Evan Wolbach April 5th, 2009 Dr.

Mizenko The Visual Culture of Meiji-era Japan through Analysis of Constructed Photography

Introduction Visual culture is an interesting topic because it has universal application. All human societies possess symbols which embody some of the social mores that are observed of living in these places. Each society relates to these symbols in their own way, regardless if the object is present in more than one. This gives visual culture an almost stereotyping effect on the society of its origin. Japan during the Meiji-era is no different. Through an analysis of imagery, this paper seeks to discover what parts of Japanese culture during the Meiji-era exist in commercially produced photography. This time period revolves around a breaking point in Japan's isolationist history, right as trade was becoming more common with the West. Given this newer global perspective, it is not merely enough to say that these images contain Japanese culture but also the viewer must remember that culture can be fabricated to project a certain image. Therefore, one must try to find implied culture that may have been purposely placed within the photographs. A commercial product is designed to be commercial, so it must embody specific things that make it marketable. All of the following images were created with the intent of distribution, and through this we can begin to view both the implied, and the non-implied aspects of Japanese culture. This paper will address six different images taken between the years 1850-1900, although many of the exact dates or places of origin are not known. This is because that rather than being famous images or high art, they were everyday images meant to be commercially consumed. This paper does not offer an analysis of the who, what, where, when and why of the image, but rather the cultural ideas that can be derived from looking at the image more abstractly. This will be accomplished through an

exploration of gender roles, facial gaze, power stratification, aesthetics colonialism/imperialism and other relevant topic matter. The chief concern is not the composition of the image, but rather what the image is trying to relate about Japan. This may try to represent a constructed ideal, which is done so to give the viewer a product that they find pleasing, rather than a depiction of pure non-fiction. There may be very little truth in these images, but it is the stories that they depict that make them important culturally. The paper begins with three photographs relating heavily to gender stratification, and follows through to two images more concerned with religion and the environment. This paper is not an absolutist analysis, but rather entirely interpretation, so I invite you to return and analyze each image on your own to see how your interpretation compares with mine. Different or not, all views are equally valid and that is why visual culture is so interesting to study, because contains different meanings for different people and by combing these views you can gain a glimmer of the much larger picture.

Samurai Punishing Woman

Image Analysis The first image of my analysis is a photograph featuring three people, two men and a woman. The man holds a sword in a menacing stance over the helpless woman with the second man acting to restrain him. The sword wielder appears to be a part of the samurai class, while the man restraining him could possibly be his retainer. I will make the assumption that the woman is his wife. The area around the focus of the image appears to be a field during the day, Samurai Punishing Woman (Photograph from Okinawa Soba's Collection) with some minor brush in the background. Cultural Analysis

This image speaks bounds in regard to gender roles in Meiji-era Japan, as well as in terms of

morals and punishment. The portrayal of the Japanese male is two-fold in this image, as both an aggressor and defender. The center figure appears to be set on a form of retribution following some unknown incident. You can infer that it was not a particularly serious incident by the lack of any visible destruction or harm within the image. Instead, I see this more as a minor offense that is being returned with a severe punishment. The second, older man to the left side of the image appears to be trying to restrain the attacker, which further backs the idea that this altercation has no foundation. If the man is trying to restrain him, then he must think that the offense does not warrant the punishment. All male figures in this photograph are also poised at a height level much higher than that of the female. Each of the men is full upright, engaged in a pose that senses to command power. On the other hand, the woman is shown in a state of powerlessness, she is on her knees and begging for mercy. This is a clear call out to the relationship of men and women during the Meiji-era, where men had many more rights than women, especially in the samurai class (although the man on the left appears to be a retainer and not a samurai himself). The gender-stereotyping in this image is also enhanced by the bleak and uninteresting background; the image is designed to bring our eyes forward to the event in the foreground while disregarding any impact that nature may play in this image (Perhaps signifying that nature is neutral in this exchange). The gaze of each subject has an interesting place within this photograph. The man on the left is fixated on the would-be attacker, but the attacker himself is concerned with the woman beneath him. The woman has her gaze squarely on the ground, looking away from the viewer. We can see how the male subjects of the photograph are able to stand and look directly into their targets, making them able to engage and execute their power, but the female is unable to meet any gaze. She is so powerless in this respect that she is unable to even bring her eye line anywhere near either of the men. This is especially interesting because the man behind the attacker is actually attempting to help her, so one would assume that she would be looking to him for assistance. All of these aspects come together to help form the somewhat classical cultural representation

required for this photograph to work. All subjects are wearing traditional clothing, and the environment is that of a common Japanese field. In addition, with the obvious power stratification between the genders, as well as the execution of power we can begin to see how imperialist Japan viewed itself. It is a male-dominated society with punishment that is carried out without a trial or jury. This makes me think that the man who is brandishing the sword is a representation of patriarchal authority. It is a society where law is decided and executed by men. This image seems want the viewer assume that there was an event previous to this encounter, that there is a direct cause that is linked to this effect. This is not a man who picked up a sword and engaged the first woman he saw. The photographer was very careful to ensure that there was order in the events of this image, as well as showing us that the power of males was equal. The man trying to stop the attacker has succeeded for the time being. He is standing as an equal to the attacker even though he is clearly not of the same level of social class due to his difference in appearance. This creates a strong representation of the Japanese man, one that is not simply linked to blood lust, but instead multidimensional thought processes that make him a calculating human, and certainly not barbaric. When discussing the commercial aspect of this photograph, the gender stratification plays importantly into the anticipated audience. Women of the time period were not chiefly interested in a piece such as this, but foreign men may have found it extremely interesting. Given how the presentation of power is displayed, with the West also consisting of male dominated societies, this may have been a piece that could easily influence men of this mindset. At the same time though, the image is showing a clear and brutal depiction of how women were treated. I think that this could be considered somewhat barbaric or at the very least exotic, and that may also entice Westerners who did not find that violence towards women was appropriate, thus increasing the photograph's value as a spectacle.

Western Woman with Japanese Sword Image Analysis A western woman sits amidst indifferent looking Japanese men as she casually holds one of their swords. All of the men are dressed as members of the samurai class, with the center man holding his hand on the womans shoulder. The background environment shows that of a constructed outdoors environment, with a specific focus to looking as though they are in a southern portion of Japan, perhaps Okinawa. Western Woman with Japanese Sword (Photograph from Okinawa Soba's Collection) Cultural Analysis This photograph is the embodiment of two intertwined topics, gender and international relations. The foreground of the image holds all of the important information to the viewer, with the background acting as no more than foliage. This is a piece that specifically wants to draw our attention to how the gender structures that affect Japanese males change when a western influence is included within the social order. First of all, each subject in this photograph features an unmistakable look that screams a sort of normalcy in the image. No one is surprised by the event taking place in this photograph, and in fact it seems as though each subject is bored. The height of the subjects plays an important part in showing the relation of genders within the photograph. But instead of a straight top to bottom view of the Japanese men on top, and the women below, we instead witness a confusing scenario. There are both men above and below the woman in this photograph. Rather than a strictly linear fashion as in the previous photograph, there seems to be a different form of power structure being shown within this

image. Although the two men on the right are standing fully above the woman, we notice immediately that the man in the center is touching the woman. The difference here though is that there is not a menace in this touch (like the implied outcome of the previous image), instead we see that the man has a semi-neutral but friendly form while performing the interaction. It is clearly not an embrace between lovers or friends, but instead it is a touch of acceptance that is supposed to show that the woman is allowed to exist within this male space. In addition to this touch of acceptance, we see another particular sight. The woman is holding one of the mens swords. She is not holding it warlike as though she is ready to strike; she is instead holding it in a passive, sheathed way. This makes the sword look like a toy or a prop, which immediately removes all of its cultural significance to the Japanese male. This is extremely important in establishing the order of the social power of the individuals in this image because in addition to the woman being allowed to exist inside this space, she is taking an important object to the samurai class and reducing it to a mere prop. This makes it seem as though she is socially above such a relation to a weapon, which acts as a distinction in her social level in relation to the Japanese males standing next to her. This leads us to believe that there is a social order in place where the western woman is being depicted above the Japanese male. By forming this type of power structure we can begin to gather an idea of how the photographer viewed the global social order. We know that during this time period, the western woman would be below the western man, and if this holds, then we are effectively establishing that the point of depiction of this imago is to show that Japans most powerful gender role is still below that of even the least powerful western white gender role. Even stranger still is the gaze that can be observed in this image. None of the subjects are making direct eye contact with each other, with the two left-most subjects facing right, and the rightmost subjects facing left. Without the gazes meeting, you get the impression that there is no urgency, or interest, within the contents of this photograph. Instead, even with a non-Japanese brandishing a sword, the men are not concerned in the slightest that a primary piece of their cultural class is not within their

power. This a clear sign that this is a totally staged photograph. Any implied authenticity in the photograph is not real. Focusing on the gaze in this image makes the image appear strange and not as lifelike as one might perceive at first glance, showing how constructed realities in photography can remove the viewer, instead of immersing them. So, if we assume that this gender stratification is the important point that the photographer is trying to portray, then we can assume that the audience for this image is Western. To be more specific, the male Westerner appears to be the entire audience to me. A Western male would still be above all subjects in this photograph socially, so this would appear as an amusing photograph and not as something offensive to viewers of other nationalities. This is quite incredible, because if my interpretation is to be followed, the Japanese photographer is essentially putting his own country below a foreign country to sell a few photographs. This of course isnt unprecedented, and giving your customer exactly what they want is the best way to sell anything, however it is still startling to say the least.

Samurai Posing in Full Battle Detail

Image Analysis A Japanese soldier sits in full body armor with sword casually supporting his hand. He is wearing a headband, while holding his helmet in his left hand. He appears deep in thought, while looking unencumbered by his numerous pieces of body armor. The room that he is in appears to be a more western-styled house setting.

Samurai Posing in Full Battle Detail (Photograph from Okinawa Soba's Collection)

Cultural Analysis The mans ability to be a strong soldier is also an important piece in figuring into the design of the male Japanese during the Meiji-era. The soldier depicted here is almost a contradiction in itself; he is in full battle detail but at the same time is in a relaxed, sitting position. This is different than how a man is perceived to be acting when in this garb, we expect the man to be in a stance to enter battle and engage his foes. Even more importantly, during the time period when this photograph was taken, the samurai class as a whole was in a decline. They were slowly being downsized and forced to undergo role changes, especially in the sense that they were not able to carry their swords anymore. This makes this image as a perceived cultural message important, because the need for warriors was in a decline during this time period which may have prompted the desire to display Japanese in full battle detail. In a way, this man represents an idealistic figure of the Japanese warrior. He is fully armored, from head to toe, in good health and clean. He represents the ideal soldier pre-battle, and in a way seems more like a fashion model than a seasoned warrior. But this view does scream power, perhaps imperialist power, as this man is a representative of the uniform structure of the soldiers in the Japanese military. This is not supposed to be a representation of one soldier, but instead a representation of all Japanese soldiers. His face is extremely plain, and commands nothing specific about his character. By avoiding detail, we can see him more as a stereotype instead of an individual and in turn this can help you gain the idea that all Japanese men in the military will exhibit the same structure and composition. The soldiers gaze reaches far off camera, giving an impression of strong concentration and determination. His inability to focus on a specific object that we can seem gives the impression that he is viewing something we cannot, essentially putting him ahead of us and giving a view of experience and strength (along with foresight). There is strength in this deterministic gaze, and it helps to further the effect of having one man represent an entire military. This potent depiction is entirely purposeful though, the photographer was trying all along to give us a view of group strength through individual representation. This is a photograph designed as a

message to outsiders, as a representative image of Japans power. Commercially, I doubt very much that an actual Japanese person would be interested in this image, because it is not in fact an accurate depiction of the Japanese at large. Instead, this would appeal to foreigners who want to display a depiction off a slightly less barbaric, but still exotic Japanese warrior. This is for men who value a true warrior with skill, and not for some one looking for a stereotype of a barbaric foreigner. But at the same time, this image is not designed to act as an equivalent to western warriors. The exoticism in this image would be like a toy to a western military man, as this level of armor and use of a non-missile weapon would be interpreted as an outdated approach to warfare. This makes the Japanese soldier look decidedly behind, but still a source of power and male dominance in their own right.

Cherry Blossom River Image Analysis A clean blue river featuring multiple ferrying ships is being overlooked by cherry blossom trees. In the distance, nature builds along a stream giving a dreamlike landscape. The image idyllic without the marks of everyday life.

Cultural Analysis This photograph bleeds with a desire to show the beauty and cleanliness of nature at its finest. The river is clean and blue, with no Cherry Blossom River (Photograph from Okinawa Soba's Collection) current. Each boat is floating along dreamily as though there is not a care or a cause for rushing. The cherry blossom trees are overhead,

passing a calm shadow over some of the area. This is an image of the integration of Japanese culture into nature itself. We can clearly see that the men who are being represented here are the lesser in this image; they

are overshadowed by the nature that surrounds them. Compared to the river, the cherry blossom trees or the clear sky, they are small and insignificant. It is almost as though the photographer is trying to clearly say: We are guests here, and at the same time totally at nature's mercy. There is no trash or destruction in this image either, I believe the photographer is trying to portray man as a disciple of nature, non-violent and passive. There is not a power contest here, nor a gender argument, this is a scale drawing of how an idealist might see mans place in all things. This is a key point for Japanese culture. As the Shinto religion primarily deals with issues of life and Buddhism primarily deals with death, we can see that this image is supposed to act as an embodiment of the ideals passed along in Japanese culture. By having man integrate with these beliefs (and by such, integrate with nature itself) we can begin to view how an idealistic Japanese views the proposed place of man in the world. It is because these beliefs are such a large part of Japanese culture that the composition of this image is important. It is showing how these beliefs would dictate man's place within nature. This placement would be that of an augment of nature, working through it to exist. This is in stark conflict to the more realistic position of man, as a destroyer and conquerer of nature. Another strong absence within this image is any markings of government or more specifically the imperialist nature of Japan during this time period. Even though they were living in an age where the emperor was reinstated, and that much of the thought processes and creations had a focus on the emperor, this image avoids it entirely. I believe that this may in fact be part of the image, that the absence of a direct tie to the emperor is instead a tool to promote him. If we choose to define Japanese culture by the image we could infer that all of this goodness and seamless integration with nature is by the benefit of the emperor. That he is in fact a force allowing the beliefs of Shinto and Buddhism to be practiced, and that this scenery is masquerading as the spoils of such a rule. If you look at the image this way, you begin to see that there may in fact be a pro-emperor agenda in this photograph. In addition, I think the cherry blossoms in this image also act as a strong cultural marker in relation to Japan. One of the most synonymous objects associated with Japan as a whole is that the

springtime cherry blossoms are always so prominent and identifiable. I feel that these signify life, and perhaps the photographers desired goal here is to convey a sense of life and longevity within Japan during that time period. It certainly was a time of radial governmental change. This could be a method of exemplifying that, to show that even during a turbulent governmental time the nature can remain strong in both country and ideals.

Snowy Incline to Temple Image Analysis A stairway to a temple shrouded in nature is covered in a wintry bleached snow. The entire scene is frozen in a monochrome state due to the weather conditions, which reduce most non-snowed areas to shadow. Light radiates from the temple area, with a solitary woman existing purely in shadow on the frozen steps.

Cultural Analysis Set after a sizable snow-fall, this image presents a chilly view of religion within Japan during the Meiji-era. Immediately, we see a Snowy Incline to Temple proportional comparison to woman when compared to the vista of nature at (Photograph from Okinawa Soba's large. The woman is overshadowed, and almost consumed by the trees and Collection) skyline coming in from all sides, whereas many of these objects are somewhat lit or covered in light snow, the woman is reduced to being simply a shadow within this scape. I believe this further ties into the relationship of woman and nature, especially compared with some of the common religious beliefs during this time period. We see the woman beginning her ascent towards the temple in the distance, as though she is just starting her climb towards the enlightenment, but until that time she is designated to be simply a specter. This image does not offer the usual theme of life that Shinto is typically

represented with vivid displays, instead the cold and dead feelings that the scenery provides makes me think that this is perhaps more of a view of Buddhism, and may be in fact acting as an analogy towards death. This is because there is no blossom within this image, only dead-looking frozen trees and a gray, uncaring sky. Another consistent theme is the stoicisms presented within this image. You can infer a sense of stillness for everything present, fitting with a sense of death and despair. The trees, temple and sky are frozen, as though they will not move for the rest of time. The shadow of the woman herself appears to be stuck on the step that she is climbing, but she also shares the sense of stillness that the environment seems to be portraying. If the woman is truly an integration with nature here, this image may be attempting to show how the woman is at the mercy of the world around her. When everything around her freezes, she is powerless to avoid the same fate. His actions are being dictated by the environment at large and is ultimately a disciple of nature, perhaps the nature that the temple at the top of the stairs is supposed to embody. It is not just woman either, there is no animal life present within this image. It is as though everything is already dead, equally unable to fight the dictation to the world by nature. All of this comes together to fit into the belief mentality of the idealized average Japanese, that they are simply integrating with nature through idealism brought by Shinto and Buddhism and ultimately unable to break from this trend. The photograph is designed to be a clear depicter of their place within the world, and perhaps also to display the inevitability of it all. That is displayed by the way that there are no machines here, the closest we get to woman made structures are in fact the stairs and temple. There is no desire to fight the state of things, but rather simply go with the flow and continue the slow frozen ascent towards the ultimate destination. This is almost like the comparison in how a Japanese can be considered indoctrinated into Shinto at birth, and a Buddhist as death, it is a linear path of beliefs that represents a common cultural theme within Japan during this period. One is powerless but to head towards the light (religion through the temple) that appears to be the only bastion from shadow within this photograph.

Conclusion The photographs that have been analyzed are just a small sampling of how Japanese culture during the Meiji-era may be viewed. I have discussed a few examples of gender and power stratification, as well as analyzing how nature can interact with ideals and beliefs regarding religion and government. These photographs may be incredibly staged, but they contain a great deal of depth in relation to how a Japanese may have viewed an ideal or non-ideal version of Japan during this time period. These depictions are also equally influenced by the changes of government and movement from an isolationist structure to an integration with other countries around the world. Given that this exponentially increased the breadth of Japan's trading possibilities, it is safe to think that many of these photographs were created with the mindset of commercial sales abroad. This has heavily influenced the content of these photographs, because now the photographer was focusing on a non-Japanese audience, and as such may have felt compelled to cater to that audience in design and composition of the photographs. In the end though, the depictions within the photographs are dripping with the essence of perceived Japanese culture, and they all exist as strong testaments to how a country lived and existing during this period of their history. It is the unseen visuals and their motivations that is the culture of Meiji-era Japan.

References
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