1

YOUNGS MODULUS BY NON-UNIFORM BENDING

Expt.No:
Date :
Aim:
To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam by non-
uniform bending.

Objective:
To detect the maximum stress applied to the given beam by Non-uniform bending
method.

Apparatus required:
Travelling microscope, two knife edge supports, weight hanger with set of
weights, pin, meter scale, vernier calipers and screw gauge.

Formula:
The Youngs modulus of the material of the beam (meter scale) is:

2
3
3
/
4
m N
y bd
Mgl
E =
Where
E =Youngs Modulus of the material of the beam (N/m
2
)
y =depression at the center of the beam (m)
M=Mass suspended at the center of the beam (Kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s
2
)
l =distance between the two knife edges (m)
b = breadth of the beam (m)
d = thickness of the beam (m)
Theory:
Here the given beam (meter scale) is supported symmetrically on two knife edges
and loaded at its centre. The maximum depression is produced at its centre. Since the load
is applied only at one point of the beam, the bending is not uniform throughout the beam
and the bending of the beam is called non-uniform bending.

Procedure:
Using two knife edges, the meter scale is placed horizontally. Exactly midway
between the knife edges, a pin index using clay is affixed such that its tip is facing
upwards. At that point a weight hanger is suspended. The microscope is adjusted such
that the tip of the image of the pin is exactly at the centre of the cross wires. The loads are
added to the hangers in steps of 50 gm and the microscope is adjusted so that the tip of
the image of the pin just coincides with the horizontal cross wires in each case and the
microscope readings are noted. After reaching the maximum load, the hanger is unloaded
in the same steps of 50 gm and the microscope readings are noted again.
The experiment is repeated for the different lengths of beam. This can be done by
altering the length between the knife edges. Finally the breadth of the scale is measured
using vernier calipers and the thickness using screw gauge respectively at different points
on the beam and mean value is taken. From the observations, the young's modulus of the
beam is calculated by using the given formula.

2

















































3
Precautions:
1. The beam must be kept horizontal.
2. Since the value of thickness (d) is small and it occurs to the third power in the
expression for y, it must be measured with a screw gauge.
3. While taking readings, the microscope must be rotated in the same direction, so
as to avoid the back-lash error.
4. After loading or removing weights, some time must be allowed before taking if
the readings

Applications:
The elastic property of the material is useful while studying materials for
industrial applications such as construction of bridges, railway wagons etc.,

Viva-Voce
1. What is Hookes Law?
The stress applied to a body is directly proportional to the strain produced in the
body.

2. What is modulus of elasticity?
The ratio of stress to strain is a constant and is known as modulus of elasticity.

3. What is Youngs modulus?
Youngs modulus is defined as the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain.

4. What is a beam?
When the length of the rod of uniform cross-section is very large compared to its
breadth such that the shearing stress over any section of the rod can be neglected, the rod
is called a beam.

5. What is the change produced in depression when the thickness of the bar is doubled?
If thickness is doubled, then the depression is reduced to 1/8 of its previous value.

6. What is the change produced in depression when the breadth of the bar is doubled?
If breadth is doubled, then the depression is reduced to l/2 of its previous value.

7. What is the change in Youngs modulus when the thickness and breadth of the bar is
doubled?
Youngs modulus does not change.

8. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?
Due to depression, the upper or the concave side of the beam becomes smaller
than the lower or the convex side of the beam. As a result, longitudinal strain is produced.
The change in length will be due to the force acting along the length of the beam. These
forces will give rise to longitudinal stress.

4
Least count of Traveling microscope (L.C) = 0.001cm (or) 0.001 x10
-2
m V.S.R = V.S.C x L.C
T.R = M.S.R+ V.S.R
Distance between the two knife edges (l) = __________ x10
-2
m

Table I: To find the average value of M/Y

S.No
Load
M
x10
-3
kg

Microscope readings
Mean

x10
-2
m
Average
depression
Y (for
M=50g)
x10
-2
m
M/Y
x10
-1

Kg/m
During increasing load During Decreasing load
MSR
x10
-2
m
VSR
x10
-2
m
TR
x10
-2
m
MSR
x10
-2
m
VSR
X10
-2
m
TR
x10
-2
m
1 50

2 100

3 150

4 200

5 250

6 300

7 350


Mean M/Y = __________________ Kg/m






5
Table II: To find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper

Least count of vernier caliper (L.C) = 0.01cm or 0.01 x10
-2
m
Zero error (Z.E) =) ______divisions
Zero correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) =________x10
-2
m



S.No

M.S.R
x10
-2
m
V.S.C
Divisions
V.S.R = V.S.C x L.C
x10
-2
m
Breadth = M.S.R + V.S.R + Z.C
x10
-2
m
1
2
3
4
5


Mean Breadth of the beam (b) = _______x10
-3
m

6
Table III: To find the Thickness of the beam using Screw Gauge

Least Count of Screw Gauge (L.C) = 0.01 mm (or) 0.01 x 10
-3
m
Zero Error (Z.E) = _______ Divisions
Zero Correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) = ______ x 10
-3
m



S .No
P.S.R
x 10
-3
m
H.S.C
divisions
H.S.R( = H.S.C XL.C)
X 10
-3
m
Thickness = (P.S.R + H.S.R+Z.C)
X 10
-3
m
1
2
3
4
5


Mean Thickness of the beam (d) = _______x10
-3
m



















7

Calculation:

Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s
2

Distance between the two knife edges l = _____________ x 10
-2
m
Breadth of the beam b = _____________ x 10
-2
m
Thickness of the beam d = _____________ x 10
-3
m
Average value of M/y = _____________ kg/m

Youngs modulus of the material of the beam (meter scale):

2
3
3
/
4
m N
y bd
Mgl
E =

E =




























8

9. Which dimension breadth, thickness, or length of the bar should be measured very
carefully and why?
The thickness of the bar should be measured very carefully since its magnitude is
small and it occurs in the expression in the power of three. An inaccuracy in the
measurement of the thickness will produce the greatest proportional error in E.

























Result:
The Youngs modulus of the material of the beam (meter scale)
by Non- Uniform bending E = ___________N/m
2
















9
TORSIONAL PENDULUM-- RIGIDITY MODULUS

Expt.No:
Date :
Aim:
To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire and the moment of
inertia of a circular disc about its axis of suspension by the method of torsional
oscillations.

Objective:
To understand the concept of moment of inertia and rigidity modulus using
torsional pendulum.

Apparatus required:
Circular disc with chuck, given wire (suspension wire), stop clock, two equal
cylindrical masses, screw gauge and metre scale.

Formula:
Moment of inertia of the disc
2
2
MR
I = kg m
2


Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire n =
2 4
8
T
L
r
I t
N/m
2

Where
M = mass of the disc (kg)
T = Period of oscillation of the Torsion pendulum (second)
R = Radius of the Torsion disc (metre)
L = length of the suspension wire (metre)
r = Radius of the Pendulum wire (metre)

Theory:
Torsion pendulum consists of a metal wire clamped to a rigid support at one end
and carries a heavy circular disc at the other end. When the suspension wire of the disc is
slightly twisted, the disc at the bottom of the wire executes torsional oscillations such that
the angular acceleration of the disc is directly proportional to its angular displacement
and the oscillations are simple harmonic.











10



Table I. Determination of Time period of Oscillation

Mass of the disc (M) = x 10
-3
Kg



Length of
the
pendulum
(L)
x10
-2
m

Time for 10 oscillations (second)
Time
Period (T)
second
2
T
L

x10
-2
m/s
2


Trial I

Trial II

Trial III

Mean






Mean
2
T
L
= x10
-2
m/s
2




















11
Table II: Determination of the diameter of the suspension wire using screw gauge

Least count L.C = 0.01 x 10
-3
m
Zero Error (Z.E) = _______ Divisions
Zero Correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) = ______ x 10
-3
m


S.No
P.S.R
x10
-3
m
H.S.C
Divisions
H.S.R =H.S.C x L.C
X10
-3
m
T R =( P.S.R + H.S.R+ Z.C)
x10
-3
m










Mean diameter of the wire (2r) = x10
-3
m




Calculations:
Circumference of the Disc 2R = x10
-2
m
Radius of the Disc R = x10
-2
m
Mass of the disc M = x10
-3
kg
Radius of the wire r = x 10
-3
m


Moment of inertia of the disc
2
2
MR
I = kg m
2














12



Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is n =
2 4
8
T
L
r
I t
N/m
2


























Procedure:
One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is
clamped by a vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached
by another chuck. The length of the suspension l (from top portion of chuck to the
clamp) is fixed to a particular value (say 60 cm or 70 cm).The suspended disc is slightly
twisted so that it executes torsional oscillations. The first few oscillations are omitted. By
using the pointer, (a mark made in the disc) the time taken for l0 complete oscillations are
noted. Three trials are taken. Then the mean time period T (time for one oscillation) is
found. The above procedure is repeated for three different length of pendulum wire. From
the above values of L and T calculate L/T
2
.
The diameter of the wire is accurately measured at various places along its length
with screw gauge. From this, the radius of the wire is calculated. The circumference of
the disc is measured and from that the radius of the disc is calculated. The moment of
inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire are calculated using the given
formulae.

13
Precautions:
l. The suspension wire should be well clamped, thin long and free from kinks.
2 The period of oscillations should be measured accurately since they occur in second
power in the formula.
3. Radius of the wire should be measured very carefully since it occurs in fourth power.

Applications:
1. This method is used to find the moment of inertia of any irregular materials and the
elastic limit of the given wire.
2. By knowing the moment of inertia, the time period of oscillations can be found.

Viva-Voce
1. What is torsional pendulum?
A body suspended from a rigid support by means of a long and thin elastic wire is
called a torsional pendulum.

2. Why is it called a torsional pendulum? `
It executes in torsional oscillations, it is called as a torsional pendulum.

3. What is the shape of rigid body you can use for a torsional pendulum?
Sphere, cylinder and circular disc.

4. What are the factors affecting the time period of the pendulum?
The factors affecting the time period of the pendulum are moment of inertia of the
rigid body, rigidity modulus, length, radius and material of the wire. `

5. How does the torsional pendulum oscillate? (OR) What is meant by torsional
oscillations?
When the torsional pendulum is given a slight rotation by applying a torque, the
wire is twisted. Now a restoring couple is developed in the wire due to elasticity on the
removal of external torque, the restoring couple tends to untwist the wire, so that the
pendulum oscillates. Such oscillations are called torsional oscillation.

6. What is the type of oscillation produced in a torsional pendulum?
Simple harmonic oscillation.











14




























Result:
Moment of inertia of the circular disc about the axis
passing through its centre (I) =_________x 10
-3
kg m
2

Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire (n) =______________ N/m
2















15
DISPERSIVE POWER OF A PRISM - SPECTROMETER

Expt. No:
Date :
Aim: To determine the
(i) Refractive index of the given glass prism for different colours.
(ii) Dispersive power of the material of the prism using spectrometer

Apparatus Required
Spectrometer, Mercury vapour lamp, Glass prism, Reading lens and spirit level.

Formula
Angle of minimum deviation
2
) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
S S R R
D
+
=
Refractive index of the prism
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
2
2
A
Sin
D A
Sin
u

Dispersive power of the material of the prism
1

=
Y
R V
u
u u
e
Where
A Angle of the prism (degree)
D Angle of minimum deviation (degree)
u
v
Refractive index of the prism for violet line
u
R
Refractive index of the prism for red line.
u
Y
Refractive index of the prism for yellow line.
R
1
Direct Ray for vernier I
R
2
Minimum deviated ray for vernier I
S
1
Direct Ray for vernier II
S
2
Minimum deviated ray for vernier II

Procedure:
The following initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made first.
(i) The spectrometer and the prism table are arranged in horizontal position by
using the leveling screws.
(ii) The telescope is turned towards a distant object to receive a clear and sharp
image.
(iii) The slit is illuminated by a sodium vapour lamp and the slit and the
collimator are suitably adjusted to receive a narrow, vertical image of the slit.
(iv) The telescope is turned to receive the direct ray, so that the vertical slit
coincides with the vertical crosswire.



16














































17
(iv) The telescope is turned to receive the direct ray, so that the vertical slit
coincides with the vertical crosswire.



Table I.: Determination of the angle of prism A
Least count = 1`

Rays
reflected
from
Vernier I Vernier II
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
One of the
polished
surface

X
1
=

Y
1
=
Other
polished
surface

X
2
=

Y
2
=

X = 2A = X
1
~ X
2
Y = 2A = Y
1
~Y
2








Angle of prism
4
Y X
A
+
= =









18
Table II: Angle of minimum deviation and refractive index

Angle of prism A =

Direct ray
Reading
Vernier I Vernier II
Angle of minimum
deviation
2
) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
S S R R
D
+
=

Refractive index
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
2
2
A
Sin
D A
Sin
u

MSR VSR
TR
R
1

MSR VSR
TR
S
1





Minimum
deviated
ray
Reading
MSR VSR
TR
R
2
MSR VSR
TR
S
2

Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
19
(i) Determination of Angle of prism (A)
The given glass prism is mounted vertically at the centre of the prism table with
its two refracting faces facing the collimator and the base of the prism faces the telescope.
Now the parallel rays of light coming out of the collimator falls almost equally on the two
refracting faces of the prism ABC and gets reflected. The telescope turned to receive the
reflected image from one face (left) of the prism and fixed in that position. The tangential
screw is adjusted until the vertical cross wire coincides with the fixed edge of the image
of the slit. Now the readings on both the verniers( Ver A and Ver B) are noted.
Similarly the readings corresponding to the reflected image of the slit on the other
face (right) are also taken. The difference between the two readings of the same vernier
gives twice the angle of the prism (2A). From the mean value of 2A the angle of the
prism A is determined.
(ii) Determination of angle of minimum deviation (D)
The prism is mounted on the prism table in such a way that the light from the
collimator incident on one of the refracting faces of the prism. Here the light enters in to
the prism and gets diffracted. The diffracted ray moves parallel to the base of the prism
and gets dispersed. Now the telescope is turned to receive the dispersed spectrum coming
out of the other refracting face of the prism.
By viewing the spectrum, the prism table is slowly rotated either in clockwise or
in anticlockwise direction in such a way that the spectrum moves towards the direct ray.
At a particular position the spectrum retraces its path. When it retraces its path, stop the
rotation of the prism table. This is the minimum deviation position.
The telescope is turned and the horizontal crosswire is made to coincide with the violet
slit. Then both vernier scale readings (Ver A and Ver B) are noted. The experiment is
repeated for yellow and red slits. The prism is removed and the direct reading of the slit is
taken. The difference between the direct reading and the refracted ray reading
corresponding to the minimum deviation gives the angle of minimum deviation D. The
dispersive power is calculated by using the given formula.


Viva - Voce
1. What is a spectrometer?
The instrument which is used to analyze the spectrum of different light sources is
called a spectrometer.

2. What is the function of a collimator in a spectrometer?
The main function of the collimator is to produce a parallel beam of light and it
made the light to incident on the prism.

3. Define refractive index.
It is defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction. i.e., u =
r
i
sin
sin
which is a constant known as refractive index.



20
4. How does the refractive index changes with wavelength of light?
Higher the wave length, smaller is the refractive index. The refractive index of the
prism for violet is greater than that of red.


5. Does the deviation depend on the angle of the prism?
Yes, greater the angle of the prism more is the deviation.







Calculation:



Dispersive power of the material of the prism
1

=
Y
R V
u
u u
e


























21
































Result:

Angle of the given prism A =
Dispersive power of the material of the given glass prism e =










22





























23
YOUNGS MODULUS BY UNIFORM BENDING

Expt.No:
Date :
Aim:
To determine the Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam by Uniform-
Bending

Objective:
To detect the maximum stress applied to the given beam by Uniform Bending
method.

Apparatus Required:
Travelling Microscope, Two knife edge supports, Two Weight hangers, Slotted
weights, Pin, Screw gauge, Vernier Calipers.

Formula:
Youngs modulus of the given material of the beam
E =
Y bd
M gDl
3
2
2
3
Nm
-2

Where,

E = Youngs Modulus of the material of the beam (Pascal or N/m
2
)
Y = Elevation produced for M Kilogram of load (m)
M = Mass suspended on either sides of the beam (Kg)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec
2
)
l = Distance between the two knife edges (m)
b = Breadth of the beam (m)
d = Thickness of the beam (m)
D = Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent
Knife edge (m)

Procedure:
The given beam is placed over the two knife edges (A & B) at a distance of 70 cm
or 80 cm. Two weight hangers are suspended, one each on either side of the knife edge at
equal distance from the knife edge. Since the load is applied at both points of the beam,
the bending is uniform throughout the beam and the bending of the beam is called
Uniform Bending. A pin is fixed vertically exactly at the centre of the beam.
A traveling microscope is placed in front of this arrangement. Taking the weight
hangers alone as the dead load, the tip of the pin is focused by the microscope and is
adjusted in such a way that the tip of the pin just touches the horizontal cross wire. The
reading on the vertical scale of the traveling microscope is noted.
Now, equal weights are added on both the weight hangers, in steps of 50 grams.
Each time the position of the pin is focused and the readings are noted from the
microscope. The procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached.

24
Table I: To find the Thickness of the beam using Screw Gauge

Least Count of Screw Gauge (L.C) = 0.01 mm
(L.C) = 0.01 x 10
-3
m
Zero Error (Z.E) = _______ Divisions
Zero Correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x L.C) = ______ x 10
-3
m


S.No
P.S.R
x 10
-3
m
H.S.C
divisions
H.S.R = H.S.C X L.C
X 10
-3
m
Thickness = (P.S.R + H.S.R + Z.C)
X 10
-3
m
1
2
3
4
5





Mean Thickness of the beam (d) = _______x10
-3
m



25
Least count of Traveling microscope (L.C) = 0.001cm (or) 0.001 x10
-2
m V.S.R = V.S.D x L.C
T.R = M.S.R+ V.S.R
Distance between the two knife edges (l) = __________ x10
-2
m
Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent knife edge (D) =__________x10
-2
m

Table II: To find the average value of M/Y

S.No
Load
M
x10
-3
kg

Microscope readings x10
-2
m

Mean

x10
-2
m
Average
elevation
Y (for
M=50g)
x10
-2
m
M/Y
X10
-1

Kg/m
Loading Unloading
MSR

VSR

TR

MSR

VSR

TR

1 50

2 100

3 150

4 200

5 250

6 300

7 350






Mean M/Y = __________________ Kg/m


26
The same procedure is repeated by unloading the weight from both the weight hanger in
steps of same 50 grams and the readings are tabulated in the tabular column. From the
readings, the mean of (M/y) is calculated. The thickness and the breadth of the beam are
measured using screw gauge and vernier calipers respectively and are tabulated. By
substituting all the values in the given formula, the Youngs modulus of the given
material of the beam can be calculated.

Viva-Voce:
1. What is stress? Give its unit.
The force applied on a body per unit area is known as stress. Its unit is N/m
2
.

2. What is strain? Give its unit.
The ratio of change in dimension to original dimension is called strain. It is a
ratio, hence it has no unit.

3. What is elasticity?
The property of the body to regain its original shape and size, after the removal of
the applied stress.

4. What are the factors affecting the elasticity of a material?
a. Effect of stress
b. Effect of change in temperature
c. Effect of Impurities
d. Effect of hammering, rolling and annealing
e. Effect of crystalline nature.

5. What is uniform bending?
The beam is loaded uniformly on its both ends, the bent forms an arc of a circle
and elevation is made on the beam. This bending is called uniform bending.
27
Table III: To find the breadth of the beam using vernier calipers

Least count of vernier caliper (L.C) = 0.01cm or 0.01 x10
-2
m
Zero error (Z.E) = ______divisions
Zero correction (Z.C) = (Z.E x LC) = ________x10
-2
m


S.No
M.S.R
x10
-2
m
V.S.C
Divisions
V.S.R = V.S.C x L.C
x10
-2
m
Breadth (b)=( M.S.R +
V.S.R+Z.C)
x10
-2
m
1
2
3
4
5

Mean Breadth of the beam (b) = x10
-2
m

28
Calculation:
Mass suspended on either sides of the beam (M) = 50 x 10
-3
Kg
Breadth of the beam b = x 10
-2
m
Thickness of the beam d= x 10
-3
m
Acceleration due to gravity g= 9.8 m/sec
2

Mean Value of M/y = Kg/m
Distance between the two knife edges l = x 10
-2
m
Distance between the weight hanger and
the adjacent knife edge D = x 10
-2
m






Youngs modulus of the given material of the beam

E =
Y bd
M gDl
3
2
2
3
Nm
-2
























29































Result:
The Youngs Modulus of the material of the given beam
by Uniform Bending method is E = ____________ N/m
2


30





















31
VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID BY POISEUlLLES FLOW METHOD

Expt. No:
Date :
Aim:
To find the Co-efficient of viscosity of a given liquid (water) by using Poiseuilles
flow method.

Apparatus required:
Graduated burette without stopper, Retort stand with clamp, Capillary tube,
Beaker, Water, Stop watch, Meter scale, Rubber tube, Pinch cock and travelling
microscope.

Formula
Co-efficient of viscosity of the given liquid is
lV
ht gr
8
) (
4
tp
n = Ns / m
2

Where
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
p Density of the liquid (kg/m
3
)
r Radius of the capillary tube (metre)
l Length of the capillary tube (metre)
V Volume of the liquid collected (metre
3
)

0
2 1
2
h
h h
h
+
= (metre)
h
1
Height from table to initial level of water in the burette (metre)
h
2
Height nom table to the final level of water in the burette (metre)
h
0
Height from table to mid portion of capillary tube (metre)
t Time taken for the liquid flow (second)

Procedure
(i) Measurement of time for liquid flow:
The experimental set up is as shown in the figure. A graduated burette is washed
with water and also with the given liquid whose viscosity is to be determined. The burette
is then fixed vertically in a stand. A capillary tube is connected to the tip of the burette by
means of a rubber tube and is held parallel to the table so that the flow of liquid is
streamlined.
The given liquid is filled in the burette slightly above the zero-mark. Now the
pinch clip is released. When the level of liquid reaches the zero-mark the stop-clock is
started and the time is noted. Similarly the time is noted when the liquid level crosses 5,
10, 15 ...... 50 cc. The time taken for the flow of every 5cc of the liquidt are determined.
The pressure head (h) is calculated by using a meter-scale. It is seen that as pressure-
head h decreases, the time of flowt increases. The product ht is also calculated.



32

TABLE I: To find the ht h
o
= _________ x 10
-2
m

S.No
Burette
reading
Time for
every 5cc
flow of liquid
(t)
Range
Time
of
flow
for 5cc
liquid
Height of
initial
reading
h
1

Height of
final
reading
h
2


0
2 1
2
h
h h
h
+
=

ht
cc Sec cc Sec x10
-2
m x10
-2
m x10
-2
m m-sec
1 0 0-5
2 5 5-10
3 10 10-15
4 15 15-20
5 20 20-25
6 25 25-30
7 30 30-35
8 35 35-40
9 40 40-45
10 45 45-50
11 50
Mean ht = m-sec

Table II: To Measure the Diameter of the capillary tube L.C = 0.001cm

Horizontal cross wire Vertical cross wire
Position
M.S.R
cm
VSC
div
MSR+(VSCXL.C)
cm
Position
M.S.R
cm
VSC
div
MSR+(VSCXL.C)
cm
Top


Left




Bottom


Right




Difference d
1
= cm Difference d
2
= cm
Average diameter of the capillary tube d =
2
2 1
d d +
cm
= x 10
-2
m


Average radius of the capillary tube(r) = x10
-2
m

33

(ii) To find radius of the capillary tube (r) by using travelling microscope:
The capillary tube is held horizontally. The bore of the capillary tube is focused
with the help of a travelling microscope. The horizontal crosswire of the travelling
microscope is made to coincide with the top of the bore of the capillary tube. The reading
in the vertical scale is noted. Now, the travelling microscope is moved so that the
horizontal crosswire coincides with the bottom of the bore of the capillary tube and the
vertical scale readings are noted. The difference between the two readings gives the
diameter of the bore. Similarly using vertical crosswire, the readings in the horizontal
scale corresponding to left and right edges of the bore of the capillary tube are taken. The
difference between the two readings gives the diameter. The readings are tabulated. The
average diameter and hence the radius of the capillary tube are determined.
By using the given formula, the co-efficient of viscosity of the given liquid is
calculated.

Viva-Voce
1. Define the term coefficient of viscosity.
The tangential force acting per unit area over two adjacent layers of the liquid for
a unit velocity gradient is referred to as the coefficient of viscosity.

2. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity?
The coefficient of viscosity decreases with rise in temperature in the case of
liquids, but for gases it increases with rise in temperature.

3. Can you find the viscosity of a highly viscous liquid using poiseuilles flow method?
No, the flow of highly viscous liquid through the capillary tube is not uniform. So
Stokes method can be used for highly viscous liquid.

4. Is there any difference between friction and viscosity?
Friction and viscosity have some similarities and same differences between them.
For liquids at rest, friction works but viscosity does not because viscosity arises only
when there is a relative motion between the layers of a liquid.

















34
Calculations:
Radius of the capillary tube(r) = x10
-2
m
Density of water (p) = 1000 kg/m
3
Length of the capillary tube (l) = x10
-2
m
Volume of the water (V) = x10
-6
m
3
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s
2

Average Value of ht = m-sec


Co-efficient of viscosity of the given liquid is

lV
ht gr
8
) (
4
tp
n = Ns / m
2
































Result:
The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid ( water ) n =______________Ns/ m
2







35
DETERMINATION OF BAND- GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Expt. No:
Date :

Aim:
To find the band gap of the material of the given thermistor (semiconductor) using
post office box.

Apparatus required:
Post office box, Power supply, Thermistor, Thermometer, Galvanometer,
insulating coil and Glass beakers.

Formula:
Band gap for the given thermistor

eV
T
R
x
k
E
T
g
|
.
|

\
|
=

/ 1
log 303 . 2
10 6 . 1
2
10
19


k Bo1tzmann's constant ( 1.38X10
-23
J/K )
R
T
Resistance of the thermistor (ohm)
T Temperature of Thermistor (Kelvin)

Procedure
The Post office box has three variable resistances P, Q and R. The given
thermistor whose band gap energy is to be determined is connected with these resistances
to form a wheatstone's bridge. The band gap energy of the semiconductor used in the
thermistor is calculated by finding the value of resistance of the thermistor at a particular
temperature. The connections are made as shown in the diagram. A 10 ohm resistance is
dialed in P and Q. Then the resistance in R is adjusted by pressing the tab key until the
deflection in the galvanometer crosses zero reading of the galvanometer, say from left to
right. After finding an approximate resistance for this, two resistances in R, which differ
by l ohm, are to be found out such that the deflections in the galvanometer for these
resistances will be on either side of zero reading of galvanometer.
We know R
T
= R
P
Q
. Thus keeping the resistance in Q the same, the resistance
in p is changed to 10, 100, 1000, ohms. Thus the resistance of the thermistor is found out
accurately to two decimal at room temperature. The lower value may be assumed to be
R
T
(0.01 R).
Then the thermistor is heated by keeping it immersed in insulating coil. For every
10
0
C rise in temperature, the resistance of the thermistor is found out. The readings are
entered in the tabular column.





36
Y
A
B
C
dx
dy
2.303 log R
T

O
Table I: To find the resistance of the thermistor at different temperatures

S.No
Temp.of
thermistor
t
Temp.of
thermistor
T=t+273
3
10
1

T

Resistance in
Resistance of
the thermistor
R
P
Q
R
t
=
2.303 log R
t

P Q R
C K K
-1
Ohm Ohm Ohm Ohm Ohm
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10


Graph:























X 1/T (K
-1
)
37
A graph is drawn by taking
T
1
along X- axis and 2.303 log
10
R
T
along Y axis. A
straight line is obtained and the slope of the line is calculated.





Band gap (E
g
) = 2k X slope of the straight line
= 2k X ,
dx
dy
where |
.
|

\
|
=
T
R
dx
dy
T
/ 1
log 303 . 2
10




































38
Viva-Voce
1. What is band gap energy?
The forbidden energy level between the conduction band and the valence band.

2. Define Fermi Energy level.
The highest energy level that can be occupied by the electrons at 0 Kelvin.

3. What are intrinsic semiconductors? Give examples.
Intrinsic semi-conductors are semi-conductors in pure form. These materials are
having an energy gap of the order of 1 eV. Charge carriers are generated due to breaking
of covalent bonds. (Example: Germanium and Silicon)

4. What are extrinsic semi-conductors? Give examples.
A semi-conducting material in which charge carriers originate from impurity
atoms added to the material is called "extrinsic semi-conductors. The addition of
impurity increases the carrier concentration and hence conductivity of the conductor.


















Result
Band gap (E
g
) of the semi-conducting material of the thermistor = eV










39
RESISTIVITY OF A WIRE CAREY-FOSTERS BRIDGE

Expt.No:
Date :

AIM
To determine the
i) Resistance of a given coil of a wire.
ii) Specific Resistance or Resistivity of the given wire.


APPARATUS REQUIRED
CareyFosters bridge, sensitive galvanometer, Leclanche cell, High resistance
box, two equal resistances, Fractional resistance boxes, copper strip, Plug key, given coil
of wire and connecting wires etc.

FORMULA

i) The Resistance per unit length of the wire in the Carey-Fosters bridge is
) (
2 1
l l
R
X

= Ohm / m

Where
R- Resistance dialed in the resistance box.
l
1-
Balancing length before interchanging the resistance box R and the copper
strip.
l
2
- Balancing length after interchanging the resistance box R and the copper strip.




ii) The Resistance of the given coil of wire is
) (
4 3
l l R S + = Ohm

Where
l
3
-Balancing length before interchanging the resistance boxes R and S.
l
4
-Balancing length after interchanging the resistance boxes R and S.


iii) The specific Resistance of the material of the wire is
L
r S
P
2
t
= Ohm-m



40

























Circuit Diagram of Carey-Fosters Bridge.




















41
i) To find the resistance per unit length of the wire in the bridge:

Sl. No.
Resistance
dialed in box

R
Balancing length

(l
1
~l
2
) ( )
2 1
l ~ l
R
X =
Before
Interchange
(l
1
)
After
Interchange
(l
2
)
Unit ohm cm cm cm ohm/m
1
2
3
4
5

Mean X= ohm/m

iv) To find the Resistance the given coil of wire:

Sl. No.
Resistance dialed in
box R
R
Balancing length

(l
3
~l
4
)

) (
4 3
l l R X + =
Before
interchange
(l
3
)
After
Interchange
(l
4
)
Unit ohm cm cm cm ohm/m
1
2
3
4
5

Mean X = . ohm/m
42

PROCEDURE
The Carey-Fosters bridge consists of one meter thin wire stretched on a wooden
board. The two ends A and B of the wire are fixed to an inverted L shaped copper
metal strip metal strip at the two ends of the board. Three more copper strips are fixed
in a linear way with the front terminals of the inverted L shaped strip by forming
four gaps as shown in figure. A meter scale is also attached with the wooden board to
measure the balancing lengths.

i) Resistance per unit length of the wire in the bridge:

Connect the two resistance boxes P and Q in the inner gaps (gap no.2 and3) of the
Carey _Fosters bridge. A fractional resistance box R and a copper metal strip are
connected in the outer gaps (gap no.1 and 4).A Leclanche cell and a plug key are
connected in series with the central terminals of the and third metal strips in the
bridge. A galvanometer and a jockey J are connected in series with the central
terminal of the second metal strip as shown in the diagram. The correctness of the
circuit can be verified by pressing the jockey at the two ends A an B of the wire in the
bridge.

A known resistance (Say 0.1 ohm) is dialed in the resistance box R. The
jockey is moved between the points A and B of the wire in the bridge until a null
deflection is obtained. The balancing length 11 is noted. Now the resistance box R
and the metal strip are interchanged and the new balancing length 12 is also noted.
The experiment can be repeated for different values of resistances in the box R. By
using the given formula, the resistance per unit length of the wire in the bridge can be
calculated. Finally the mean value of the resistance per unit length is calculated.

ii) Resistance of the given coil of wire:

The fractional resistance box R is connected in the first gap and the given coil of
wire whose specific resistance is to be calculated is connected in the fourth gap of the
bridge. A known a resistance is dialed in the box R. The jockey is moved on the
bridge wire to find the balancing length 13. Now the resistance box R and the given
coil of wire are interchanged and the new balancing length 14 is also noted. The
experiment can be repeated for different values of resistances in box R. By using the
given formula the value of the unknown resistance can be calculated.

iii) The specific resistance of the given coil of wire:

The radius of the given wire is calculated by using a screw gauge. The length
of the given wire is also calculated using a meter scale. By using the mean value of
radius (r) and the length (l), the specific resistance of the given coil of wire can be
calculated.


43

iv) To find the radius of the given coil of wire by using screw gauge:

Least Count =..mm

Zero error =..div.

Zero correction = ZE x L.C

=mm

Sl.No PSR HSC HSR=(HSCX L.C) TR=PSR+HSR
Unit mm div mm mm
1
2
3
4
5



Mean radius of the wire (r) =. x10
-3
m

















44

Calculation:












































45



































RESULT:

i) The Resistance of the given coil of wire =Ohm
ii) The specific resistance of the given coil of wire =Ohm-m