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The objective of this course is to familiarize the students with the concepts and the techniques of
Research Methodology applicable to business arena
UNIT–II: Research Design – Meaning, Purpose and Principles –Types of Research Design-
Exploratory – Descriptive – Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data
Collection-Questionnaire Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.
UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model),
Principals of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis –Factor Analysis- Types of Reports-
Contents of Report-Formats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.
Text Book
Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques, New Age International Publishers,
New Delhi,2007.
Reference Books
1. Boyd, Westfall and Stouch, Marketing Research, Text and cases, All India Travel Book
Sellers, New Delhi, 2005.
2. Brayman, Research Methods, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005.
3. Krishnaswami, O.R., Methodology of Research in Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 2006.
4. R.Pannersalvem, Research Methodology, Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2004
5. R.S. Dwivedi, Research Methodology in Behavioral Science, Macmillan India ltd, New
Delhi, 2005.
6. Wilkinsan and Bhandarkar – Methodology and Techniques of Social research, Himalaya
Publishing house, New Delhi, 2005.
1
UNIT-I: Introduction - Meaning, Importance of Research, Types of research, Research Process-
Problem of Identification-Formulation-Classification, Concept and Construction of Hypothesis-
Steps in Testing Hypothesis.
Research Methodology
A search for knowledge
A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic
A systematized effort to gain new knowledge
Research as an academic activity comprises – defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis; collecting organizing and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions.
Definition
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
Objectives of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it (studies with this objective are known as explorative or formulative
studies)
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive studies)
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else (known as diagnostic studies)
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known
as hypothesis testing)
Types of Research
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
2
• The main characteristic here is that the researcher has no control over
the variables – he can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
Research Process
•Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research.
• The process consists of closely related activities; such activities
overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence.
The steps are as follows:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation
11. Preparation of the Report
3
1. Formulating the Research Problem:
Two types of problems:
Problems which related to state of nature
Problems which relate to relationships between variables
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is
the first step in scientific enquiry
Two steps in formulating the research problem:
Understanding the problem thoroughly
Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view
Must review two types of literature:
The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories
The Empirical literature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar
to the one proposed
Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and
significance in the entire research process
The problem must be defined unambiguously
Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning
the problem
4
Functions of a Hypothesis
Types of Sampling
1. Deliberate Sampling
2. Simple Random Sampling
3. Systematic Sampling
4. Quota Sampling
5. Stratified Sampling
6. Cluster/area Sampling
7. Multi-stage Sampling
8. Sequential Sampling
5
6. Collecting the Data
Need to collect appropriate data
Primary data can be collected thru experiment or survey
In experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements (data),
with which the hypothesis is tested
8. Analysis of Data
Requires that the data be necessarily condensed into manageable
groups and tables for further analyses
Should classify the new data into some purposeful and usable
categories
Coding is done at this stage
Tabulation – classified data are put into tables
Analysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying statistics
Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant
9. Hypothesis Testing
Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary?
Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it
6
Title page
Certification
Acknowledgments
Preface
Contents page
Problem Identification
Defining the Research Problem:
The first step in research is selecting and properly defining a research
problem
“A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or conceptual
situation and wants a solution for it”
“ A research problem exists when the individual or the group, having
one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more
courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the
desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is
best”
An Illustration…
Statement 1: “Why is the productivity in Japan so much higher than in India?
Statement 2: “What factors are responsible for the higher labor productivity
of Japan’s manufacturing industries, during the decade 1971 to 1980,
relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”
Statement 3: “To what extent did labor productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan
exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries?”
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Conclusion
The task of defining a research problem follows a sequential pattern
– the problem is stated in a general way, the ambiguities are
resolved, thinking and rethinking results in a more specific
formulation of the problem so that it may be a realistic one.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a principal instrument in research
Most research is carried out with the deliberate intention of testing
hypothesis
Decision makers need to test hypothesis to take decisions regarding
alternate courses of action
In Social Sciences, hypothesis testing is often used for deciding
whether a sample data offers support for certain generalizations
Hypothesis-testing, thus, enables us to make probability statements
about population parameters
Meaning of Hypothesis
Simply, a mere assumption to be proved or disproved
But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to
resolve
Definition: “A proposition or a set of propositions, set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena
asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts”
Often hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by
scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent
variable
Ex: students who receive counseling will show greater increase in
creativity than students not receiving counseling; or Car A is performing as
well as Car B
In sum, hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to
determine its validity
Characteristics of a Hypothesis
o Should be clear and precise
o Should be capable of being tested
o Should be limited in scope and be specific
o Should be stated in simple terms
o Should state the relationship between variables
o Should be consistent with most known facts
o Should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time
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o Must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation
10
That is, Type I error means rejection of the hypothesis which should have
been accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which
should have been rejected
Steps in Hypothesis-testing
To test a hypothesis means to state (on the basis of data the
researcher has collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems valid
In hypothesis testing the main question is – whether to accept the null
hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis?
Steps for hypothesis testing refer to all the steps we take for making a
choice between rejection and acceptance of the null hypothesis
1. Making a formal statement
2. Selecting a significance level
3. Deciding the distribution to use
4. Selecting a random sample
5. Calculation of the probability
6. Comparing the probability
Making a Formal Statement
Consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and also
the alternative hypothesis
Ex: The average score in an aptitude test at the national level is 80. To
evaluate a state’s education system, the average score of 100 of the state’s
students selected on random basis is 75. The state wants to know if there is a
significant difference between the state’s scores and the national scores.
Hypothesis may be stated as follows:
Null hypothesis: population mean = 80
Alternative hypothesis: population mean is not equal to 80
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The next step is to compare the probability thus calculated with the
specified value (the significance level)
If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the significance
level, then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis);
but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis
UNIT–II: Research Design – Meaning, Purpose and Principles –Types of Research Design-
Exploratory – Descriptive – Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data
Collection-Questionnaire Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.
Research Design
More explicitly:
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being conducted?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?
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vi. What period of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Ex:
weight, height, income etc., are examples of a variable
Qualitative phenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute
Dependent variable (DV) – if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a DV
And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent
variable IV
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2. Extraneous Variable
IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are
termed as Extraneous Variable (EV)
Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept.
Here, self-concept is an IV and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the
purpose of the study, it will be termed as an EV
Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is
attributed entirely to the IVs and not to some EV.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of the EV. The term “Control” is used when we design the study
minimizing the effects of extraneous variables
4. Confounded Relationship
When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV
and IV is said to be confounded by the EV
5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as a Research-Hypothesis
The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV
Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a
group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests
their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the co-efficient of correlation
between the two sets of scores – this is an example of non-experimental
hypothesis testing, because the IV, intelligence is not manipulated
But now ,suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group
of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two
groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common program, and 25 to
Group B, the special program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to
each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the
students’ performance. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing
because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated.
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Types of Research Designs
1. Exploratory
3. Experimental
15
• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness evaluated as a basis for further research
• Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in one’s area of
interest for formulating the problem
• An attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories
2. Experience Survey
• Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem
• The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and
new ideas relating to the research problem
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1. Formulating the objective of the study
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
Principle of Replication
Principle of Randomization
1. Primary data – are those which are collected for the first
time and are original in character
Experiments
Observation
Personal Interviews
1.Observation Method
2.Interview Method
3.Thru Questionnaires/Schedules
19
I. Observation Method
It is expensive
Types of Observation
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Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
Personal Interview
21
Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's function is simply to encourage
the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondent’s feelings and beliefs
Advantages
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• Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs to be carefully constructed
• Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire – its general form,
question sequence and question formulation and the wording of the
questions
1.General Form
• May be either structured or unstructured
• Structured Questionnaires – are those in which there are definite,
concrete, predetermined questions
The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents
The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open
(inviting free responses
Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in
which responses are limited to the stated alternatives
Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions
and answers are specified and comments in the respondents’ own words
are held to the minimum
• Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above characteristics are absent,
it is known as a unstructured Questionnaire
• The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of
information to be obtained
2.Question Sequence
Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses
Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of one question to the next
To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent –
difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the
appropriate time rather than at the beginning
3.Question Formulation & Wording
Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous
Questions should be impartial and unbiased
Should be easily understood
Should be simple (one idea at a time)
Should be concrete
Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
Data Collection thru Schedules
Very similar to the Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is
specially appointed for the purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the
Performa in the order listed, and records the responses in the space
provided.
Enumerators must be trained in administering the schedule
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Other Methods of Data Collection
1. Warranty Cards
2. Distributor or Store Audits
3. Pantry Audits
4. Consumer Panels
5. Mechanical Devices
6. Depth Interviews
7. Content Analysis
8. Projective Tests
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UNIT–III: Sampling & Sampling Designs- Determination of Sample Size-Census Survey Vs
Sample Survey-Advantages of Sampling – Sampling Methods-Probability Sampling-Non
Probability Sampling.
25
Criteria of Selecting a sampling Procedure
There are two costs involved in a sampling analysis – the cost of collecting
the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the
data
All the sample designs are based on two factors – the representation
basis and the element selection technique
Non-Probability Sampling
26
Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating
the probability that each item in the population has of being in included in
the sample?
Here, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher, that
is, purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample on the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one
will be representative of the whole.
Here, personal element (bias) has a great chance of entering into the
selection of the sample
However, if the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience – the results obtained may be tolerably reliable.
Probability Sampling
27
Also know as Random sampling or Chance sampling
Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample
It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical process
It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not
Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that
if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have
the same composition and characteristics as the universe)
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In actual/ideal practice – the Random Sample is taken by the following
process: write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these
slips in a box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large
universes this is practically possible.
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smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of
these smaller areas (called “clusters”), with the ultimate sample consisting
of all units in these clusters.
Conclusion
Normally one should resort to simple random sampling because under it,
bias is generally eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated. But
purposive sampling is more appropriate when the universe happens to be
small.
At times several methods of sampling may be used in the same study.
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Data Tabulation
• The data after collection has to be processed – processing means editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of the collected data, so that they are amenable to analysis.
• Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures, along with searching for patterns
of relationships among data groups.
• In other words, analysis of data is performed with the purpose of summarizing the
collected data and organizing these in such a manner that they answer the research question (s)
Processing Operations
The following are the processing operations:
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation
Editing
• Editing is the process of examining the collected data (especially in surveys) to detect
errors and correct these where possible
• Involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires/schedules
• Editing can take place at two stages: i) field editing and ii) central editing
• Field editing consists of reviewing of the questionnaire forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the respondent has written in abbreviated
and/or illegible form; should not correct the errors of omission.
• Central editing should take place when all forms/schedules have been
completed and returned
• Editors may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, etc
Coding
• Refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes.
• Such classes should be appropriate and have the characteristic of exhaustiveness, that is,
there must be a class for every data item; and also mutual exclusivity, meaning that a
specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set.
• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis
• Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage
• Coding is usually done by hand and the usual method is to code in the margin with a
color pencil or to transcribe the data taken from the questionnaire to a coding sheet.
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Classification
• Classification of data is the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics
• Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in
this way the entire data gets divided into a number of groups or
classes
Classification is of two types:
1. Classification according to Attributes
2. Classification according to Class Intervals
All the classes/groups, with their respective frequencies taken together and put in the form of a
table are described as group frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution
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iii. How to determine the frequency of each class?
Can be done by tally sheets or mechanical devices
Tabulation
• When a mass of data has been collected, it becomes necessary to arrange it in a concise
and logical order
• Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in a compact
form, for further analysis
• Tabulation is essential for:
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
It facilitates the process of comparisons
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions
It provides a basis for various statistical computations
Principles of Tabulation
1. Should have a clear, concise title, which is self explanatory
2. Should be distinctly numbered, for easy reference
3. The column headings (captions) and row headings (stubs) of the table
should be clear and brief
4. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed
directly beneath the table
5. Sources of the table must be indicated just below the table
6. Usually the columns are separated by lines, which make the table
more readable and attractive
7. Those columns whose data has to be compared should be kept side by
side. So also the percentages and/or averages – close to the data
8. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal
points and + or minus signs should be in perfect alignment
9. Abbreviations should not be used
10. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate as possible
11. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right
column and that of the columns should be placed at the bottom
12. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be
chronological, geographical, alphabetical, etc., to facilitate
computation
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UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model),
Principals of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis –Factor Analysis- Types of Reports-
Contents of Report-Formats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.
Mean
Mean is used for interval (ratio) data such as income, age, wage rate and
n
test score etc.
∑ xi
x= i =1
Mean
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Median
Median is used for ordinal or interval level of data, but not for nominal level
of Data as it requires ordering of items from Highest to lowest or vice versa.
Age in Group
(In years) No of respondents
0-20 15
20-40 32
40-60 54
60-80 30
80-100 19
Mode
Mode is used to measure the qualitative data. Since mode requires only
frequency, it can be applied to any set of data at the nominal, level of data
Discipline Frequency( No of applicants)
Engineering 210
Commerce 180
Arts 110
Science 90
Others 50
Total 640
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Life in Hours No of Bulbs
0-20 9
20-40 17
40-60 45
60-80 46
80-100 32
100-120 18
120-140 14
140-160 10
160-180 9
Skewness
• Skewness tells us about whether the data is symmetric or not.
Shape of the Distribution
36
• The shape of the distribution provides information about the central
tendency and variability of measurements.
• Three common shapes of distributions are:
– Normal: bell-shaped curve; symmetrical
– Skewed: non-normal; non-symmetrical; can be positively or
negatively skewed
– Multimodal: has more than one peak (mode)
µ
2
kurt = 4
−3
µ
2
37
Correlation
Correlation tells us the degree of association between two or more variables.
The limits for correlation coefficient are -1 to +1
n∑ xy − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
[n∑ x 2
][
− ( ∑ x ) * n∑ y 2 − ( ∑ y )
2 2
]
1. The annual advertising expenditure (in lakhs of rupees) and the
corresponding annual sales ( in crores of rupees) for the past ten years
of a company are presented in the table. Find the correlation
coefficient between annual advertising expenditure and annual sales.
Also test the significance of correlation coefficient at 5% L.O. S
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Annual
advertising
expenditure 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Annual Sales 20 30 37 50 56 78 89 100 120 110
38
If r< P.E then there is no significant relation between the variables.
If r>6( P.E) then there is significant relation between the variables.
Using probable error we can find the limits for the population correlation
coefficient by using the relation
r ± P.E
Regression
Line of regression of y on x is
Line of regression of y on x is
y = a +b x x = a +bxy y
yx
σy
y−y =r
σx
(
x−x ) x−x =r
σx
y−y( )
σy
n( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y ) n( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
byx = bxy =
(
n ∑ x − (∑ x) 2
) 2
n (∑ y ) − (∑ y )
2 2
Find the lines of regression and estimate the value of y when x= 16 and
value of x when y=17
P rice (Rs) 4 6 9 10 8 12 14 10 15 12
S upply (Tonnes) 8 10 12 15 11 13 15 10 16 10
Find the line of regression of y on x for the following data
Annual sales :20 23 25 27 21 29 22 24 27 35
Sales force :8 13 8 18 23 16 10 12 14 20
Annual advert
Expenditure :28 23 38 16 20 28 23 30 26 32
Preparation of Report/Thesis
Has to prepare the report
The layout of the report is as follows:
The prefatory part
The Main Body/Text
The Supplemental Part
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– Formats
• Findings summary (graphical or tabular) attached to letter
of transmittal
• Business letter
• Internal memorandum
• Short Report (Memorandum)
– Reason for writing
– Answer direct inquiry with specific answer and supporting detail
– Expository style with brevity and directness
– Attach detailed materials as appendices when needed
• Long report
– Technical report
– Management report
PRESENTATION OF STATISTICS
41
• TEXT PARAGRAPH FORMAT
• SEMI-TABULAR FORMAT
• TABULAR FORMAT
• GRAPHICAL FORMAT
GRAPHICAL FORMATS
• LINE GRAPHS
• AREA CHARTS
• PIE CHARTS
• BAR CHARTS
• PICTOGRAPHS/GEO-GRAPHICS
• 3-D GRAPHICS
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
• PREPARATION
– LENGTH
– CONTENT
– STYLE
• SCRIPTED
• EXTEMPORANEOUS
– AUDIOVISUALS
• TYPE
• ROLE
• CONTENT
– OPENING
– FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
– RECOMMENDATIONS
• DELIVERY
– VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS
– PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
AUDIOVISUAL AIDS
• CHALKBOARDS
• WHITEBOARDS
• HANDOUT MATERIALS
• FLIP CHARTS
• SLIDES
• OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES
• COMPUTER-DRAWN VISUALS
• COMPUTER ANIMATION
Analytical Reports
What are some drawbacks of using the direct approach for a research
and analysis report?
Under what circumstances would you write a justification report?
Under what circumstances would you write a report based on a logical
argument?
43
Clarify and simplify the text
Depict relationships between points
Emphasize and summarize points
Attract and build credibility
Reinforce understanding
“Visualizing” Information
Decide on the message.
Identify points requiring visual support.
Maintain a balance between illustrations and words.
Consider your production schedule.
Flow charts
Maps
Drawings
Organization charts
44
By using verb tense consistently, you add to the clarity of your report.
False, many can be informal.
False, use impersonal words.
True
45
Discuss the four areas of specific information that must be covered in a
proposal.
List four questions to ask when proofing visual aids.
46
Information, analysis, and interpretation.
Nature of the information, the purpose of your report, and preferences
of your audience.
Supplementary Parts
Explain what is contained in each of the following:
Appendix
Bibliography
Index
A Proposal’s Introduction
Background or statement of the problem
Overview of approach
Scope
Report organization
Getting Feedback
You’ll want to get feedback from readers, even if you have to nudge
them to do so.
Be ready for less-than-glowing reactions to your recommendations.
Be prepared to get no response at all.
Accept criticism graciously.
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