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a cleansing agent.

It cleanses by lowering the surface tension of water, by emulsifying grease, and by absorbing dirt into the foam. Ancient peoples are believed to have employed wood ashes and water for washing and to have relieved the resulting irritation with grease or oil. In the 1st cent. A.D., Pliny described a soap of tallow and wood ashes used by Germanic tribes to brighten their hair. A soap factory and bars of scented soap were excavated at Pompeii. Soap fell into disuse after the fall of Rome but was revived in Italy probably in the 8th cent. and reached France c.1200; Marseilles became noted as a soapmaking center. Although soap was known in England in the 14th cent., the first English patent to a soapmaker was issued in the 17th cent. The industry was handicapped in England from 1712 to 1853 by a heavy tax on soap. In the American colonies soap factories appeared at an early date, and many housewives made soap from waste fats and lye (obtained by leaching wood ashes). The manufacture of soap was stimulated by Chevreul's discovery of oleic and stearic acids in the early 19th cent. and by Leblanc's method (1791) of preparing soda from salt. Chemically, soaps are metallic salts of fatty acids. The manufacture of soap is based on a chemical reaction (saponification) in which an alkali acts upon a fat to form a metal salt (soap) and an alcohol (glycerol). A number of methods may be employed to make soap, but all are based on the same principle of operation. Fats and oils (often blended) are heated in a large vessel, then enough alkali to react with all the fat is stirred in. Salt is added, and the soap then forms a light curd that floats to the surface. Glycerol, a valuable byproduct, can be distilled from the liquid residue. To produce a purer soap, the curds are washed with salt solution, water is later added, and the solution is allowed to settle; the upper of the two layers thus formed is the pure soap, called settled soap. It is thoroughly churned, poured into huge frames, cut with wires, shaped, and stamped. Hardmilled soap is run over chilled rollers and is scraped off as chips which are rolled into ribbons, cut, and shaped. Soap is marketed also as chips, flakes, and beads and in powdered form. Soap powders, as distinguished from powdered soap, contain builders that assist in rough cleaning. Soaps differ according to the lathering properties of the fat or oils and according to the alkali employed. When sodium hydroxide is used as the alkali, hard soaps are formed; potassium hydroxide yields soft soaps. Aluminum, calcium, magnesium, lead, or other metals are used in place of sodium or potassium for soaps used in industry as paint driers, ointments, and lubricating greases and in waterproofing. Fillers are added to many soaps to increase lathering, cleansing, and water-softening properties; the sodium salt of rosin is commonly used in yellow laundry soap to increase lathering. Soap substitutes include saponin-containing plants such as soapwort and shagbark and the modern soapless detergents (usually sulfonated alcohols), which may be used in hard water and even in saltwater without forming curds. ==========================================================

Do your skin a favor! No more shower itch Get rid of dry skin We have the soaps you will love. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Colonial Soap Making. Its History and Techniques. Introduction This booklet will provide persons interested in the ways of early American life some information

about soap and soap making. Soap making is a homestead skill often forgotten in discussions of colonial days. Soap was of great value in keeping the household a far better place to live and work. The manufacture of soap by the hard-working colonists from wood ashes and waste fats give testimony to early American self-sufficiency and resourcefulness. Soap, an easy item for us to obtain, was produced by boiling wood ash lye and fats together. Soap's desirability and procurement wrote its own pages in the history of early America. The soap, in use during the years when the United States was a colony of England and then a young republic, was made from potash or pearlashes. This soap, which was potassium based, was generally the only kind made from the first discovery of soap making until the first half of the 19th century. Then the LeBlanc method of obtaining caustic soda, a sodium based alkali, from a brine solution was implemented on the industrial level. Through out the centuries, there have been other times when people were able to make soap using a form of sodium alkali as is done presently. The Egyptians are thought to have employed local soda deposits for their source of alkali as the Spaniards did during the 8th century. Also people in various coastal regions burned seaweed producing sodium based barillia for their alkali. But by far the most common soap was made from potash and pearlash. Potash and pearlash are forms of the potassium based alkali present in plant and wood material. Potash and pearlash soaps were used by everyone from the reigning monarchs to the peasant or cottager, who made their own soap from the waste fats and ashes they saved. Most people who have made soap down thru the centuries had no idea what occurred. They just made soap by trial and error, by having lots of luck, and believing in many superstitions in how to make soap. When people learned that saponification was the reaction that made soap, we will tell you later. The First Soap This certainly cannot be documented; but it is quite possible soap could have been discovered even in prehistoric times. Early people cooking their meats over fires might have noticed after a rainstorm there was a strange foam around the remains of the fire and its ashes. They might have even noticed when water was put in a pot that had been used for cooking meats and then got ashes in it, which often happens with outdoors cooking, also had this strange foamy substance. This women, most likely who was doing the washing, might have also observed the pot became cleaner or at least her hands became cleaner then usual. It is recorded that the Babylonians were making soap around 2800 B.C. and that it was known to the Phoenicians around 600 B.C. These early references to soap and soap making were for the use of soap in the cleaning of textile fibers such as wool and cotton in preparation for weaving into cloth. The Romans and Celtics The first definite and tangible proofs of soap making are found in the history of ancient Rome. Pliny, the Roman historian, described soap being made from goat's tallow and causticized wood ashes. He also wrote of common salt being added to make the soap hard. The ruins at Pompeii revealed a soap factory complete with finished bars. While the Romans are well known for their public baths, generally soap was not used for personal cleaning. To clean the body the Greeks and then the Romans would rub the body with olive oil and sand. A scraper, called a strigil, was then used to scrape off the sand and olive oil also removing dirt, grease, and dead cells from the skin leaving it clean. Afterwards the skin was rubbed down with salves prepared from herbs.

Throughout history people were also known to take baths in herb waters and other additions to the bathing medium thought to be beneficial. It is well known that Cleopatra, who captivated the leaders of the Roman world, attributed her beauty to her baths in mare's milk. During the early century of the common era soap was used by physicians in the treatment of disease. Galen, a 2nd century physician, recommended bathing with soap would be beneficial for some skin conditions. Soap for personal washing became popular during the later centuries of the Roman era. The Celtic peoples are also though by some historians to have discovered soap making and were using it for bathing and washing. Maybe do to increased contact with the Celtics by the Romans, using soap for personal washing care became popular. It is also important to remember when writing a history of life styles there are no grand trends that get disseminated throughout the globe via mass communications such as we have today. Usage and knowledge of common skills and arts can vary from one locale to the next. When they are starting to use soap in the public baths in 3rd century A.D. in the major cities, the people in small villages are likely to be using the olive oil, sand, and strigil method. The Celtics might have been washing their faces daily with soap long before the Romans even went over the Italian Alps. Dates can be exact when dealing with events such as battles, births, and deaths. But not usage of every day items. "The state of the art" varies depending both on time and location.

There is an interesting legend surrounding the discovery of soap making. This legend accords the discovery of soap to the Romans so it must be a Roman legend to confront the Celtic claim to soap making. Probably both of these inventive peoples discovered soap making independently. The legend says soap was first discovered by women washing clothes along the Tiber River at the bottom of Sapo Hill. The women noticed the clothes became cleaner with far less effort at that particular location. What was happening? The ashes and the grease of animals from the sacrificial fires of the temples situated on the top of Sapo Hill mixed with the rain, making soap which ran down the slope in the streams of rain water giving the women a wash day bonus. You can see at a glance saponification, the chemical name for the soap making reaction, bears the name of that hill in Rome long ago, which caused one Roman washer women to comment to another, "My wash is cleaner than yours". The European Dark Ages After the fall of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, there was little soap making done or use of it in the European Dark Ages. In the Byzantine Empire, the remains of the Roman world in the eastern Mediterranean area, and in the expanding Arab world soap was made and used. Around the 8th century soap making was revived in Italy and Spain. By the 13th century, France also became a producer of soap for the European market. During the 14th century, soap making was started in England. Soaps produced in the south of Europe, Italy, Spain, and the southern ports of France (Marseilles and Castle soaps) were made from olive oils. These soaps made using olive oils were of a higher quality than those made by the soap producers of England and northern France. These northern soap makers, not being able to obtain the olive oil, made their soaps with only animal fats. Tallow, the fat from cattle, was the chief fat used. Northern European soap makers even resorted to making soap from fish oils. Soaps made from the poor quality animals fats and oils, while adequate for laundry and textile usage, were not desirable for bathing and washing. The soap from southern Europe with their olive oils were superior. This resulted in a lively trade of exporting fine soaps from southern Europe. Wait a minute you say, people did not take baths in the Middle Ages. That is a popular misconception. They did. There were public bath houses, called stews, where the patrons bathe in large wooden tubs and were given bars of soap to use. Nobles and rich merchants had their own private baths. It was during the later Medieval Times, when bathing fell out of favor. Public baths were closed because the authorities of the time thought these baths promoted the spread of the Plague. In general people of the Renaissance moved away from the idea of keeping the body clean. They preferred to cover the body with heavy scents.

Soap, however, did remain a useful item for cleaning and washing clothes. Soap also was still used for personal washing as well but by our standards far less frequently than was needed. The fact that soap was a valuable item in the 17th and 18th centuries even though the idea of bathing was not popular is shown by the efforts the settlers to the New World took to make it. While maybe bathing the whole body was out of fashion keeping you and your surroundings clean was not. Soap in the American Colonies At first the earliest settlers simply brought a plentiful supply of soap along with them. The Talbot, a ship chartered by the Massachusetts Bay Company to carry persons and supplies from England to its colonies at Naumbeak now known as Salem and Boston, listed among its cargo 2 firkins of soap. A firkin is an old measurement which was a wooden, hooped barrel of about nine gallon capacity. John Winthrop, who was to become the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, when writing to his wife in 1630 from Boston included soap in a list of necessities to be brought on her crossing to the New world. After the colonists were settled and had been able to survive the first years of hardships, they found it more advantageous to make soap themselves using the copious amount of wood ashes, a natural result of their homesteading activities. With also a plentiful supply of animal fat from the butchering of the animals they used for food, the colonists had on hand all the ingredients for soap making. They did not have to rely on waiting for soap to be shipped from England and waste their goods or few pieces of currency in trade for soap.

Soap with some work and luck could be made for free. Soap making was performed as a yearly or semiannual event on the homesteads of the early settlers. As the butchering of animals took place in the fall, soap was made at that time on many homesteads and farms to utilize the large supply of tallow and lard that resulted. On the homes or farms where butchering was not done, soap was generally made in the spring using the ashes from the winter fires and the waste cooking grease, that had accumulated throughout the year. The Chemistry of Soap Before we discuss the soap making process we should explain what soap is and the chemical reaction that makes soap. No, this is not a chemical textbook. Some understanding of the chemistry involved, however, will enhance the story of soap's history. Soap, in very simple chemical terms, is the sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid. Sounds simple. And it is. What is a salt? Common salt, which we all know as table salt, is not the only salt in the chemical world. There are many salts all being the result of an acid and an a alkali reacting together. What is an acid or an alkali? Acids are solutions that tend to burn or smart. Acids range from weak ones like acetic acid, the chief ingredient in vinegar, to hydrosulfuric acid, an extremely strong and dangerous acid in the battery of your car. Alkali also called bases are solutions that corrode rather than burn. They too range from weak to strong. An example of a weak one is sodium bicarbonate, baking soda, used to settle your upset stomach caused by your over active stomach acid. A strong alkali is sodium hydroxide which is the

chief ingredient in oven and drain cleaners. Actually oven and drain cleaners work by doing the very reaction we are discussing. They convert the grease blocking your drain or messing up your oven into soap so that you can flush or wipe it away. What is a fatty acid? Now let's go back to those fatty acids. Fatty acids are found in foods we call fats and oils. Today we hear much about fatty acids, as they are the substances effecting the nature of the fats and oils we eat and the action these foods have on our health. Modern Soap Most products on the market today are not real soaps by the true definition but rather are detergents which have been created from petroleum based products. Other products, which called themselves soap, contain ingredients found in nature; but these ingredients have been radically changed by high energy processes. The resulting soap bears little similarity to the soap made historically down thru the ages. A Chemical Reaction Soap is not found in nature; but it can be created by very simple processes. In this way it is similar to bread, wine, glass, cheese, and pottery, other useful items produced by early peoples most likely by accident at first then by design. Saponification is a very big chemical word for the rather complex but easy to create soap making reaction. Saponification is what happens when a fatty acid meets an alkali. When fats or oils, which contain fatty acids are mixed with a strong alkali, the alkali first splits the fats or oils into their two major parts fatty acids and glycerin. After this splitting of the fats or oils, the sodium or potassium part of the alkali joins with the fatty acid part of the fat or oils. This combination is then the potassium or sodium salt of the fatty acid. As we said at the start, this is soap. Soap Making Takes Three Basic Steps. Making of the wood ash lye. Rendering or cleaning the fats. Mixing the fats and lye solution together and boiling the mixture to make the soap. First Let's Make The Lye. In making soap the first ingredient required was a liquid solution of potash commonly called lye. The lye solution was obtained by placing wood ashes in a bottomless barrel set on a stone slab with a groove and a lip carved in it. The stone in turn rested on a pile of rocks. To prevent the ashes from getting in the solution a layer of straw and small sticks was placed in the barrel then the ashes were put on top. The lye was produced by slowly pouring water over the ashes until a brownish liquid oozed out the bottom of the barrel. This solution of potash lye was collected by allowing it to flow into the groove around the stone slab and drip down into a clay vessel at the lip of the groove.

Some colonists used an ash hopper for the making of lye instead of the barrel method. The ash hopper, was kept in a shed to protect the ashes from being leached unintentionally by a rain fall. Ashes were added periodically and water was poured over at intervals to insure a continuous supply of lye. The lye dripped into a collecting vessel located beneath the hopper. Now The Fats Are Prepared.

The preparation of the fats or grease to be used in forming the soap was the next step. This consists of cleaning the fats and grease of all other impurities contained in them. The cleaning of fats is called rendering and is the smelliest part of the soap making operation. Animal fat, when removed from the animals during butchering, must be rendered before soap of any satisfactory quality can be made from it. This rendering removes all meat tissues that still remain in the fat sections. Fat obtained from cattle is called tallow while fat obtained from pigs is called lard. If soap was being made from grease saved from cooking fires, it was also rendered to remove all impurities that had collected in it. The waste cooking grease being saved over a period of time without the benefits of refrigeration usually became rancid, This cleaning step was very important to make the grease sweeter. It would result in a better smelling soap. The soap made from rancid fats or grease would work just as well as soap made from sweet and clean fats but not be as pleasant to have around and use. To render, fats and waste cooking grease were placed in a large kettle and an equal amount of water was added. Then the kettle was placed over the open fire outdoors. Soap making was an outside activity. The smell from rendering the fats was too strong to wish in anyone's house. The mixture of fats and water were boiled until all the fats had melted. After a longer period of boiling to insure completion of melting the fats. The fire was stopped and into the kettle was placed another amount of water about equal to the first amount of water. The solution was allowed to cool down and left over night. By the next day the fats had solidified and floated to the top forming a layer of clean fat. All the impurities being not as light as the fat remained in water underneath the fat. You can observed this today in your own kitchen. When a stew or casserole containing meat has been put in the refrigerator, you can see the next day the same fat layer the colonists got on the top of their rendering kettle. Finally The Soap Making Can Begin. In another large kettle or pot the fat was placed with the amount of lye solution determined to be the correct amount. This is easier said than done. We will discuss it more later. Then this pot was placed over a fire again outdoors and boiled. This mixture was boiled until the soap was formed. This was determined when the mixture boiled up into a thick frothy mass, and a small amount placed on the tongue caused no noticeable "bite". This boiling process could take up to six to eight hours depending on the amount of the mixture and the strength of the lye.

Soft and Hard Soap Soap made with wood ash lye does not make a hard soap but only a soft soap. When the fire was put out and the soap mixture was allowed to cool, the next day revealed a brown jelly like substance that felt slippery to the touch, made foam when mixed with water, and cleaned. This is the soft soap the colonists had done all their hard to produce. The soft soap was then poured into a wooden barrel and ladled out with a wooden dipper when needed. To make hard soap, common salt was thrown in at the end of the boiling. If this was done a hard cake of soap formed in a layer at the top of the pot. As common salt was expensive and hard to get, it was not usually wasted to make hard soap. Common salt was more valuable to give to the livestock and the preserving of foods. Soft soap worked just as well as hard and for these reasons the colonists, making their own soap, did not make hard soap bars. In towns and cities where there were soap makers making soap for sale, the soap would be converted to the hard soap by the addition of salt. As hard bars it would be easier to store and transport. Hard bars produced by the soap maker were often scented with oils such as lavender, wintergreen, or

caraway and were sold as toilet soap to persons living in the cities or towns. Hard soap was not cut into small bars and wrapped as soap is sold today. Soap made by the soap makers was poured into large wooden frames and removed when cooled and hard.

The amount of soap a customer wanted was cut from the large bar. Soap was sold usually by the pound. Small wrapped bars were not available until the middle of the 19th century. Another thought to remember is the soap making procedure described is not only how the homesteading colonial women made their soap. Soap making was generally a task the women did. This was essentially the method used by all soap makers of the period. Soap making was always considered one of the most difficult jobs on the farm or homestead. Difficulties in Making Soap The hardest part was in determining if the lye was of the correct strength, as we have said. In order to learn this, the soap maker floated either a potato or an egg in the lye. If the object floated with a specified amount of its surface above the lye solution, the lye was declared fit for soap making. Most of the colonists felt that lye of the correct strength would float a potato or an egg with an area the size of a ninepence (about the size of a modern quarter) above the surface. To make a weak lye stronger, the solution could either be boiled down more or the lye solution could be poured through a new batch of ashes. To make a solution weaker, water was added. The difficulties in making soap the colonists endured arose from the lack of knowledge of the chemical processes involved and the inability to obtain lye's of known and dependable strengths. There were many superstitions which the colonist believe caused success or failure. For making good soap, the tide and the phases of the moon among other things were taken in account. A Pennsylvania Dutch recipe carefully warned that a sassafrasas stick was the only kind of implement suitable for stirring the soap and the stirring must be done always in the same direction. In later colonial times, when the trade of soap making was well established in the cities and towns, many of these trades people became very astute observers of the process and were able to produce their soap with dependable high quality. However, many house holders, particularly in rural areas, made their own potash soap until the middle of the 19th century. There the difficulties and the related folklore still existed around the soap making process. From the diary of Elizabeth Ranch Norton, a niece of President John Adams, written in 1799, we learn how an exasperating job soap making could be. On one occasion Mrs. Norton had to make three batches of soap before she was able to make one barrel of soap fit for her family's needs. Not Always Done Down On The Farm. Soap making as a trade had grown in direct proportion with the growth of the colonies. Even in the very early days there were tradesmen making and selling soap, who were called soapboilers. Since tallow was the main ingredient for both soap and candles, many tradesmen were producers of both. These tradesmen were called chandlers. The first soapboilers arrived with the settling of Jamestown in 1609. In New England also, we find signs of the early soap making trade. Christopher Gipson, who landed at Dorchester, Massachusetts in 1630, and then later in 1649 was elected Surveyor of the Highways of the Town of Boston, was a soapboiler. It is logical to conclude since it probably required then as now a source of money and influence to engage in politics Mr. Gipson's soap trade was keeping him in a comfortable style.

Potash and Pearlash Trade Soap making and the manufacture of potash and pearlashes were closely related trades of colonial America. Pearlash, purified potash, because of its many industrial uses, was an important item of export for the colonies. Pearlash, in addition to soap making, it was used for making glass both in the colonies and in Europe. Potash and later also pearlash were valuable items of the export trade to England being one of the few items produced by the American colonies that could be traded directly to England for cash. Most other items of colonial export were traded to the other British Colonies in the West Indies for an second item of greater value that then could be traded for a wanted item from England itself. This is the so called triangular trade system of the colonial era. Pearlash was such a valuable article to the economy that the British government when forcing its policy of colonial financial dependence to England listed pearlash as an enumeration commodity. Under this Act commodities listed could not be exported by the American colonies to ports outside the British realm. There are other references to support the important of potash and pearlash to the economy. The Governor of Massachusetts in 1765 is recorded to have stated the best business ventures for the colonies were the production of potash and hemp, and the transporting of lumber to England. In 1755 the Massachusetts General Court had recognized the importance of these items by establishing a code for assaying and standardization of potash and pearlash. The young United States also understood the value of potash and pearlash manufacture. The first patent awarded by the United States Patent Office was to Samuel Hopkins for his technique of preparing pearlash. Potash is the residue remaining after all the water has been driven off from the lye solution obtained from the leaching of wood ashes. Pearlash is then made from the potash by baking it in a kiln until all the carbon impurities were burned off. The fine, white powder remaining was the pearlash. Peddlers would travel from village to village collecting potash made on the farms and homesteads. For many homesteaders the only cash they received all year would be for the sale of their wood ashes or potash. Then the peddlers would sell the potash to manufactures who converted it to pearlash at their factories known as "ashies". In early times many manufacturers of pearlash bought their own wood and made their own supply of potash. At these factories in addition to the kiln for converting potash to pearlash, there was a structure called an ashery for burning large quantities of wood. These small structures were made of stone including a roof with a hole in it. There were two openings. One was in the middle of one side for adding the wood to the fire and the other was at the bottom for racking out the ashes. The structure was preferred over outside burning to produce ashes that had a high content of alkali.

In the middle of the 18th century, many "ashies' dotted the countryside. There were at least two "ashies" located at Newport, Rhode Island. In Massachusetts there were several towns that were sites for "ashies". Two of these towns were Haverhill and Charlestown. From "A Typographical and Historical Description of Boston written in 1794, we learn that there was much manufacture of potashes and pearlashes in Boston and been established there for about 40 years before the Revolution. The End of an Era When wood became scarcer as the tide of westward movement crept over New England during the end of the 18th century, potash and pearlash manufacture became a decreasing industry. It still remained an important industry on the American frontier until the end of the first third of the 19th

century. All during this period pearlash stayed a chief article of American export. When caustic soda could be obtained cheaper and easier from brine using the LeBlanc process, the need for American potash and pearlash began to decrease until it was no more. The availability of sodium hydroxide, this is what the LeBlanc process produced, changed the soap making industry in a dramatic way. Sodium alkalis make hard soap without the having to add common salt to effect the change. These hard soaps were of a firmer quality. The other big advantage was the alkali needed for soap making no longer required the arduous task of cutting acres of trees, burning the wood, leaching the ashes, evaporating the water from the wood ash lye, and finally burning off all the impurities in an kiln. The whole business of soap making became much easier and thus soap became more available to more people. The natural result being more and more people took to using soap, particularly the toilet soaps. The habit of bathing came back into fashion and the consumption of soap increased tremendously in the 19th century. Soap became of age in the Victorian times and the soap making industry turned from part craft and mystery to a fully developed industry. With the demise of the potash industry ended the manufacture of potash and pearlash soaps. Soap whose soapboilers included among their numbers Josiah Franklin, the father of Benjamin Franklin. Soap that was used by all the famous women of America's early history from Priscilla Mulliens to Dolly Madison. In the middle of the 18th century when pearlash soap was in its heyday ads like the following one from the Boston Gazette were plentiful. "TO BE SOLD BY EDWARD LANGDON, IN FLEET STREET, NEAR THE OLD NORTH MEETING HOUSE, A QUANTITY OF HARD SOAP BY THE BOX, SOFT SOAP BY THE BARREL". Bibliography A Book of Country Things, Barrows Mussey Stephen Greene Press, 1965 A Long, Deep Furrow, Howard S. Russell University Press of New England 1982 Colonial Craftsmen, Edwin Tunis The World Publishing Company, 1965 Colonial Days and Ways, Helen Evertson Smith The Century Company, 1900 Every Day Life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, George Frances Dow Home Life in Colonial Days, Alice Morse Earle The MacMillan Company 1899 Over the Counter and on the Shelf, Laurence A. Johnson Charles E. Tuttle Comapny Publishers 1961 Professional and Industrial History of Suffolk County, The Boston History Company The Arts and Crafts in New England, Da Carpo Press 1967 The Seasons of America's Past, Eric Sloane Wilfred Funk, Inc.

For further reading Making Soaps and Candles, Phyllis Hobson Storey Communications, Inc. 1973 Soap, Ann Bramson Workman Publishing Company 1975 The Art of Soap Making, Merilyn Mohr Camden House Publishing 1979 About the Author This booklet has been prepared by The Soap Factory, a small soap making company dedicated to making fine Castile soaps using the traditional methods of the 19th century. Marietta Ellis, the owner and president of the Soap Factory, has researched soap making techniques and the history of soap making for over 30 years. She first got involved with soap making as a member of VITA (Volunteers in Internationl Technical Assistance). She still works with VITA by providing persons in developing countries with soap making information. Marietta and her husband, Arthur Ellis, sell their soaps at craft shows, and thru mail order. Their soaps are also for sale in several retail stores. The Ellises both members of SWEAT (Society of Workers in Early Arts and Trades) are available for lectures or demonstrations on soap making and its history. The drawings were done by Arthur Ellis.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------[Home Page] [How to Order] [Catalog] =========================================================== I'm thinking of writing a book about this. What do you think? Lye Soap Introduction Contrary to what you might think, soap was not invented for purposes of personal hygeine. Rather, it was invented early on to solve a problem with textiles: wool as it comes from the sheep is coated with a layer of grease that interferes with the application of dyes. And colorful yarns were valued very early in the history of textiles. A colored garment was an expensive garment and therefore an indication of wealth and status. Soap very likely counts potash as a direct ancestor. If you rub a solution of potash or soda ash between your fingers, it feels soapy. If you taste it, it tastes soapy. In fact, another name for soda ash is washing soda and you can buy it in the grocery store in the laundry detergent section. Potash by itself is not a very effective soap. If fat is boiled in potash, however, it makes a pretty good soap. And a really strong soap comes from boiling fat in a strongly basic solution, such as a lye solution.

The Chemistry of Lye Lye can be made very easily from lime and soda ash using a classic metathesis reaction: Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) -----> 2 NaOH + CaCO3(s) While lime is more alkaline than soda ash, when reacted together they produce a stronger alkali than either of the two separately. Synonyms for lye are caustic soda, and sodium hydroxide. It remains one of the most important alkalis in modern chemical industry though it is no longer manufactured from lime and soda ash. In addition to its many uses in chemical manufacture, it is the most common ingredient in drain openers and can be bought in the grocery store in the drain opener section. U.S. production of lye in 1989 was 10 billion kg making it the 9th most-produced chemical in the U.S. The Chemistry of Soap We have talked a bit about water solubility but have not really discussed why some things are soluble in water while others are not. We can in general divide compounds into ionic compounds (like salt, potash, and lime), polar compounds (like water and alcohol), and non-polar compounds (like fats, oils, and gasoline. Let us begin by talking about the structure of water. Water molecules consist of 2 hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom with the oxygen in between the two hydrogens and a bond angle of about 104 degrees. Oxygen is far more electronegative than hyrogen and so it tends to hog more of the electrons. Consequently the water molecule is polar, with a positive charge at one end of the molecule and a negative charge at the other. In the figure, the molecule on the left shows two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom bound together into a water molecule. The molecule on the right shows the distribution of charges on the water molecule. A red color denotes a negative charge, while a blue color denotes a positive charge. The positive end of one water molecule will be strongly attracted to the negative end of another water molecule. When an ionic compound, like sodium chloride, dissolves in water, oxygen (negative) end is attracted to the cations (positive ions) while the hydrogen (positive) end of the molecule is attracted to the anions (negative ions). The solubility of a substance in water is largely determined by the relative strength of the attraction of water to the substance compared to the strength of the attraction between water molecules.

In contrast to oxygen, carbon has almost the same electronegativity as hydrogen and the carbonhydrogen bond is non-polar. For example, the octane molecule (a component of gasoline) consists of 8 carbon atoms in a chain, with 2 hydrogens attached to the interior carbons and 3 hydrogens on the end carbons. Since the electrons are not hogged by any of the atoms, the molecule is electrically neutral along its entire length. In the figure, the molecule on the left shows eight carbon atoms and eighteen hydrogen atoms bound together into an octane molecule. The molecule on the right shows the distribution of charges on the octane molecule. No regions of red and blue show up because there are no strongly negative or strongly positive regions in the molecule. Instead, the molecule is green, which denotes neutrality in this figure. The simplest way to understand solubility is to remember the rule "like dissolves like," that is polar and ionic substances are soluble in polar and ionic substances while non-polar substances are soluble in non-polar substances. Thus salt dissolves in water but not in gasoline. Oil dissolves in gasoline but not water. Now, living cells need both polar and non-polar substances. The cell uses non-polar substances, fats and oils, to make up the cell membrane which separates the interior of the cell from the exterior. If the cell membrane were soluble in water, it would dissolve away and soon there would be nothing to divide the cell from the non-cell. But in order to get to the cell in the first place, all the parts of the

cell must be water soluble because that's how materials get transported from place to place. What nature needs is a non-polar material that can be dissolved, moved around, and then made non-polar again. This material is known as a lipid, or triglyceride.

A lipid consists of two parts, a fatty acid, and a type of alcohol called glycerol, or glycerine. The fatty acid by itself and the glycerol by itself are both water soluble because of the polar oxygen atoms on the ends of these molecules. In a lipid, three fatty acids are bonded to the three oxygens on the glycerol. Although the oxygens are still there, they are now buried way down inside the molecule and the lipid is essentially non-polar and therefore insoluble in water. Now fatty acids and glycerol may seem pretty exotic, but they are variations on molecules with which we are already familiar. Glycerol (aka glycerine) is simply a tri-alcohol, i.e. an alcohol with three OH groups. It has chemistry similar to that of ethanol. Whereas ethanol is C2H5OH, glycerol is C3H5(OH)3. The chemistry is dominated by the properties of the OH group. Because the OH group is polar, alcohols tend to be soluble in water. We are also familiar with an organic acid, acetic acid, the acidic component of vinegar. Wereas acetic acid is CH3COOH, a fatty acid has formula CnH2n+1COOH. The chemistry is dominated by the properties of the COOH group. Because this group is polar, fatty acids tend to be soluble in water. Octanoic acid, C8H17COOH, is just one of a very large number of fatty acids. In fact, most fatty acids are longer than octanoic acid. Two very common components of lipids are palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) and stearic acid (C17H35COOH). Solid lipids are generally called fats. All the fatty acids we have discussed so far are saturated, i.e. they have 2n+1 hydrogens for every n carbons. Another class of fatty acids are the unsaturated fatty acids, with less than 2n+1 hydrogens for every n carbons. Oleic acid, for example, has formula C17H33COOH and linoleic acid has formula C17H31COOH. Saturated fats contain saturated fatty acids and are solids at room temperature. Lard, and butter are examples of saturated fats. Soap made from these fats tends also to be solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fats contain unsaturated fatty acids and are liquids at room temperature. Generally called oils, examples include corn oil and safflower oil. These oils produce liquid soap. While unsaturated fats are generally more healthy than saturated fats, many times a liquid fat is not convenient. For example, margerine is made from unsaturated plant oils (e.g. corn oil) which has been hydrogenated to produce a saturated (solid) fat.

To make soap, we must break the fat into its fatty acid and glycerol constituents. The fatty acid has a long hydrocarbon tail which is soluble in fats, and a polar oxygen end which is soluble in water. Thus a fatty acid in solution acts as a soap by dissolving fats in one end of the molecule and water in the other. When we use a strong base, such as lye to break apart or hydrolyse the fat, the fatty acid is present as a large cation which is polar at one end and non-polar at the other. Just as we can have sodium chloride and sodium carbonate which are soluble in water, we can have sodium octanoate, the sodium salt of octanoic acid, which is also soluble in water. Let's take a fat derived from palm oil (containing palmitic acid) and hydrolyse it using sodium hydroxide. Saponification is the term applied to the hydrolysis of fats using a strong alkali like lye. The reaction is [C15H31CO]3[C3H5O3](s) + 3 NaOH(aq) -----> 3 C15H31COONa(aq) + C3H5(OH)3(aq) fat(s) + 3 lye(aq) -----> 3 sodium palmitate(aq) + glycerol(aq) While this reaction may appear intimidating because of the long formulas, it is, in fact, quite simple. It could be written generally as [RCO]3[C3H5O3](s) + 3 NaOH(aq) -----> 3 RCOONa(aq) + C3H5(OH)3(aq)

Where "R" is some long carbon hydrogen chain. If you look on a list of ingredients on a soap, you will find things like "sodium stearate," "sodium palmitate," or, generally, "sodium somebiglongnameate." This is simply specifying the particular fatty acids present in the soap.

When fat is introduced to a soap solution, the non-polar tail of the fatty acids dissolves in the nonpolar fat, leaving the water-soluble oxygen end at the surface of the fat globule. Now, with enough soap, these fat globules become covered with a water-soluble coating and disperse throughout the solution. They are not truly dissolved since individual fat molecules are not dispersed in the solution. Rather, we say the fat is emulsified. Notice the glycerol molecule in the upper right hand corner of the figure.

Great Soap Links All About Soap The Soap Factory Aviva Garret's Soap Recipe Books on Reserve The Art of Soapmaking Soap: Making It, Enjoying It The Soap Quiz The soap quiz consist of three questions on any of the following topics discussed in this page. Know the difference between polar and non-polar substances. Know the formulas of glycerine and palmitic acid. Know that fats are composed of glycerine and 3 fatty acids. Know the meaning of the words hydrolysis and saponification. Know the meaning of the words saturated and unsaturated. Know the meaning of the words fat, oil, lipid, and triglyceride. Know the balanced equation for making lye from lime and soda ash. Know the balanced equation for the saponification of palm oil. Know what to do if lye gets on your skin, in your eyes, or in your mouth. Know how soap emulsifies fats. Know two synonyms for lye. Take a practice quiz online. Safety and Common Sense Lye is the most caustic of the alkalis we will use. You should definitely keep it off skin, out of eyes, and out of mouth. You should always wear gloves and glasses when handling lye. Skin should be washed if you get a little careless. Your skin will feel slippery as the lye saponifies the oils in your skin. Keep washing until your skin is no longer slippery. If you get lye in your eyes, you should wash them immediately with cold water and call a hospital. A little lye in your mouth will leave a very unpleasant taste. Wash your mouth out until it no longer tastes bad. If you are foolhardy enough to eat it by the spoonful, you should call a poison control center and head immediately for the emergency room. I hope you make it. Information on chemical hazards is summarized in a Material Safety Data Sheet for each compound. These sheets often tell you more than you want to know, but they are worth looking at.

Sodium Hydroxide Instructions You could make your own lye from soda ash and lime, but the reaction is so simple that we will dispense with it here and use commerical lye from the grocery store. You will need two containers, one in which fat can be melted, the other in which lye can be safely dissolved. Pottery would be ideal for both purposes. But none of the chemistry (with one exception) relies on the properties of the container. That exception is that lye must not be placed in an aluminum container as it reacts violently with aluminum. That said, you are free to use any pottery, metal, or glass pot for melting your fat and any water-tight container for dissolving the lye. We will assume you are melting fat in a metal saucepan or glass beaker and dissilving your lye in our old friend, the 2 L soft drink bottle. Since most students are not set up for general housekeeping, glass beakers and hotplates will be available in one hood of the general chemistry lab for you to use. You will need to bring one cup of fat and a container to put your finished soap in (e.g., the 2 L soft drink bottle). You may use any animal or vegetable fat, margerine, lard, or butter. You can even use bacon grease if you have a place to cook! You may use the lab space only during th V period. You must let Dr. Dunn know you are working so he can assist you in case of problems. Rubber gloves and safety glasses are available and must be worn while in the lab. Caustic soda is extremely caustic! A typical soap recipe: 12 ounces of lye (a full can) 5 cups of water 2.75 kg of fat Ans = (0.072Kg 0.25L 0.582) respectivly This is way too much material to fit in our 2 L bottle! Use Unit Factor Analysis to determine how many grams of lye and fat to use with 250 mL of water. It may help you to know that there are 16 cups in a gallon. (a US gallon) ie 3.79 L Get one of the lab assistants to check your arithmetic: too much lye will produce soap that eats your skin. Too much fat will make soap that is greasy and ineffective. Weigh your lye into a beaker and add enough water to make 250 mL of solution. The water will get hot as the lye dissolves. Stir the solution with a glass rod until the lye is completely dissolved. Weight out your fat into a separate beaker (or saucepan) and melt it using a hotplate. Let both the fat and the lye solution cool to lukewarm. You can test by feeling the outside of the beakers. They should be warm to the touch but not hot. Pour the lye solution into the 2 L bottle. Then pour the cool but still melted fat into the 2 L bottle. The lye solution and fat will separate into two layers like oil and water. Put the cap on the 2 L bottle and gently shake to mix these two layers, much as you would shake salad dressing. Stop shaking and look to see if the layers separate. If they do, shake again. Gradually, the fat will thicken and it will take longer and longer for the two layers to separate. When the layers no longer separate, you can stop shaking. Let your mixture sit for a day or two until saponification is complete. Clean up after yourself. Wash all the utensiles you have used. Make sure the lid is on the lye container. Leave the space cleaner than when you found it. The whole process takes about an hour, depending on the properties of the fat you used. If the mixture seems to curdle and looks like cottage cheese, don't worry. Just let the mixture sit for a few 0.34Kg 1.18L 2.75Kg

days and every time you pass it, give it a hearty shake. The most frustrating thing is to work on a soap, assume it didn't work, and throw it away when all it needed was a little time. Save your soap for a later project. You can use it to wash your yarn prior to dyeing it. Criteria for Success I will evaluate your soap by dissoving it in water and shaking it up to see if it makes suds. If it does, you pass; if it doesn't, you fail. Of course, you can try again (once per day) until you pass. I'm thinking of writing a book about this. What do you think? Return ============================================================ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------MSDS for SODIUM HYDROXIDE Page 1 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 - PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------PRODUCT NAME: FORMULA: FORMULA WT: CAS NO.: SODIUM HYDROXIDE 40.00

NAOH 01310-73-2

NIOSH/RTECS NO.: WB4900000 COMMON SYNONYMS: CAUSTIC SODA; SODIUM HYDRATE; LYE PRODUCT CODES: REVISION #02 PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING BAKER SAF-T-DATA(TM) SYSTEM HEALTH REACTIVITY CONTACT - 3 SEVERE (POISON) - 2 MODERATE - 4 EXTREME (CORROSIVE) 3730,3722,5312,5104,3729,3734,3726,5045,3728,3723,5022,3736 EFFECTIVE: 08/28/86

FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE

HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD). LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT GOGGLES; LAB COAT; VENT HOOD; PROPER GLOVES PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS

POISON DANGER CAUSES SEVERE BURNS MAY BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED DO NOT GET IN EYES, ON SKIN, ON CLOTHING. AVOID SPATTERING BY SLOWLY ADDING TO SOLUTION. AVOID BREATHING DUST. KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER. USE WITH ADEQUATE VENTILATION. WASH THOROUGHLY AFTER HANDLING. SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: WHITE STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------2 - HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------COMPONENT SODIUM HYDROXIDE % CAS NO. 90-100 1310-73-2

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------3 - PHYSICAL DATA -----------------------------------------------------------------------------BOILING POINT: MELTING POINT: 1390 C ( 2534 F) 318 C ( 604 F) VAPOR PRESSURE(MM HG): 0 VAPOR DENSITY(AIR=1): N/A

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------MSDS for SODIUM HYDROXIDE SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.13 (H2O=1) SOLUBILITY(H2O): Page 2 EVAPORATION RATE: (BUTYL ACETATE=1) APPRECIABLE (MORE THAN 10 %) % VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0 N/A ------------------------------------------------------------------------------

APPEARANCE & ODOR: WHITE, ODORLESS SOLID. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------4 - FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA -----------------------------------------------------------------------------FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP N/A FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA USE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA APPROPRIATE FOR SURROUNDING FIRE. SPECIAL FIRE-FIGHTING PROCEDURES FLOOD WITH WATER, DO NOT SPLATTER OR SPLASH THIS MATERIAL. UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS CONTACT WITH MOISTURE OR WATER MAY GENERATE SUFFICIENT HEAT TO IGNITE COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. REACTS WITH MOST METALS TO PRODUCE HYDROGEN GAS, WHICH CAN FORM AN EXPLOSIVE MIXTURE WITH AIR. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------5 - HEALTH HAZARD DATA -----------------------------------------------------------------------------TLV LISTED DENOTES CEILING LIMIT. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 2 TOXICITY: LD50 (IPR-MOUSE)(MG/KG) CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: NO IARC: NO 2 MG/M3 ( MG/M3 ( - 40 Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO PPM) PPM) NFPA 704M RATING: 3-0-1 LOWER - N/A %

EFFECTS OF OVEREXPOSURE EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES AND/OR LUNGS. CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS. INGESTION IS HARMFUL AND MAY BE FATAL. INGESTION MAY CAUSE SEVERE BURNING OF MOUTH AND STOMACH. INGESTION MAY CAUSE NAUSEA AND VOMITING. TARGET ORGANS EYES, SKIN, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE NONE IDENTIFIED ROUTES OF ENTRY INHALATION, INGESTION, EYE CONTACT, SKIN CONTACT

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------MSDS for SODIUM HYDROXIDE Page 3 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES CALL A PHYSICIAN. IF SWALLOWED, DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING; IF CONSCIOUS, GIVE LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. FOLLOW WITH DILUTED VINEGAR, FRUIT JUICE OR WHITES OF EGGS, BEATEN WITH WATER. IF INHALED, REMOVE TO FRESH AIR. IF NOT BREATHING, GIVE ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. IF BREATHING IS DIFFICULT, GIVE OXYGEN. IN CASE OF CONTACT, IMMEDIATELY FLUSH EYES OR SKIN WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST 15 MINUTES WHILE REMOVING CONTAMINATED CLOTHING AND SHOES. WASH CLOTHING BEFORE RE-USE. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------6 - REACTIVITY DATA -----------------------------------------------------------------------------STABILITY: STABLE CONDITIONS TO AVOID: INCOMPATIBLES: HAZARDOUS POLYMERIZATION: WILL NOT OCCUR MOISTURE

WATER, STRONG ACIDS, MOST COMMON METALS,

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS, ORGANIC MATERIALS, ZINC, ALUMINUM, MAGNESIUM, HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------7 - SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES -----------------------------------------------------------------------------STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE WEAR SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS AND FULL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. WITH CLEAN SHOVEL, CAREFULLY PLACE MATERIAL INTO CLEAN, DRY CONTAINER AND COVER; REMOVE FROM AREA. FLUSH SPILL AREA WITH WATER. J. T. BAKER NEUTRACIT-2(R) CAUSTIC NEUTRALIZER IS RECOMMENDED FOR SPILLS OF THIS PRODUCT. DISPOSAL PROCEDURE

DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS. EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D002, D003 (CORROSIVE, REACTIVE WASTE)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------8 - PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT -----------------------------------------------------------------------------VENTILATION: USE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION TO MEET

TLV REQUIREMENTS. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: RESPIRATORY PROTECTION REQUIRED IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV. AT CONCENTRATIONS UP TO 60 PPM, A HIGH-EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE RESPIRATOR IS RECOMMENDED. ABOVE THIS LEVEL, A SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED. EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: ARE SAFETY GOGGLES, UNIFORM, APRON, RUBBER GLOVES

RECOMMENDED.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------MSDS for SODIUM HYDROXIDE Page 4 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9 - STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS -----------------------------------------------------------------------------SAF-T-DATA(TM) STORAGE COLOR CODE: SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. STORE IN CORROSION-PROOF AREA. STORE IN A DRY AREA. ISOLATE FROM INCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------10 - TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION -----------------------------------------------------------------------------DOMESTIC (D.O.T.) PROPER SHIPPING NAME HAZARD CLASS UN/NA LABELS UN1823 CORROSIVE 1000 LBS. SODIUM HYDROXIDE, DRY SOLID WHITE STRIPE (STORE SEPARATELY)

CORROSIVE MATERIAL (SOLID)

REPORTABLE QUANTITY INTERNATIONAL (I.M.O.) PROPER SHIPPING NAME HAZARD CLASS UN/NA LABELS 8 UN1823

SODIUM HYDROXIDE, SOLID

CORROSIVE

============================================================= Like this site? Please take the online poll. Unit Factor Analysis UAYF Every physical measurement has three parts: a value, a unit, and a precision. The value is the numerical part of the measurement. The unit is the part that comes after the value: grams, or feet, or gallons, for example. The precision indicates the confidence we have in the value. For example, $29.87 is more precise than $30. This handout will outline a method which can be used to solve about 70% of the numerical problems you will encounter in college. If you learn only one thing from this course, it should be unit factor analysis. (I recommend that you learn more than one thing but if you're trying to economize ...) Remember one of the Chemistry Department mottos: Units Are Your Friends! Hotdogs What follows is alternately known as "unit factor analysis," "dimensional analysis," or, in Dr. Dunn parlance, "the hotdog method." Let's consider some common hotdogs used in unit conversions: Name Unit Liter/Gallon ( 3.79 L / 1 gal ) Ounce/Pound ( 16 oz / 1 lb ) Inch/Foot ( 12 in / 1 ft ) Centimeter/Inch ( 2.54 cm / 1 inch ) Weight Percent ( xxx g something / hg something that contains it ) Water Density ( 1.00 kg water / L water ) Gram/Pound ( 454 g / 1 lb ) mL/cm3 ( 1 mL / 1 cm3 )

Each one of these factors comes from an equality. For example 12 inches equals one foot. If this is true then ( 12 in / 1 ft ) must equal one, or unity since the top and bottom of the fraction are equal. All unit factors equal one, which is why they are called unit factors. Dr. Dunn calls them "hotdogs" because the parentheses remind him of a hotdog bun. The powerful thing is that you can always multiply by one without changing the value of the thing you multiplied. You can multiply by one over and over, no problem. Unit Factor Analysis uses this fact as the basis for what it does. You just keep multiplying by one (in the guise of a unit factor) until your answer has the correct units. Certain prefixes imply unit factors. Prefix Abbreviation Factor Kilo k 1000 Hecta h 100 Centi c .01 Milli m .001 So this gives us unit factors like ( 1000 m / km ), ( 1000 mL / L ), ( 100 g / hg ), etc. Don't confuse the unit m (meter) with the prefix m (milli). You can, for example, have the unit mm which is millimeter. Unit Factor Analysis Now that we have some hotdogs, we can use them to solve a problem. Here are the steps in unit factor analysis:

Write the units of the answer to the left of an equal sign leaving room for the value to be added later. Find a hotdog which resembles the units of the answer and write it to the right of the equal sign. You may have to flip it upside down to get the units to agree. This initial hotdog may come from the problem or it may come from a list of unit factors with which you are already familiar. Compare the units on the right and left. If they agree, you're ready to do the arithmetic. If they don't agree, add another hotdog on the right, attempting to cancel units which don't belong and add units which do belong. Continue adding hotdogs until the units on the left and right agree. Now you're ready to do the arithmetic. Enter the numbers into your calculator without rounding any of them off. If your calculator has memory, you may want to store intermediate results. Otherwise write down intermediate results using all the digits your calculator gives you When you've arrived at the final result, write another equal sign and copy your answer using all the digits your calculator gives you. Finally round off your answer to the same number of digits found in the least precise hotdog in the chain. An Example Consider a mead recipe which calls for 15 pounds of honey to make 5 gallons of mead. As a unit factor this becomes ( 15 pounds honey / 5 gallons mead ). We wish to make a smaller batch of mead, say 1.75 Liters (in a 2 L bottle). How much honey should we use? We could choose several units for our answer, pounds, ounces, or grams. Since honey is sold by the ounce in grocery stores, we will choose the ounce as the unit of our answer. Ounces honey = 1.75 Liters mead ( 1 gallon / 3.79 liters )( 15.0 pounds honey / 5.0 gallons mead)( 16 ounces / pound) = 22.163588 ounces honey = 22 ounces honey

Now suppose the grocery store only has bottles with 12, 16, and 32 ounces of honey. The closest we can come will be 2*12=24 ounces. If we want to keep the same ratio of honey to mead without wasting our honey, how much mead should we make? Liters mead = 24 ounces honey ( 1 pound / 16 ounces )( 5 gallons mead / 15 pounds honey)( 3.79 liters / 1 gallon) = 1.895 liters mead = 1.9 liters mead

That is, if we want to use 24 ounces of honey, we will have to fill our 2 L bottle almost full to keep to the recipe proportions. Extending the Menu As the semester progresses, we will add new hotdogs to the menu. Any time we encounter an equality we can generate a new kind of hotdog. We will learn, for example, that 1 mole of carbon weighs 12 grams, that 1 mole of glucose weighs 180 grams, and that there are 6 moles of carbon in a mole of glucose. Now, at this point you probably don't even know what a mole is. But you cans still work problems like the following: What is the weight percent of carbon in glucose? Well, let's start with the unit of the answer.

( g C / hg glucose ) = Here hg stands for hectagrams which is 100 grams. We need something that has units of grams of carbon on the right hand side. We only know one thing about grams of carbon and that is that 12 g C = 1 mole C. That is, ( 12 g C / 1 mol C ) is a unit factor. ( g C / hg glucose ) = ( 12 g C / mol C ) We need to get rid of mole C and so we use the other hotdog that has moles C in it. ( g C / hg glucose ) = ( 12 g C / mol C )( 6 mol C / 1 mol glucose) Yes, and now we have a pesky mol of glucose to get rid of and so we use our final piece of information, (180 g glucose/mol glucose). ( g C / hg glucose ) = ( 12 g C / mol C )( 6 mol C / 1 mol glucose)( 1 mol glucose / 180 g glucose ) Finally we need to convert grams to hectagrams: (100 g/hg) ( g C / hg glucose ) = ( 12 g C / mol C )( 6 mol C / 1 mol glucose)( 1 mol glucose / 180 g glucose ) ( 100 g / hg ) = 40.000 ( g C / hg glucose ) = 40% carbon in glucose We have just solved a common general chemistry problem and we don't even know what a mole is. That's some kind of powerful method. All you need is the units of the answer and enough hotdogs to get rid of the units you don't like and introduce the units you do like. Many times you may know the dimensions of a container and you need to know the volume. If the container is rectangular, simply multiply the height, width, and depth. For a cylindrical container, the volume is (3.14)r2h (r=radius). For a spherical container, the volume is 4(3.14)r3/3. Notice that in each case the unit of volume is (length)3. You can also work backwards: if you know the volume of the container and its shape, you can get the dimensions. Try your hand at these for practice: Your gas mileage is 32 miles per gallon. Gas costs $1.37 per gallon. A mile is 5280 feet. How many dollars does it cost you to drive 10 kilometers? An aquarium measures 36"x24"x12". How many gallons of water does it hold? An aquarium measures 36"x24"x12". How many pounds of water does it hold? Criteria for Success This project is passed by quiz alone. When you are ready, I will give you a single problem to work by Unit Factor Analysis. I will expect that you have memorized the table of unit factors above. In addition, I may give you information that can be turned into unit factors. You will work this problem without notes, but you may use a calculator. If you do not get the correct answer, you fail. You may, however, keep taking the test (one per day) until you pass. Of course the problems will be different from day to day. Take a practice quiz online. Return

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