Active Filters

Conventional passive filters consist of LCR networks. Inductors are undesirable components:
 

They are particularly non-ideal (lossy) They are bulky and expensive

Active filters replace inductors using op-amp based equivalent circuits.

Active Filter Designs

Three active filter design techniques will be covered:


Synthesis by Sections


Cascade of second order sections. Replace inductors with op-amp inductor simulations. Simulate all currents and voltages in the LCR ladder using an analogue computer.

Component Simulation


Operational Simulation


Analogue Filter Responses

H(f) H(f)

fc Ideal brick wall filter

fc Practical filter

Standard Transfer Functions



Butterworth
 

Flat Pass-band. 20n dB per decade roll-off. Pass-band ripple. Sharper cut-off than Butterworth. Pass-band and stop-band ripple. Even sharper cut-off. Linear phase response band. i.e. no signal distortion in pass-

Chebyshev
 

Elliptic
 

Bessel


Analogue Transfer Functions

The transfer function of any analogue filter (active or passive) can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials : M 1 s  zm N s ! K m!0 H s ! K N 1 Ds s  pn
n !0

Special case when M=0, all-pole response : K K ! N 1 H s ! Ds s  pn

n!0

Poles and Zeros



Poles
 

Complex values of s where the transfer function is infinite. i.e. the denominator of the transfer function is zero. Complex values of s where the transfer function is zero.

Zeros


An N-th order filter will have N poles and up to N zeros. Some poles may be in the same place (as may some zeros).

Example

Two Pole Bessel Filter

Low pass, cut-off frequency = 1 rad/s, from tables : 1 1 H s ! 2 ! s  1.73s  1 s  p0 s  p1 where, p0 ! 0.866  j 0.5 p1 ! 0.866  j 0.5

Operational Amplifiers


All the active filters we shall study are based on operational amplifiers (op-amps). Analysis of linear op-amp circuits is usually based on simplifying assumptions :


 

The difference between the non-inverting and inverting inputs is zero. The input current is zero. The output voltage and current is arbitrary.

Op-Amp Assumptions
I+ V+ VI+ V ! V I ! 0 I ! 0 Vout ! anything I out ! anything Iout Vout

Inverting Amplifier
Z2 Z1 VIN +
0V

VOUT

 VOUT VIN V ! V ! 0 @ I Z 1 ! & IZ 2 ! Z1 Z2

I  ! 0 @ I Z1 ! I Z 2 VIN  VOUT V Z ! OUT !  2 Z1 Z2 VIN Z1

Non-Inverting Amplifier
VIN + Z1 VOUT I ! 0 Z2
0V

@V ! VOUT

Z2 ! V ! VIN Z1  Z 2

VOUT Z1  Z 2 Z1 @ ! ! 1 VIN Z2 Z2

Buffer Amplifier
VIN + VOUT V ! VOUT V ! VIN V ! V @VOUT ! VIN

  

Output voltage = Input voltage Input impedance is infinite Output impedance is zero

Single-Pole Passive Filter

R vin C vout
vout ZC 1 / sC ! ! vin R  Z C R  1 / sC

!
  

1 sCR  1

First order low pass filter Cut-off frequency = 1/CR rad/s Problem : Any load (or source) impedance will change frequency response.

Single-Pole Active Filter

R vin C vout

  

Same frequency response as passive filter. Buffer amplifier does not load RC network. Output impedance is now zero.

Low-Pass and High-Pass Designs

High Pass Low Pass

vout 1 ! 1 vin 1 s

vout 1 ! vin sCR  1

Higher Order Filters



 

You might think we could make higher order filters by simply cascading N first order filters This doesn t work The single pole of a first order filter must be purely real (no imaginary part) The poles of a higher order filter usually need to be complex Solution: Use second order sections, each one synthesising a conjugate pair of complex poles

Summary


Active filter designs aim to replace the inductors in passive filters. Design techniques :
  

Synthesis by sections Component simulation Operational simulation

All based on op-amps understanding of basic op-amp circuits is essential.