four (4) layer diode except the +VBO can be altered by using the gate terminal voltage.
d Operation
Reverse Breakdown Voltage
Much greater than Forward Breakover Voltage
-V A-C
V A-C
363
6 . Varactor
a . Construction
364
b . Theory
1 . For testing purposes, a front to back ratio of 10:1 is considered normal. 2 . The size of the depletion region in a varactor diode is directly proportional to the amount of bias applied.
a . As forward bias increases, capacitance (Depletion region) decreases. b . As reverse bias increases, capacitance (Depletion region) increases.
3 . In the capacitance equation below, it is shown that only the distance between plates can be changed.
C=
365
Where: A = Plate Area k = Constant Ak d = Distance between plates d CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
a . An increase in reverse bias increases the width of the gap (d) which reduces the capacitance of the PN junction and vice versa.
4 . Advantage: Allows DC voltage to be used to tune a circuit for simple remote control or automatic tuning function.
c . Operation
1 . used to replace old style variable capacitor tuning circuits. 2 . They are used in tuning circuits of more sophisticated communications equipment and in other circuits where variable capacitance is required.
366
Depletion Region 20 F P 3V N P 6V 5 F
367
A . Special Purpose Amplifiers

1 . Differential Amplifier
a . Schematic Diagram
+ VCC
RC (1) RB (1) VIN (1) Q1 VOUT
RC (2) RB (2)
VIN (2) Q2
RE - VEE
368
b . Operation
+ VCC
+
0
VIN (1)
RC (1) RB (1)
++ +
Q1
VOUT
RC (2)
+
RB (2)
++ +
0
VIN (2)
RE - VEE
-Q
+
VOUT
(+) / (-) ARE ASSIGNED BY WHICH VOLTMETER LEAD IS USED AS THE REFERENCE
369
1 . With the polarities shown previously:

a . On positive going signal, Base of Q1 becomes more (+) with respect to emitter => FB Q1 => ICQ1 => VRC1 => VCQ1
=>
(less +). Since ICQ1 => IEQ1
(IE =
IC + IB) => VRE
Emitter of Q2 becomes less (-) with respect to Base => FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (more +). Due to the
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between Q1 and Q2 is becoming less => VOUT (Negative Going).
b . On
negative going signal, Base of Q1 becomes less (+) with respect to emitter => FB Q1 => ICQ1 => VRC1 => VCQ1 (more +). Since ICQ1 => IEQ1
(IE =
IC + IB) => VRE
=>
Emitter of Q2 becomes more (-) with respect to Base => FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (less +). Due to the
370
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between Q1 and Q2 is becoming larger => VOUT (Positive Going).
c . With the resulting output achieved, it can be said that a positive going input on the base of Q1 caused VCQ1 to be inverted => the base of Q1 is called the Inverting Terminal. Since the positive going input caused VCQ2 to increase in a positive direction, the base of Q2 is called the Non-Inverting Terminal. d . If my voltmeter leads were changed, the output of the amplifier would also change. The Inverting and NonInverting terminals would also change.
371
2 . Operational Amplifiers (OPAMPS)

a .Block Diagram (Basic)
+ vCC
INVERTING INPUT
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER OUTPPUT AMPLIFIER
NON-INVERTING INPUT
+
- vEE
OUTPUT
372
b . Ideal OPAMP Characteristics

1 . Infinite () Input Impedance a Draws little or no current from source. 2 . Zero Output Impedance 3 . Infinite () Gain 4 . Infinite () Frequency Response a Constant gain over any range of input signal frequencies.
373
c . Types of OPAMPS
1 . Linear (Output is Proportional to Input) a . Inverting
RF
+ +
0
+
VOUT
0
VIN R1
+ -
374
b . Non - Inverting
RF
+
R1
+
VOUT
0
+
0
VIN
+ -
375
c . Summing
VIN 1 VIN 2 VIN 3 VIN 4
+
0
R1 VIN 1 VIN 2 R2 R3 VIN 3 R4 VIN 4 R5 RF
+
0
+
0
+ + -
+
0
VOUT
376
d . Difference
VIN 1 VIN 2 VIN 3 VIN 4 VIN 5
+
0
R1 VIN 1 VIN 2 R2 RF
+
0
+
0
R3 VIN 3 VIN 4 VIN 5 R4 R5
+ + -
+
0
VOUT
+
0
377
2 . Non - Linear (Output is not Proportional to Input) a . Comparator
VREF ATTACHED TO EITHER + OR - TERMINALS (EXAMPLE SHOWS OUTPUT WITH VREF CONNECTED TO THE NON-INVERTING TERMINAL.)
+
VIN
0
VREF
(WAVEFORM WOULD BE INVERTED IF VREF WAS ATTACHED TO THE INVERTING TERMINAL)
+ +
VREF VOUT
+
VOUT
0
VIN
378
b . Differentiator
RF C1
+ +
R1 VOUT
+
0
VIN
379
c . Integrator
C1
+ +
0
+
VOUT
0
VIN R1
+ -
380
Field Effect Transistors (FETs)

Field Effect Transistor Types
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) (N and P Channel)
JFETs are voltage sensitive devices that use voltage vice current to control output. Current does not flow through a PN junction; however, a PN junction is used to control the size of a channel and to control current flow.
381
N Channel JFET
Depletion Region P Source P Drain
--
N P
++
N P
382
Gate
Channel
P Channel JFET
Depletion Region N N Drain
++
P N
--
P N
Channel
383
Gate
JFET Schematic Symbols
Source
Drain
Source
Drain
Gate
Gate
N - Channel
384
P - Channel
JFET Characteristic Curve

ID Pinchoff Region
Avalanche Region 0 Ohmic Region

385
VSD
JFET Operation Regions

Ohmic Region: As VSD increases, Drain Current (ID) increases in a nearly linear manner. Pinchoff Region: As VSD increases, Drain Current (ID) remains constant. Avalanche Region: As VSD increases, Drain Current (ID) increases uncontrollably and control of the FET is lost.
386
JFET Operation
The voltage applied to the gate of a FET is reverse bias in nature and determines the size of the channel. When gate voltage (VG) is large enough, the depletion regions touch and drain current (ID) is cut off (Channel is Pinched Off). This is called the Pinchoff Voltage. With Gate Voltage (VG) held constant, as VSD increases, Drain Current (ID) increases and vice versa. This assumes that the FET is operating in the ohmic region of the characteristic curve.
387
JFET Operation
ID VG = 1 VG = 2
VG = 0
0
388
VSD
MOSFETs
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) MOSFETs where originally called IGFETs due to the insulated gate portion of the the FETs construction. MOSFETs are extremely susceptible to damage from electrostatic discharge.
389
Depletion Mode MOSFET

- Gate Source
N P
++ Drain
+ Source
+ Gate
P N
-Drain
Metal Oxide Layer
390
Depletion Mode MOSFET

Schematic Symbols
Drain Source Gate
P - Channel
Drain
391
NChannel
Gate
Depletion Mode MOSFET Curve

ID
VG
392
N Channel MOSFET Operation

N Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation Negative (-) on the Source, Positive (+) on the Drain, and Negative (-) on the gate. Negative (-) on the gate will induce positive ions in channel which creates an area within the channel where there are no majority current carriers. (Depletion Region) The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will determine the size of the channel thereby controlling the amount of current flow through the transistor.
393
P Channel MOSFET Operation

P Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation Positive (+) on the Source, Negative (-) on the Drain, and Positive (+) on the gate. Positive (+) on the gate will induce negative ions in channel which creates an area within the channel where there are no majority current carriers. (Depletion Region) The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will determine the size of the channel thereby controlling the amount of current flow through the transistor. N & P Channel Depletion MOSFET Biasing / Operation Depending on the polarity of the gate voltage (VG) applied, the depletion mode MOSFET can be made to operate either in the depletion mode or enhancement mode.
394
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Block Diagrams (N & P Channel)
- Gate + Source
++ Drain
N
+ Source
Gate
-Drain
N P
P N
Metal Oxide Layer
395
Enhancement Mode MOSFET

Schematic Symbols (N & P Channel)
Drain Source Gate
P - Channel
396
NChannel
Gate
Enhancement Mode MOSFET Curve

ID
VG
397
N Channel MOSFET Operation

N Channel Enhancement MOSFET Biasing / Operation The Depletion region Creates / Enhances channel formation. The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will determine the size of the channel thereby controlling the amount of current flow through the transistor.
398
P Channel MOSFET Operation

P Channel Enhancement MOSFET Biasing / Operation The Depletion region Creates / Enhances channel formation. The amount of Gate voltage (VG) applied will determine the size of the channel thereby controlling the amount of current flow through the transistor.
399
MOSFET Gate Voltage

Effects of Gate Voltage (VG) on Channel formation
+ Source Gate
++ Drain
N
+ Source
Gate
-Drain
N P
P N
400
Common Source JFET Amplifiers

+VDD
Input Signal
+ RD
G
++
D
RG
VOUT
401
Common Gate JFET Amplifiers

Input Signal
RS
++ RD
+
0
RG
+VDD
VOUT
402
Common Drain JFET Amplifiers

+VDD
Input Signal
++
D G
+
0
+ RG
0
RS
VOUT
403
Lessons Learned
MOSFET ruined from ESD < 20 V static electricity. Computer laptop not working anymore when soda spilled on keyboard. Computer motherboard overheated when cooling fan seized due to accumulation of dust over the years. New computer BIOS chip ruined upon installation because not using the proper tool.
404
Logic Circuits
A . Boolean Algebra
1 . Developed by George Boolean, a 19th century mathematician.
a . His theories were used to develop an assembly of gears and pulleys to be used to drive a grain elevator. b . A Boolean expression is nothing more than a description of the input conditions necessary to get a desired output.
405
Theorems and Postulates

c . Theorem 1 . A rule concerning a simple relationship between variables. d . Postulate 1 . A basic statement that is accepted as valid. a . Only two statements are true. b . X = 0 and X = 1
406
Laws and Theorems

1 1. . Distributive Law. (Repeating) a . Example: A + (B * C) = (A + B) * (A + C) or A*(B+C) = A*(B+C) = (A*B) + (A*C) 2 . Double Negative Law. a .A=A 3 . DeMorgans Law 1 A + B = A * B or A*B = A + B 4. Law of Intersection 1. A(1) = A 2. A(0) = 0 4. Law of Union 1. A + 1 = 1 2. A + 0 = A
407
Logic Gates
f Logic Symbols (Gates)
1 . Logical functions can be expressed in one of four (4) ways.) a . English Statement b . Boolean Expression c . Truth Table d . Logic Symbol 2 . AND Gate a . The AND function is considered to be logical multiplication. b . Any multiplication symbol can be used to express the AND function. (X, *, ( )( ), etc)
408
AND Gate
c . English Statement - A and B equals Z d . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) = Z, A*B = Z etc. e . Truth table A B Z
0 0 1 1
f . Logic Symbol
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
A B
409
OR Gate
a b c d . The OR function is considered to be logical addition. . English Statement - A or B equals Z . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z . Truth table
e . Logic Symbol
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 0 1 1 1
A B
410
NOT Gate
4 . Inverter NOT gate a . The NOT function is considered to be logical inversion. b . English Statement - NOT A equals Z c . Boolean Expression - A = Z d . Truth table
A 0 1
e . Logic Symbol
Z 1 0
A
411
NOR Gate
5 . NOR gate a . English Statement - NOT A or B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z c . Truth table
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 1 0 0 0
d . Logic Symbol
A B
412
6 . NAND gate a . English Statement - NOT A and B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) = Z, A*B = Z etc. c . Truth table A B Z
NAND Gate
0 0 1 1
d . Logic Symbol
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
A Z B
413
XOR Gate
7 . XOR gate a . English Statement - A exclusively ord to B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z c . Truth table
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 0 1 1 0
d . Logic Symbol
A B
414
FLIP-FLOP
a . Logic - NAND logic
SET Q SET RESET FF OUT NO CHANGE (HOLD) Q=1 Q=0 AMBIGUOUS
RESET
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
415
1 . Set = Clear = 1: This condition is the normal resting state and it has no change of the FF output state. 2 . Set = 0, Clear = 1: This will always cause the output Q to equal 1 where it will remain even after set returns to a 1 value. 3 . Set = 1, Clear = 0: This will always set the Q output to a logic 0. It will remain there until the clear in[put returns to a logic 1 value.
FLIP-FLOP
4 . SET = CLEAR = 1: This condition tries to Set and Clear the FF continuously and can produce an ambiguous result. Do not use. b . Logic- NOR logic
SET Q SET RESET FF OUT Q=0 Q=1 AMBIGUOUS
RESET
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
416
FLIP-FLOP
c . Set - Clear Flip Flop 1 . High Input Responding (Logic High)
SET FF CLEAR Q Q
SET CLEAR
FF OUT NO CHANGE (HOLD) Q=1 Q=0 AMBIGUOUS
0 1 0 1 417
0 0 1 1
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Low Input Responding (Logic low)
Q FF CLEAR Q
SET
SET CLEAR
FF OUT NO CHANGE (HOLD) Q=1 Q=0 AMBIGUOUS
1 0 1 0 418
1 1 0 0
FLIP-FLOP
d . JK Flip - Flop 1 . Logic Symbol
J CLK K
PS
FF Q CLR
419
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Truth Table
INPUTS PRESET 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLEAR 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 CLOCK X X X 0 J X X X 0 1 0 1 X K X X X 0 0 1 OUTPUTS Q 1 1 0 Q 1 0 Q 1 0 1 Q 0 1
1 TOG GLE X Q Q
420
Bipolar Integrated Circuit Logic
421
Resistor - Transistor Logic (RTL)
422
Diode - Transistor Logic (DTL)
423
High - Threshold Logic (HTL)
424
Transistor - Transistor Logic (TTL)
425
Direct - Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL)
426
Emitter - Coupled Transistor Logic (ECTL)
427
Integrated Injection Logic (IIL)
428
Oscillating Circuits
429
Transistor Oscillators
1 . Tickler (Armstrong) Oscillator
a . Schematic Diagram
FEEDBACK
L1
Q1
3 4
NPN RC
C1
OUTPUT
T1 VCC
CB
RB
RE
CE
430
Tickler (Armstrong) Oscillator

b. Physical Description 1 .) Uses an LC tuned circuit to establish the base frequency. 2 .) Feedback accomplished by mutual inductance coupling between the tickler coil and the LC tuned circuit. 3 .) Uses class C amplifier with self - bias. c . Operational characteristics 1 .) Output frequency relatively stable. 2 .) Output amplitude is relatively constant. 3 .) RF frequency range 4 .) Local Oscillator in receivers. 5 .) Source in signal generators. 6 .) Radio - frequency oscillators in the medium and high frequency range.
431
Hartley Series Fed Oscillator

Schematic Diagram
OUTPUT
RB C1 L2 L1
Q1 C3 RE CE VCC
C2
432

b .) Physical Description
1 .) Can generate a wide range of frequencies and is easy to tune. 2 .) Current Flows through the tank circuit in the series-fed, but not used in the shunt fed.
c .) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Ordinary Operation: Class C amplifier with self-bias. 2 .) When output waveform must be constant voltage of a linear wave shape => Class A amplifier is used.
433

d .) Operation (Voltage applied to circuit)
1 .) Current flows from battery (VCC) through L3 from collector to emitter, through RE, through L1, and back to the battery. 2 .) The surge of current through coil L1 induces a voltage in L2 to start tank circuit oscillations. 3 .) When current first starts to flow through coil L1, the bottom of L1 is negative with respect to the top of L2. 4 .) The voltage induced into coil L2 makes the top of L2 positive. 5 .) As the top of L2 becomes positive, the positive potential is coupled to the base of Q1 via C1. 6 .) An increasing (+) on the base of Q1 causes forward bias to increase => IC increases => IE increases => IL1 increases and results in more energy being supplied to the tank circuit which in turn increases the (+) at the top of L2 and increases the forward bias on Q1. 434

7 .) This action continues to raise and lower the potential on the base of Q1 to control the output current.
a .) L1 feeds the tank circuit with energy that is lost during normal operation. (REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK). b .) L2s magnetic field expands and collapses to maintain current flow in the same direction. (Lentzs Law) c .) L3 develops the output voltage.
435
Colpits Oscillator
Schematic Diagram
RB
L2 (RFC) Q1 VCC
C3 RE L1 C1 C2 CE
436
Colpits Oscillator
b . ) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Both the Armstrong and Hartley can be unstable in frequency due to inter-junction capacitance. 2 .) The Colpits has good frequency stability, is easy to tune, and can be used over a wide range of frequencies. 3 .) The large value of split capacitance (C1/C2) is in parallel with the PN junction and minimizes the effect of interjunction capacitance on frequency stability. 4 .) Two capacitors are used in the tank circuit instead of a center tapped transformer. 5 .) can change the frequency of oscillation either by changing the capacitance or inductance values. 6 .) No coupling capacitor is used. 7 .) Voltage across C2 is used as the regenerative feedback. 437
Piezoelectric Effect
5 . Piezoelectric Effect Crystals
- A crystal is used as a frequency determining device and can act in both series and parallel tuned circuits. - Crystals used in oscillator circuits are thin sheets, or wafers, cut from natural or synthetic quartz and ground to a specific thickness to obtain the desired resonant frequency. - Crystals are mounted into holders which support them and provide electrodes by which a voltage is applied. - The holder must allow the crystals freedom for vibration.
438
CRYSTALS
a . Theory QUARTZ CRYSTAL
ELECTRODES
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT R CP L CS
439
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF A CRYSTAL UNIT
CAPACITIVE
INDUCTIVE
CAPACITIVE
IMPEDANCE
FREQUENCY
SERIES RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
440
b . Theory
CRYSTALS
1 . Property of a crystal by which mechanical forces produce electrical charges and, conversely, electrical charges which produce mechanical forces. 2 . Voltage applied to a crystal produces mechanical vibrations which, in turn, produce an output voltage at the natural frequency of the crystal. 3 . Crystals have a much higher frequency stability than an LC circuit => theyre used in sine - wave generators. 4 . Crystals are capable of producing highly stable output at a precise frequency. 5 . Crystal types: - Quartz - Rochelle Salt - Tourmaline
441
Crystal Controlled Pierce Oscillator

Schematic
Q1 RC C1 Y1 C2 RB RE CE COUT
RF VCC
442
Crystal Controlled IC Chip Oscillator

U304 +12V
A>B A=B A0 A<B A1 A2 A3 B0 B1 B2 B3 U300 A=B A<B A>B A2 A3 A=B A<B U301 U300
A0 A1
A>B A=B A>B A=B A<B A<B A0 A1 A2 A3 B0 B1 B2 B3
U302
S300
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 C Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q 10
B0 B1 B2 B3
A=B
D S Q
Q 11 R Q 12
U306
C Q R
D S Q M305B C R Q1
443
Semiconductor Gating Circuits

R1 R2 C C R1 R2 R3
Simple SCR Gate Control Circuit

R1 R2 C1 R3 C2
Improved SCR Gate Control Circuit

R1 R2 C
C
444
Improvement to SCR Gate Control D SCR Gate Control Circuit using a Circuit in B above Four-Layer Diode CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

+10V R2 R1 Q1 VOUT C1 R4 VOUT
445
3
R3
VOUT
Summary
Q. What solid state component in the UJT Oscillator is used for wave shaping? A. Capacitor
446
Multivibrators
Monostable (One Shot) Multivibrator
-VCC
R1
R2 C1
R3
R4 OUTPUT
Q1
C2 INPUT
R5 +VBB
Q2 0
447
1 .) Uses
Monostable Multivibrator
a .) Used for pulse stretching b .) Used in computer logic systems and Communication / Navigation systems.
2 .) Operational Characteristics
a .) +VBB is connected to the base of Q1 which places Q1 in cutoff. b .) Q2 is saturated by -VCC applied to its base through R2. c .) C1 is fully charged maintaining approximately -VCC on the base of Q2. d .) A negative gate signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1 which turns Q1 on and drives it into saturation. e .) The voltage at the collector of Q1 is then attached to the base of Q2 which turns Q2 off. f .) C1 is discharged to attempt to keep VC at Q2 constant. This maintains Q2 off. Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics CENT-112
448
Monostable Multivibrator
g .) When C1 is discharged, it can no longer keep Q2 off. h .) Q2 turns on and saturates which causes its VC to go to approximately 0V. i .) This 0V is applied to the base of Q1 which turns Q1 off. j .) Q1s VC goes to -VCC and C1 charges to -VCC. k .) The multivibrator will remain in this original state until another gate triggering pulse is received. l .) Output from the circuit is taken from Q2s collector. m.) Only one trigger pulse is required to generate a complete cycle of output.
449
b .) Bistable (Flip - Flop) Multivibrator
Bistable Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT 1
R5
C3
C4
R6 0
OUTPUT 2
R3
Q1 C1 R1 R2 +VBB
R4
Q2 C2 0
450
INPUT
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Multivibrator that functions in one of two stable states as synchronized by an input trigger pulse.
a .) Circuit is turned on. b .) One of the two transistors will conduct harder and thereby reach saturation first. (Assume Q2) c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 which drives Q1 into cutoff. d .) The -VCC at the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 holding Q2 in saturation. e .) An input trigger pulse is applied to the bases of both Q1 and Q2 simultaneously. Since Q2 is already in saturation, there is no effect on Q2.
451
f .) The trigger pulse turns on Q1 and drives the transistor into saturation. g .) The 0V on the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 driving Q2 into cutoff. h .) The -VCC on the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 holding Q1 in saturation. i .) This process will continue as long as there are trigger pulses applied to the circuit. j .) The output frequency of the waveforms will be determined by the frequency of the input trigger pulses.
452
Astable Multivibrator
c .) Astable (Free - Running) Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT 2
R1
R2
R3
R4 0 C2 Q2
Q1
C1
453
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Circuit has two outputs but no inputs. b .) R1 = R4, R2 = R3, C1 = C2, Q1 & Q2 are as close as is possible in their operating characteristics.
a .) Circuit is turned on. b .) Assume that Q2 conducts harder than Q1 and goes into saturation first. c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 which drives Q1 into cutoff. d .) C2 begins to charge. C1 is at -VCC and this voltage is applied to the base of Q2 to hold Q2 in saturation.
454
e .) After a finite period of time, (as set by the RC time constant of C2 and R3), C2 reaches a voltage value sufficient to snap Q1 on. f .) Q1 quickly goes into saturation. The change in voltage from -VCC to 0Vcauses C1 to discharge. g .) This voltage is coupled to the base of Q2 Placing / holding Q2 in cutoff. h .) C1 begins to charge and will snap Q2 on when a sufficient voltage value is reached. i .) In Summary, whenever a transistor saturates, its VC will change from -VCC to 0V. This voltage will then be coupled to the base of the other transistor which will drive the other transistor into cutoff. The frequency of the output waveform will depend on the RC time constants established at C1R2 and C2R3. 455

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CENT-112: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Section 1: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics

A GOOD THING TO KEEP IN MIND!

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

THE BEST TOOLS EVER INVENTED HANDS!

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

SAFETY SHIELDS ARE EYE INSURANCE!

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

SAFETY SHOES ARE NOT FOR DEFEAT!

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

HEARING PROTECTION IS FOR WINNERS!

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Always check Electrical Circuits Deenergized

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

General Safety Rules

General Safety Rules Continued

General Safety Rules Continued

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 1 .001 .000001 .000000001 .000000000001

1012 109 106 103 103 106 109 1012

Given: E = Voltage I = Current R = Resistance

E=IR I = E/R R = E/I

Basic Electrical Terms

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Energy Band Diagrams

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Energy Band Diagrams Continued

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Static Device Application

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Basic Electrical Circuit

Power Supply (Source) Load (Light) Conductor

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

DC: Direct Current

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Parallel Circuit Series/parallel Circuit

Basic Instruments & Measurements

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Determining Shunt Resistors

Calculate the other shunt resistors.

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Moving Iron Vane Meter

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Moving Iron Vane Meter

D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

D'ARSONVAL METER MOVEMENT

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Digital Multimeters (DMM)

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

i.e. Motor Controllers

CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Logic Output Amplifier Using a UJT and a SCR

Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics

Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics