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Psychology
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define psychology;
2. Describe the history of educational psychology;
3. Define educational psychology; and
4. Explain the importance of educational psychology to teachers.
INTRODUCTION
Teachers are directly involved in the implementation of the curriculum and
educational programmes in schools. The teacherÊs role in a school is very
important, especially in achieving the aspirations and goals of the school. Coopes
(1988), stated that an effective teacher is one who possesses knowledge, especially
in the skills of teaching such as:
• Knowledge of the theory of human learning and psychology
• A sincere attitude that encourages learning as well as positive interactions in
multiple directions
• Complete knowledge in the subjects that are taught
• Teaching methods and techniques that allow students to carry out their
learning activities by using appropriate methods and techniques
2 TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
The word ÂpsychologyÊ came from the words ÂpsycheÊ and ÂlogosÊ which
originated from ancient Greek civilisation. ÂPsycheÊ means ÂsoulÊ and ÂlogosÊ
means the Âstudy of somethingÊ. Therefore, psychology means the study of
something that affects the soul. According to the Oxford Dictionary, psychology
is defined as:
From the definition above, it can be concluded that Âthe study of somethingÊ that
is meant by the word „logos‰ is the study of thinking that influences the
character and behaviour of organisms.
ACTIVITY 1.1
The study of psychology was developed between the year 384 BC to 322 BC by
Greek scholars such as Socrates, Pluto and Aristotle. During that time,
psychology was part of the study of philosophy rather than a scientific study of
its own.
After the period of early Greek civilisation, the history of psychology can be
grouped according to the understanding and perspectives of several prominent
psychologists.
(a) Interactionism
The concept of ÂinteractionismÊ was first introduced by Rene Descartes
(1595-1650), a French philosopher and mathematician. Descartes contended
that the human being is a combination of mind and body or body and soul.
This concept is in contrast with the idea of dualism which separates the
body and soul.
4 TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
(b) Empiricism
Empiricism started in 17th and 18th century England. Famous philosophers
in psychology of that period were John Locke (1632-1704) and George
Berkeley (1685-1753). John Locke proposed the concept of Âtabula rasaÊ
which refers to the human soul as an empty slate at birth.
(c) Structuralism
Structuralism was first developed in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-
1920). Structuralism was known as such because its proponents focused on
the study of conscious experience, which is a study of what a person is able
to state during his conscious experience. Wundt studied the feelings,
attitudes, perceptions, and assumptions of an individual toward a
particular situation.
(d) Functionalism
Functionalism was founded in America by John Dewey (1859-1952) and
William James (1842-1910). This trend was called functionalism because it
focused on conscious experience and behaviour. The proponents of this
school of thought examined how a person uses his mind to think and
consequently act. They believed that the mental process is always active
and continuous. This school of thought was influenced by the theory of
human evolution proposed by Darwin and the philosophy of pragmatism
(thinking based on practice rather than theory).
(e) Behaviourism
Behaviourism appeared in North America and was founded by J. B. Watson
(1878-1958) who introduced the classic conditioning theory where he did a
study on a boy, Albert, and a white mouse. In 1913, Watson published his
findings in an article entitled „Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It‰. In
the article, he clearly stated that psychology is the study of overt behaviour.
Psychologists within this trend studied animals such as mice, cats and dogs.
The principles of learning or behaviour derived from the studies were applied
to the learning or behaviour of humans. This trend also focused on studying
human behaviour and rejected the emotional aspect of the human being. This
trend was strongly influenced by the philosophy of logical positivism. The
philosophy of logic contends that all knowledge has to be justified through
empirical ways or systematic observations. A critical concept introduced by
this trend into psychology was the operational definition.
(g) Humanistic
The humanistic trend was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and
Carl Rogers (1902-1987). The humanistic approach stresses on the ways of
thinking, experience and interpretation of a person about an event.
Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual is responsible for his
own actions. For example, if a person wants to achieve excellence in life, he
should act or work toward achieving this goal. According to this approach,
the power of a personÊs motivation is his tendency to develop and achieve
self-actualisation. This means that every individual has the need to develop
his potential to the maximum. Even though setbacks exist, his natural
tendency is to achieve self-actualisation or to develop his potential to the
maximum. This concept of self-actualisation was introduced by Maslow.
(h) Cognitivism
The cognitivism trend was introduced by gestalt psychologists, Piaget,
Vygotsky, Gagne, Bruner and Ausubel. Psychologists within this trend
were interested in studying human thought, perception and assumption,
cognition, metacognition, critical and creative thinking skills, learning skills
and motivation, among others.
(i) Constructivism
From amongst the cognitivism psychologists, constuctivism psychologists
appeared. Prominent psychologists within this trend include Von
Glaserfeld, Piaget, Vygotsky, Confrey and Seymour Peppert.
Constructivism takes into account how an individual constructs his
understanding about something that is being learned. Constructivism
stresses on the active role of the learner during the process of teaching and
learning. This approach to teaching is very popular in the teaching of
mathematics and the science subjects (physics, chemistry, and biology).
ACTIVITY 1.2
(a) Id
The id is the source of motivation and desire that are inherited, primitive,
self-centred, and does not have the influence of the real world. The id is
dominant at the early months of a babyÊs life, when motivation and wants
strongly influence a babyÊs behaviour. It is seen as the first psychic element
that influences behaviour.
(b) Ego
The ego is responsible for and controls motivation and primitive urges so
that they follow more closely the situational requirements. The ego slowly
takes the responsibility to turn the primitive motivation of the id to follow
the moral requirements and ethical standards of the community. The egoÊs
operation is guided by the principles of reality and not by the principles of
pleasure that influences the id. The principles of reality acknowledge the
realistic requirements of the community.
(c) Superego
As children grow, the role of the ego expands. It has to deal with the
superego which is the early source of conscience and which is our ability to
TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY 11
differentiate between the right and wrong. The superego appears slowly
when children learn the rules that are used by their parents to interpret the
expectations of the community. Parents have an important role in the
development of conscience in children until they can construct their own set
of internal standards.
In the psychoanalytic approach, the id, the ego and the superego usually
have different goals and methods. If the id and superego become strong
enough to empower the ego, this will result in an internal conflict within the
individual. According to FreudÊs theory, if this conflict is unresolved, it can
lead to mental confusion.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Explain the differences between the id, the ego and the superego.
A few prominent psychologists within this approach are Abraham Maslow, Rolio
May, Carl Rogers and Gordon Allport. Abraham Maslow (1970) introduced the
theory of the hierarchy of needs. The assumptions underlying this theory are
based on the belief that humans are never satisfied with what they have achieved.
According to Maslow, human needs can be grouped into five levels of hierarchy
(Figure 1.4) which range from the low level needs (basic needs) to the high level
needs (psychological needs). Humans will actively move upwards from one level
to the other after the needs of each level are met.
Rogers (1956), stated that humans are always working to understand themselves
and to influence and control their own behaviour and those of others. He believes
that basically all humans are good and that they are all born with the tendency to
TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY 13
seek perfection which forms the motive that drives them to develop as mature
and healthy human beings.
Look at Figure 1.4. Based on your own life experience, give an example for each
level of hierarchy. Which level are you at now?
Two German physiologists, Edward Hitzig (1893-1927) and Gustav Fritsch (1839-
1907) carried out an experiment on a dog which involved inserting two strands of
wire in the cortical surface of the dogÊs brain. Through this experiment, they found
that the structure of the brain where the spinal cords originate is closely related to
14 TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
the individualÊs behaviour. In other words, the brain will respond to an electrical
stimulus that is directly given and this affects the behaviour of an individual.
Therefore, an area of focus within the biological approach is the role of the central
nervous system that is responsible for controlling the thoughts and movements of
humans.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Each of the approaches that have been discussed focuses on one or just a
few aspects of the human being. Match the approaches and their
area/areas of focus.
TOPIC 1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY 15
Every approach has its strengths and weaknesses. However, each of these approaches
has contributed toward many areas of research such as research on drug abuse,
computer and human interaction, genius and problematic children and many more.
The fields of psychology and education are closely related. The field of
educational psychology combines the field of psychology with that of education.
As you have learned, psychology is the scientific study of the thought and
behaviour of an individual or group of individuals whereas education is the
process of developing the potential and skills of an individual in a specific area.
ACTIVITY 1.4
The aim of psychology focuses on four goals (Abd Majid Mohd Isa & Rahil
Mahyuddin, 1997) which are to describe, to explain, to control and to predict an
action. When a negative behaviour is found, for instance, smoking among
teenagers (14 or fifteen years of age), psychologists will try to describe this
behaviour. Usually these will include actions such as sneaking off somewhere to
smoke. They will smoke in the toilet, shrubbery, shopping complexes or
abandoned houses. Following this description, the psychologists will attempt to
explain the causes that led to the teenagersÊ actions. After explaining the reasons
for these actions, they will suggest ways to control these actions and predict
replacement actions to replace the negative ones. For example, healthy activities
such as playing badminton or jogging in the evenings are predicted as having the
ability to stop the smoking habit among the teenagers.
appropriate learning objectives and goals for their students, and to plan the
appropriate steps toward the achievement of these learning objectives and
goals.
(b) Teachers can predict the studentsÊ behaviour and their likes and dislikes at
different age levels. This knowledge can help teachers plan appropriate
reinforcement for the students in their effort to control the studentsÊ
behaviour and to motivate them to study.
(c) Through the examination of human growth and development, teachers will
be able to know about the studentsÊ stages of physical, cognitive, social and
emotional development. Therefore, teachers will be able to plan teaching
and learning according to the studentsÊ stages of development.
(d) Teachers can design a simple investigation to identify their studentsÊ stages
of development, especially for problematic students. Once the stages of
development have been identified, the teacher can prepare appropriate
programmes or activities for these students in order to improve their
learning.
(e) Teachers can also carry out research on educational issues such as problems
of discipline in the classroom, truancy, smoking and so forth. Data and
information gained from the research can help the teacher to help the
students to solve their problems and to improve the quality of education
and learning.
(f) Educational psychology will be able to assist teachers in understanding the
studentsÊ personalities and concept of self. This will enable the teacher to
help the students toward developing a positive concept of self.
ACTIVITY 1.5
1. Based on your readings, what are the ways that you can improve
the process of teaching and learning in school?
Behaviourism Gestalt
Cognitivism Humanistic
Constructivism Interactionism
Educational psychology Psychoanalytic
Empiricism Psychology
Functionalism Structuralism