EXPERIMENT 1:

THERMOMETERS
Liquid in Glass:
Liquid in glass thermometers are the sensor one visualizes most often for temperature measurement. A glass cylinder with a bulb at one end, a capillary hole down the axis, connected to the reservoir in the bulb filled with silvery mercury or perhaps a red-colored fluid, an engraved temperature scale; that's what I picture in my mind's eye as a proper thermometer. There are many designs and a significant range of capabilities and uses of those designs. Formula used: Vt = V0 (1+rt) r=0.17*10^-3 1/k mercury L0=10mm; d=6mm A=28.26mm^2 V0 = A*L0 = 282.6mm^3

Gas Thermometer:
A gas thermometer measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas Formula used: T = aP + b where a = 273.16 K, b = 0, Ptp is the pressure of the gas at the triple point of water, and P is the pressure of the gas at the temperature to be measured, we have T = 273.16 K (P/Ptp) For low pressure and high temperatures, where real gases behave like ideal gases, equation 1 becomes: T = 273.16 K lim P/Ptp as Ptp 0

Bimetallic Thermometer:
Bimetallic thermometers are contact temperature sensors found in several forms. They're the coil of metal that has some electrical contacts affixed to it Formula used: Lt=L0 (1+t)

RTDs (Resistence Temperature Detector):

One of the most linear, stable, and reproducible temperature sensors is the Platinum RTD, Resistance Temperature Detector. The RTD.s

resistance vs temperature characteristics are stable, reproducible, and have a near linear positive temperature coefficient from .200 to 800 C. These attributes establish RTDs as a de-facto industry standard. Temperature is determined by measuring resistance and then using the RTD.s .R vs T. characteristics to extrapolate temperature. Formula used: R=R0 (1+at)

Thermistor:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so than in standard resistors. Formula used: Rt1 = Rt2 * e^b ((1/t1)-(1/t2))

Thermocouple:
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a temperature difference.

EXPERIMENT 2:

MATLAB Graph Coding:

Clc; % V0 = volume at 0c

% Vt = volume at temperature t % gamma % T = Temperature change G = 0.17*10^-3 A = 28.26; V = 282.6; For T=0:0.5:10 Vt = [(V0)*(1(gamma*T))]; Lt = Vt / A; Plot (t, Vt, r) Plot (t, Lt, r) End GRAPH:

EXPERIMENT 3:

Sensitivity of Thermometer:

Time taken by the thermometer to stable its reading with respect to temperature is called sensitivity of thermometer.

TABLE: TIME (In min) 0 2 6 8 10 13 BIMETALLIC 9 C 15 C 30 C 55C 90C 95C LIQUID 2C 10C 24C 60C 85 96C RTD(Resistance
Temperature Detector)

-0.1C 9.4C 29C 62C 94C 94C

CONCLUSION:On the basis of above experiments it is concluded that the liquid is the most sensitive thermometer and the reason is that the liquid substance expands or contracts much more and quickly then the solids.

EXPERIMENT 4:

PRESSURE:

Pressure is same as stress. Types of Pressure: 1. Atmospheric pressure. Pressure exerted by the atmosphere on an object. 2. Absolute pressure. Abs = gauge + atm pressure 3. Gauge pressure. The pressure that is measured by the meter. Conversions: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 105 bar = 10.197106 at = 9.8692106 atm = 7.5006103 torr = 145.04106 psi

Instruments used to measured pressure:

Bourdon gauge:

P total = P static + P dynamic -> Static pressure is that which is exerted by the fluid on the wall of the container due to it mass. -> Dynamic pressure is due to fluid flow. TABLE: P Pi Pf P %error =(Pf-Pi) =((P-P)/P)*100%

CONCLUSION:-

Bourdon gauge is a good pressure measuring device with a possibility of 10% error due to friction and compressibility factor of the fluid.

EXPERIMENT 5:

MANOMETER:
A Manometer is a device to measure pressures. A common simple manometer consists of a U shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid. Typically the liquid is mercury because of its high density

U-shaped Manometer:

P2 P1 = g (h2-h1) P2= pressure at point B P1= pressure at point a h2= height at point B h1= height at point A = density of the fluid EXPERIMENT:Serial # hB (mm) hA (mm) hB-hA (mm) PB PA = g (hB-hA) MG N/mm^2

EXPERIMENT 6:

STATE POINT, PROCESSES, CYCLES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS State Point

A set of thermodynamic variables (i.e. temperatures, pressure, density, enthalpy, entropy ,etc ) that define the state or condition of a fluid. State point contains critical point and triple point. Critical Point is a point which specifies the conditions (temperature, pressure and sometimes composition) at which a phase boundary ceases to exist. There are multiple types of critical points such as vapor-liquid critical points and liquidliquid critical points. Triple Point is the temperature and pressure at which three phases (for example, gas, liquid, and solid) of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Processes
A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some sort of energetic change within the system, generally associated with changes in pressure, volume, internal energy, temperature, or any sort of heat transfer. There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that happen frequently enough (and in practical situations) that they are commonly treated in the study of thermodynamics. They are as follows: 1.) Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the system remains constant. The heat transfer into or out of the system typically must happen at such a slow rate that the thermal equilibrium is maintained. 2.) Isobaric Process An isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure of the system stays constant. 3.) Isochoric Process An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains constant. An example of isochoric process is the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed, inelastic container. 4.) Adiabatic Process

An adiabatic process or an isocaloric process is a thermodynamic process in which the net heat transfer to or from the working fluid is zero.

5.) Isentropic Process In thermodynamics, an isentropic process or isoentropic process, is one in which for purposes of engineering analysis and calculation, one may assume that the process takes place from initiation to completion without an increase or decrease in the entropy of the system, i.e., the entropy of the system remains constant. It is known that any reversible adiabatic process is an isentropic process.

Cycles
A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of thermodynamic processes transferring heat and work, while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables, eventually returning a system to its initial state.

Phase Diagrams
Phase diagrams are classified into two categories: 1. P-V Diagrams

2. T-S Diagrams

EXPERIMENT 7:

REFRIGERATION CYCLE
REFRIGIRATION CYCLE
Thermodynamic heat pump cycles or refrigeration cycles are the conceptual and mathematical models for heat pumps and refrigerators. A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location (the 'source') at a lower temperature to another location (the 'sink' or 'heat sink') at a higher temperature using mechanical work or a high-temperature heat source. Thus a heat pump may be thought of a "heater" if the objective is to warm the heat sink (as when warming the inside of a home on a cold day), or a "refrigerator" if the objective is to cool the heat source (as in the normal operation of a freezer). In either case, the operating principles are identical. Heat is moved from a colder place to a warmer place.

TYPES:
Vapor-compression cycle Vapor absorption cycle

Vapor-compression cycle
The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. The vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the

compressor superheated. The superheated vapor travels through the condenser which first cools and removes the superheat and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. The liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid. That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a lower temperature and pressure. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet to complete the thermodynamic cycle. The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).

Figure 1

Figure 2

Vapor absorption cycle

In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems was popular and widely used but, after the development of the vapor compression cycle, it lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Nowadays, the vapor absorption cycle is used only where waste heat is available or where heat is derived from solar collectors. The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the high-pressure liquid. Some work is required by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) and water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) and lithium bromide (absorbent).

Rankine cycle

The Rankine cycle is a cycle that converts heat into work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop, which usually uses water. This cycle generates about 80% of all electric power used throughout the world, including virtually all solar thermal, biomass, coal and nuclear power plants. It is named afterWilliam John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath. The Rankine cycle is the fundamental thermodynamic underpinning of the steam engine. A Rankine cycle describes a model of steam-operated heat engine most commonly found in power generation plants. Common heat sources for power plants using the Rankine cycle are the combustion of coal, natural gas and oil, and nuclear fission. The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle because, when an efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main difference is that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in the condenser) are isobaric in the Rankine cycle and isothermal in the theoretical Carnot cycle. A pump is used to pressurize the working fluid received from the condenser as a liquid instead of as a gas. All of the energy in pumping the working fluid through the complete cycle is lost, as is all of the energy of vaporization of the working fluid, in the boiler. This energy is lost to the cycle in that first, no condensation takes place in the turbine; all of the vaporization energy is rejected from the cycle through the condenser. But pumping the working fluid through the cycle as a liquid requires a very small fraction of the energy needed to transport it as compared to compressing the working fluid as a gas in a compressor (as in the Carnot cycle)

Gas cycle
When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but does not change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called agas cycle. Air is most often this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation intended in a gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers in gas cycles. The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the gas cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycleinstead of the reverse Rankine cycle. As such the working fluid does not receive and reject heat at constant temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is equal to the product of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in temperature of the gas in the low temperature side. Therefore, for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration cycle will require a large mass flow rate and would be bulky. Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not often applied in terrestrial refrigeration. The air cycle machine is very common, however, on gas turbine-powered jet airliners since compressed air is readily available from the engines' compressor sections. These jet aircraft's cooling and ventilation units also serve the purpose of pressurizing the aircraft cabin.

Stirling cycle

The Stirling cycle heat engine can be driven in reverse, using a mechanical energy input to drive heat transfer in a reversed direction (i.e. a heat pump, or refrigerator). There are several design configurations for such devices that can be built. Several such setups require rotary or sliding seals, which can introduce difficult tradeoffs between frictional losses and refrigerant leakage. The Free Piston Stirling Cooler (FPSC) is an elegant, completely-sealed heat transfer system that has only two moving parts (a piston and a displacer), and uses helium as the working fluid. The piston is typically driven by an oscillating magnetic field that is the source of the power needed to drive the refrigeration cycle. The magnetic drive allows the piston to be driven without requiring any seals, gaskets, O-rings, or other compromises to the hermetically sealed system. Claimed advantages for the system include environmental friendliness, cooling capacity, light weight, compact size, precise controllability, and high efficiency.

EXPERIMENT 8:

EXPERIMENT ON REFRIGERATION CYCLE

EXPERIMENT ON REFRIGERATION CYCLE:As we know there are 4 major devices used in the refrigeration cycle. Let T1 and T2 are the temperatures across the compressor. T2 and T3 are the temperatures across the condenser.T3 and T4 are the temperatures across the expansion valve. T4 and T1 are the temperatures across the evaporator. P1 and P2 are the pressure across the compressor. Serial # Length of expansion valve T1 C T2 C T3 C T4 C

P1 bar

P2 bar

P2/P1

Power KW

flow rate

Mass flow rate

CONCLUSIONS:When the length or volume of the expansion valve decreases mass flow rate increases. As a result of increase of flow rate compression ratio of the compressor affected, results in the decreases the compression ratio (P2/P1). So this effects the whole cycle refrigeration cycle. Expansion does not occur properly which results decrease in the cooling effect. Power consumption also decreases due the decrease in the compression ratio So on the whole by increasing the length of the expansion valve will increase the compression ratio and the cooling effect of the cycle. And decrease in the length of the expansion valve will decrease the compression ratio and the cooling of the cycle.