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MPRBA-307: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The objective of this course is to familiarize the students with the concepts and the techniques of
Research Methodology applicable to business arena

UNIT-I: Introduction - Meaning, Importance of Research, Types of research, Research Process-


Problem of Identification-Formulation-Classification, Concept and Construction of Hypothesis-
Steps in Testing Hypothesis.

UNIT–II: Research Design – Meaning, Purpose and Principles –Types of Research Design-
Exploratory – Descriptive – Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data
Collection-Questionnaire Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.

UNIT–III: Sampling & Sampling Designs- Determination of Sample Size-Census Survey Vs


Sample Survey-Advantages of Sampling – Sampling Methods-Probability Sampling-Non
Probability Sampling.

UNIT–IV: Data Tabulation-Analysis and Interpretation: Editing, Decoding and Classification of


Data-Preparation of Tables-Analysis of Data - Scaling Techniques - Graphic and Diagrammatic
Representation of Data.

UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model),
Principals of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis –Factor Analysis- Types of Reports-
Contents of Report-Formats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.

Text Book

Kothari, C.R., Research Methodology – Methods and Techniques, New Age International Publishers,
New Delhi,2007.

Reference Books
1. Boyd, Westfall and Stouch, Marketing Research, Text and cases, All India Travel Book
Sellers, New Delhi, 2005.
2. Brayman, Research Methods, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2005.
3. Krishnaswami, O.R., Methodology of Research in Social Sciences, Himalaya Publishing
House, Mumbai, 2006.
4. R.Pannersalvem, Research Methodology, Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 2004
5. R.S. Dwivedi, Research Methodology in Behavioral Science, Macmillan India ltd, New
Delhi, 2005.
6. Wilkinsan and Bhandarkar – Methodology and Techniques of Social research, Himalaya
Publishing house, New Delhi, 2005.

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UNIT-I: Introduction - Meaning, Importance of Research, Types of research, Research Process-
Problem of Identification-Formulation-Classification, Concept and Construction of Hypothesis-
Steps in Testing Hypothesis.

Research Methodology
 A search for knowledge
 A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic
 A systematized effort to gain new knowledge
 Research as an academic activity comprises – defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis; collecting organizing and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions.
Definition
 Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

 The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of


finding solution to a problem is research.

Objectives of research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures
 To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it (studies with this objective are known as explorative or formulative
studies)
 To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive studies)
 To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which
it is associated with something else (known as diagnostic studies)
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known
as hypothesis testing)

Types of Research
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical

• The major purpose of the descriptive research is description of the


state of affairs as it exists; usually includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries.

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• The main characteristic here is that the researcher has no control over
the variables – he can only report what has happened or what is
happening.

Ex: survey methods to identify people’s preferences.

• In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information


already available and analyze these for critical evaluation.
2. Conceptual vs. Empirical
• Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea or theory. Used
by philosophers and thinkers.
• Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone; it is
data based research;

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity – it is


applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena – relating
to or involving quality or kind. Ex.-motivation research.

4. Applied vs. Fundamental

Research can either be applied (action) research or fundamental (basic


or pure). Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing society or an organization, whereas, fundamental research
is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory.

Research Process
•Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research.
• The process consists of closely related activities; such activities
overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence.
The steps are as follows:
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis-testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation
11. Preparation of the Report

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1. Formulating the Research Problem:
Two types of problems:
 Problems which related to state of nature
 Problems which relate to relationships between variables
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem is
the first step in scientific enquiry
Two steps in formulating the research problem:
 Understanding the problem thoroughly
 Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of
view
Must review two types of literature:
 The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories
 The Empirical literature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar
to the one proposed
 Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and
significance in the entire research process
 The problem must be defined unambiguously
 Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning
the problem

2. Extensive Literature Review


 Abstracting/Indexing journals
 Published/Unpublished bibliographies
 Academic journals
 Conference proceedings
 Govt. Reports
 Books

3. Development of Working Hypothesis


 The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis
 Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical assumptions
 Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: “students who
receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counseling” or “car A is performing as well as
car B”

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Functions of a Hypothesis

 It guides the direction of the study.


 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
 It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most
appropriate.
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result

4. Preparing the Research Design


Need to prepare a research design – a conceptual structure within
which the research would be conducted
The primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant
data
Research Purposes may be grouped into
1. Exploration
2. Description
3. Diagnosis
4. Experimentation
Many research designs exist.

5. Determining the Sample Design


 All the items under consideration in any field constitute a
“Universe” or “Population”.
 A complete enumeration of all the items in the “population” is
known as a “census enquiry”.
 Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we
select a ‘sample’ – a few items from the “universe” for our study.
 Researcher selects the sample by using ‘sampling design’ – a
definite plan determined before any data is actually collected

Types of Sampling
1. Deliberate Sampling
2. Simple Random Sampling
3. Systematic Sampling
4. Quota Sampling
5. Stratified Sampling
6. Cluster/area Sampling
7. Multi-stage Sampling
8. Sequential Sampling

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6. Collecting the Data
Need to collect appropriate data
Primary data can be collected thru experiment or survey
In experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements (data),
with which the hypothesis is tested

In Survey, data can be collected by the following methods:


i. Observation
ii. Personal Interview
iii. Telephone Interview
iv. Mailing Questionnaires
v. Through Schedules

7. Execution of the Project


The research study must be executed in a systematic manner to ensure
that adequate and dependable data are collected.
Should be rigorously methodological

8. Analysis of Data
Requires that the data be necessarily condensed into manageable
groups and tables for further analyses
Should classify the new data into some purposeful and usable
categories
Coding is done at this stage
Tabulation – classified data are put into tables
Analysis, after tabulation is based on the computation of various
percentages, coefficients, etc. by applying statistics
Tests of significance would be applied wherever relevant

9. Hypothesis Testing
Do the data support the hypothesis or they contrary?
Chi Square test, t-test, f-test are normally used
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it

10. Generalization & Interpretation


To arrive at a generalization, that is, to build a theory
Or to interpret the data in terms of existing state of knowledge
(theories)

11. Preparation of Report/Thesis


Has to prepare the report
The layout of the report is as follows:
 The prefatory part
 The Main Body/Text
 The Supplemental Part
The Prefatory Part

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 Title page
 Certification
 Acknowledgments
 Preface
 Contents page

The Main Body


 Introduction
 Summary of Findings
 Main Report
 conclusion

The Supplemental Part


 References, or
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Index

Good Research Requires


 The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined.
 The process to be clearly explained so that it can be reproduced
and verified by other researchers.
 A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as possible.
 Highly ethical standards are applied.
 All limitations are documented.
 Data be adequately analyzed and explained.
 All findings are presented unambiguously and all conclusions be
justified by sufficient evidence.

Problem Identification
Defining the Research Problem:
The first step in research is selecting and properly defining a research
problem
 “A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or conceptual
situation and wants a solution for it”
 “ A research problem exists when the individual or the group, having
one or more desired outcomes, are confronted with two or more
courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency for the
desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is
best”

Components of Research Problem:


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1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem
2. There must be some objectives
3. There must be alternative means (courses of action) for obtaining the
objectives
4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of the researcher
regarding the selection of the alternatives
5. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains

Selecting the Problem


The process of selecting the problem is the most difficult and crucial step in
the entire research process. The following steps are suggested:
1. Subject, which is overdone, should not be normally chosen for it will be
difficult to throw any light on it.
2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of the average
researcher
3. Too narrow or vague problems should be avoided
4. The subject should be familiar and feasible so that related research
material or sources are within reach
5. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study

Formulation of the Problem


 “A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved”
 A problem must be precisely DEFINED
 Formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution
 It facilitates the working out of the research design and all the
sequential steps involved in research.
Defining a problem involves the task of laying down the boundaries within
which a researcher shall study the problem, with a predetermined
objective in view.
 The following steps are helpful:
 Statement of the Problem in a general way
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing ideas thru discussions
 Developing the research problem

An Illustration…
Statement 1: “Why is the productivity in Japan so much higher than in India?
Statement 2: “What factors are responsible for the higher labor productivity
of Japan’s manufacturing industries, during the decade 1971 to 1980,
relative to India’s manufacturing industries?”
Statement 3: “To what extent did labor productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan
exceed that of India in respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries?”

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Conclusion
The task of defining a research problem follows a sequential pattern
– the problem is stated in a general way, the ambiguities are
resolved, thinking and rethinking results in a more specific
formulation of the problem so that it may be a realistic one.

Hypothesis
 Hypothesis is a principal instrument in research
 Most research is carried out with the deliberate intention of testing
hypothesis
 Decision makers need to test hypothesis to take decisions regarding
alternate courses of action
 In Social Sciences, hypothesis testing is often used for deciding
whether a sample data offers support for certain generalizations
 Hypothesis-testing, thus, enables us to make probability statements
about population parameters

Meaning of Hypothesis
 Simply, a mere assumption to be proved or disproved
 But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to
resolve
 Definition: “A proposition or a set of propositions, set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena
asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts”
 Often hypothesis is a predictive statement capable of being tested by
scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent
variable
 Ex: students who receive counseling will show greater increase in
creativity than students not receiving counseling; or Car A is performing as
well as Car B
 In sum, hypothesis is a proposition which can be put to test to
determine its validity

Characteristics of a Hypothesis
o Should be clear and precise
o Should be capable of being tested
o Should be limited in scope and be specific
o Should be stated in simple terms
o Should state the relationship between variables
o Should be consistent with most known facts
o Should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time

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o Must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation

Basic Concepts of Hypothesis


1. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
2. The Level of Significance
3. Type I and Type II Errors

1. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

In the context of statistical analysis:


 If we are to compare Method A with Method B about its superiority and
if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then
this assumption is termed as the Null Hypothesis
 As against the above, we may think that the Method A is superior or
that the Method B is inferior, we are then stating what is termed as Alternative
Hypothesis
 Alternative Hypothesis is usually the one which we wish to prove and
the Null hypothesis is the one which we wish to disprove
 Thus, a null hypothesis represents the hypothesis we are trying to
reject, and the alternative hypothesis represents all other possibilities

2. The Level of Significance
 In the context of hypothesis-testing, the level of significance is an
important concept
 It is always some percentage (usually 5%)
 This implies that the null hypothesis will be rejected, when the
sampling result (observed evidence) has less than 0.05 probability of
occurring if the null hypothesis is true
 That is, the 5% level of significance means that the researcher is
willing to take as much as a 5% risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it
happens to be true

3. Type I and Type II Errors

Basically two types of errors are possible:


Type I Error – we may reject the null hypothesis when it is true; and
Type II Error – we may accept the null hypothesis when in fact the null
hypothesis is not true

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That is, Type I error means rejection of the hypothesis which should have
been accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which
should have been rejected

Steps in Hypothesis-testing
 To test a hypothesis means to state (on the basis of data the
researcher has collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems valid
 In hypothesis testing the main question is – whether to accept the null
hypothesis or not to accept the null hypothesis?
 Steps for hypothesis testing refer to all the steps we take for making a
choice between rejection and acceptance of the null hypothesis
1. Making a formal statement
2. Selecting a significance level
3. Deciding the distribution to use
4. Selecting a random sample
5. Calculation of the probability
6. Comparing the probability
Making a Formal Statement
 Consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis and also
the alternative hypothesis
 Ex: The average score in an aptitude test at the national level is 80. To
evaluate a state’s education system, the average score of 100 of the state’s
students selected on random basis is 75. The state wants to know if there is a
significant difference between the state’s scores and the national scores.
Hypothesis may be stated as follows:
Null hypothesis: population mean = 80
Alternative hypothesis: population mean is not equal to 80

Selecting a Significance Level


The hypothesis are tested on predetermined level of significance and should
be specified
Generally, either 5% level (0.05) or 1% level (0.01) is adopted
Deciding the distribution to use
The next step is to determine the appropriate sampling distribution
Generally, follow the principles of Normal Distribution

Selecting the Random Sample

Select the random sample and compute an appropriate value


The sample should furnish the empirical data

Calculation of the Probability


The next step is to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true
Comparing the Probability

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 The next step is to compare the probability thus calculated with the
specified value (the significance level)
 If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the significance
level, then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis);
but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept the null hypothesis

Statistical Tests of Hypothesis


Tests of hypothesis are also known as tests of significance
They are classified as:
1. Parametric Tests or Standard Tests – ex. are z-test, t-test, F-test etc.
and are based on the assumption of normality
2. Non-Parametric Tests or Distribution-free tests of hypothesis

UNIT–II: Research Design – Meaning, Purpose and Principles –Types of Research Design-
Exploratory – Descriptive – Experimental, Data Collection- Sources of Data-Methods of Data
Collection-Questionnaire Design and Pre Testing of Questionnaire.

Research Design

• A major issue in research is the preparation of the research design of the


research project
• Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means,
concerning an enquiry or a research study constitute a research design

Research Design – Definition

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of


data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure”

Is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the


blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data

More explicitly:
i. What is the study about?
ii. Why is the study being conducted?
iii. Where will the study be carried out?
iv. What type of data is required?
v. Where can the required data be found?

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vi. What period of time will the study include?
vii. What will be the sample design?
viii. What techniques of data collection will used?
ix. How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?

Research Design has the following parts:


i. The Sampling Design – which deals with the method of selecting items
to be observed for the given study
ii. The Observational Design – which relates to the conditions under which
the observations are to be made
iii. The Statistical Design – which concerns with the question of how many
items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered
are to be analyzed
iv. The Operational Design – which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out

In brief, a research design must contain:


a. A clear statement of the research problem
b. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information
c. The population to be studied
d. Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data

Research Design – Important Concepts


1. Dependent and Independent Variables
2. Extraneous Variable
3. Control
4. Confounded Relationship
5. Research Hypothesis
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing

Dependent & Independent Variables

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. Ex:
weight, height, income etc., are examples of a variable
Qualitative phenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute
Dependent variable (DV) – if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the
other variable, it is termed as a DV
And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent
variable IV

1.Dependent & Independent Variables


Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the
IV. Further, if height also depends upon the individual’s sex – then, height is the DV
and age and sex are the IVs

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2. Extraneous Variable
IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are
termed as Extraneous Variable (EV)
Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept.
Here, self-concept is an IV and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence
may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the
purpose of the study, it will be termed as an EV

Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is
attributed entirely to the IVs and not to some EV.

3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of the EV. The term “Control” is used when we design the study
minimizing the effects of extraneous variables

4. Confounded Relationship
When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV
and IV is said to be confounded by the EV

5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as a Research-Hypothesis
The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV

6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research


When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design
Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research

Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a
group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests
their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the co-efficient of correlation
between the two sets of scores – this is an example of non-experimental
hypothesis testing, because the IV, intelligence is not manipulated

But now ,suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group
of students who are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two
groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common program, and 25 to
Group B, the special program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to
each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the
students’ performance. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing
because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated.

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Types of Research Designs

1. Exploratory

2. Descriptive & Diagnostic

3. Experimental

Exploratory Research Design


• Also known as Formulative Research Design
• Main purpose – is that of formulating a problem for precise investigation or
developing hypotheses from an operational point of view
• Major Focus – discovery of new ideas and insights
• Exploratory studies must have flexibility in design to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study
Exploratory Research Design…

The following 3 methods are used:

• The survey concerning literature

• The experience survey

• The analysis of “insight-stimulating” examples

1. The Literature Survey


• The most simple and useful method of formulating the research
problem or developing a hypothesis

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• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their
usefulness evaluated as a basis for further research
• Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in one’s area of
interest for formulating the problem
• An attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories

2. Experience Survey
• Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the
problem
• The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and
new ideas relating to the research problem

3. Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples

• The method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the


phenomenon in which one is interested

• For this purpose, existing records may be examined; unstructured


interviews with experts may be conducted; etc.

II. Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Design

• Descriptive Studies are those which are concerned with


describing the characteristics of a particular individual or
of a group.

• Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration


of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are ex.'s of descriptive research studies

• Diagnostic Studies determine the frequency with which


something occurs or its association with something else

• Studies about whether certain variables are associated,


are ex.’s of diagnostic studies

The research design here must focus on the following:

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1. Formulating the objective of the study

2. Designing the methods of data collection

3. Selecting the sample

4. Collecting the data

5. Processing and analyzing the data

6. Reporting the findings

III. Hypothesis-Testing research design

• Generally known as Experimental Studies – where the


researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationships
between variables

• Such studies require procedures that not only reduce bias


and increase reliability but will permit drawing of inferences
about causality

• Prof. R A Fisher’s name is associated with experimental


designs.

• He developed certain experimental designs for testing


hypothesis

Principles of experimental designs


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The three important principles are:

1. Principle of Replication

2. Principle of Randomization

3. Principle of Local control

Principle of Replication

The experiment should be repeated more than once to


ensure that each treatment is applied in many experimental
units instead of one.

By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased

Principle of Randomization

Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors


in an experiment.

That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the


variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “chance”.

Principle of Local Control

Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability,


is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as
necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated
from the experimental error

Important Experimental Designs

There are several designs:

 Informal Experimental Designs

 Formal Experimental Designs

Informal Experimental Designs

1. Before-and-after without control design


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2. After-only with control design

3. Before-and-after with control design

Formal Experimental Designs

1. Completely Randomized design


2. Randomized block design
3. Latin Square design
4. Factorial design

Methods of Data Collection

Essentially two types:

1. Primary data – are those which are collected for the first
time and are original in character

2. Secondary data – are those which have already been


collected by someone else and which have through some
statistical analysis

Collection of Primary Data


Primary data may be collected thru:

Experiments

Surveys (sample surveys or census surveys)

Observation

Personal Interviews

Of the above, the important ones are:

1.Observation Method

2.Interview Method

3.Thru Questionnaires/Schedules

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I. Observation Method

• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method


of data collection, when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

• Under observation – the information is sought by way of


investigator’s own direct observation without asking from
the respondent

Main advantages are:

• Subjective bias is eliminated

• The information relates to what is currently happening

• This method is independent of respondent’s willingness to


respond

Main Limitations are:

 It is expensive

 The information provided by this method is very limited

 Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task

Types of Observation

Essentially two types:

1.Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

2.Participant vs. Non-participant Observation

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Structured vs. Unstructured Observation

Structured Observation – when the observation is characterized


by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation

Unstructured Observation – when it takes place without the


above characteristics

Participant vs. Non-participant


This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of
the group he is observing

II. Interview Method


The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses

Personal Interview

• PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact


with the person.
• Collecting information thru PI is structured – the use of a set of
predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of recording.
• Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure,
asking questions in a form and order prescribed
• In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of approach to
questioning
• Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions
and standardized techniques of recording information

Focused Interview – to focus attention on the given experience of the


respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of
questions to elicit/explore reasons and motives. The main task is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues

Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations


or with the course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting information is left
to the interviewer’s discretion

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Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's function is simply to encourage
the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondent’s feelings and beliefs

Advantages

1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained


2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
3. Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure questions
4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers
5. Personal information can be obtained
6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages
1. Expensive method
2. Interviewer bias
3. Respondent bias
4. Time consuming
5. Under the interview method the organization required for selecting,
training, and supervising the field staff is complex with formidable
problems
6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very
difficult
Data Collection thru Questionnaires
• Popular in major studies
• Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire.
• A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite
order on a form.
• The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space provided
Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. Low cost – even when the universe is large and is widespread
2. Free from interviewer bias
3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers
4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently
5. Large samples can be used
Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative
3. Inbuilt inflexibility
4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items
5. This method is slow
Features of a Questionnaire

22
• Questionnaire is the heart of a survey – needs to be carefully constructed
• Need to understand the features of the Questionnaire – its general form,
question sequence and question formulation and the wording of the
questions

1.General Form
• May be either structured or unstructured
• Structured Questionnaires – are those in which there are definite,
concrete, predetermined questions
 The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents
 The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open
(inviting free responses
 Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in
which responses are limited to the stated alternatives
 Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions
and answers are specified and comments in the respondents’ own words
are held to the minimum
• Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above characteristics are absent,
it is known as a unstructured Questionnaire
• The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of
information to be obtained

2.Question Sequence
 Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses
 Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of one question to the next
 To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondent –
difficult questions, personal questions etc should preferably come at the
appropriate time rather than at the beginning
3.Question Formulation & Wording
 Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous
 Questions should be impartial and unbiased
 Should be easily understood
 Should be simple (one idea at a time)
 Should be concrete
 Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
Data Collection thru Schedules
 Very similar to the Questionnaire method
 The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is
specially appointed for the purpose
 Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the questions from the
Performa in the order listed, and records the responses in the space
provided.
 Enumerators must be trained in administering the schedule

23
Other Methods of Data Collection
1. Warranty Cards
2. Distributor or Store Audits
3. Pantry Audits
4. Consumer Panels
5. Mechanical Devices
6. Depth Interviews
7. Content Analysis
8. Projective Tests

Collection of Secondary Data


Published data are available in:
1. Publications of State/Central govt.’s
2. Publications of International Bodies
3. Technical and Trade Journals
4. Books, Magazines and Newspapers
5. Reports/Publications of various organizations (banks, stock exchanges,
business houses, etc)
6. Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc
7. Public records, Historical Documents, etc

Secondary Data must possess the following characteristics:


 Reliability of data – may be tested by checking:
 Who collected the data?
 What were the sources of the data?
 Was the data collected properly?
 Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not
be necessarily suitable in another enquiry.
 Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various
terms and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature of the
original enquiry must be studied.
 Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they
are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry

24
UNIT–III: Sampling & Sampling Designs- Determination of Sample Size-Census Survey Vs
Sample Survey-Advantages of Sampling – Sampling Methods-Probability Sampling-Non
Probability Sampling.

UNIT III - Sampling Design

Census & Sample Survey


All the items in any field of inquiry constitute a “Universe” or “Population”
A complete enumeration of all items in the population is known as Census
Inquiry
Most times census inquiry is not practically possible

Sample Survey –of a few items of the population


• The respondents selected should be representative of the total
population
• The sampling process is called the sampling technique
• The survey so conducted is known as the sample survey
• The researcher must prepare a sample design for his study – that is,
how a sample should be selected and what size such a sample would
be

Steps in Sample Design


The following are crucial:
1. Type of Universe – define the set of objects, technically called the
Universe, to be studied
2. Sampling Unit – sampling unit may be a geographical one (district,
city, village) or it may be a social unit (family, club, school) or it may
an individual
3. Source List – also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which the sample
is to be drawn. It contains all items of a universe
4. Size of Sample – refers to the number of items to be selected from
the universe to constitute a sample; a major issue here is – the size
should neither be excessively large nor too small. An optimum sample
is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility
5. Budgetary Constraint – cost considerations have a major impact
upon decisions relating to the size of the sample
6. Sampling Procedure – finally, the type of sample to be used, that is,
the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. There
are several sample designs, from which the researcher can choose.

25
Criteria of Selecting a sampling Procedure

There are two costs involved in a sampling analysis – the cost of collecting
the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the
data

The researcher, therefore, must be aware of the two causes of incorrect


inferences:
a) Systematic bias
b) Sampling error
• A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures and
it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size
• Sampling Errors are the random variations in the sample estimates
around the true population. Generally, sampling errors decreases with the
increase in the size of the sample

Types of Sample Designs

All the sample designs are based on two factors – the representation
basis and the element selection technique

Representation Basis – the sample may be probability sampling or non-


probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection; non-probability sampling is “non – random” sampling.

Element Selection Basis – the sample may be either restricted or


unrestricted. Unrestricted sampling is when each element is drawn
individually from the population at large. Restricted sampling is when all
other forms of sampling are used.

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types:


1. Probability Sampling
2. Non-Probability Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

26
Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating
the probability that each item in the population has of being in included in
the sample?

Also known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment


sampling

Here, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher, that
is, purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample on the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one
will be representative of the whole.

Ex.’s – if the economic condition of people living in a state are to be studied,


a few towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on
the principle that they can be representative of the entire state.

Here, personal element (bias) has a great chance of entering into the
selection of the sample

However, if the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience – the results obtained may be tolerably reliable.

Sampling Error cannot be estimated and the element of bias is always


This is why; this design is rarely adopted in large inquiries of importance
Quota Sampling is also an example of non probability sampling. Under quota
sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the
different strata
Very convenient and inexpensive

Probability Sampling

27
Also know as Random sampling or Chance sampling

Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample

It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole
group not deliberately but by some mechanical process

It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not

The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in


terms of probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the
significance

Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that
if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have
the same composition and characteristics as the universe)

This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very


representative sample

In sum, Random sampling:


1. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting
into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another
2. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
chosen

How to select a Random Sample

28
In actual/ideal practice – the Random Sample is taken by the following
process: write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these
slips in a box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large
universes this is practically possible.

An easier method is – without taking the trouble of enlisting all possible


samples on paper slips, we can write the name of each element of a finite
population on a slip of paper, put the slip into a box and mix them
thoroughly and then draw (without looking) the required number of slips.

In doing so we must make sure that in successive drawings each of the


remaining elements of the population has the same chance of being drawn
This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible
sample
Thus, to draw a sample from a finite population is easy, with the aid of
random number tables, only when lists are available and items are readily
numbered

Complex Random Sampling Designs


Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select
every ith item on a list; an element of randomness is introduced into this kind
of a sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to
start.
Ex.’s – if a 4% sample is desired, the first item would be selected randomly
from the first 25 and thereafter every 25th item automatically be included in
the sample. Thus, in systematic sampling, only the first unit is selected
randomly and the remaining units of the sample are selected at fixed
intervals.
The merits of systematic sampling are:
 It is an improvement over simple random sampling – because the
sample is spread more evenly over the entire population
 It is easier and less expensive
 Can be used in large population
The demerits are:
 If there is a hidden periodicity in the population

Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn


does not constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in
order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is divided into
several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub
populations are called “strata”).

Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a


convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of

29
smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of
these smaller areas (called “clusters”), with the ultimate sample consisting
of all units in these clusters.

Area Sampling: if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions,


then it is better known as area sampling

Multi-stage Sampling: is a further development of the principle of cluster


sampling.
Ex. – suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized
banks in India and we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose –
the first stage is to select large primary sampling units such as States – then
we select certain districts and interview all the banks in the chosen districts.
This is two-stage sampling design

Conclusion

Normally one should resort to simple random sampling because under it,
bias is generally eliminated and the sampling error can be estimated. But
purposive sampling is more appropriate when the universe happens to be
small.
At times several methods of sampling may be used in the same study.

UNIT–IV: Data Tabulation-Analysis and Interpretation: Editing, Decoding and Classification of


Data-Preparation of Tables-Analysis of Data - Scaling Techniques - Graphic and Diagrammatic
Representation of Data.

30
Data Tabulation

• The data after collection has to be processed – processing means editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of the collected data, so that they are amenable to analysis.
• Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures, along with searching for patterns
of relationships among data groups.
• In other words, analysis of data is performed with the purpose of summarizing the
collected data and organizing these in such a manner that they answer the research question (s)

Processing Operations
The following are the processing operations:
1. Editing
2. Coding
3. Classification
4. Tabulation

Editing
• Editing is the process of examining the collected data (especially in surveys) to detect
errors and correct these where possible
• Involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires/schedules
• Editing can take place at two stages: i) field editing and ii) central editing
• Field editing consists of reviewing of the questionnaire forms by the investigator for
completing (translating or rewriting) what the respondent has written in abbreviated
and/or illegible form; should not correct the errors of omission.
• Central editing should take place when all forms/schedules have been
completed and returned
• Editors may correct the obvious errors such as an entry in the wrong place, etc

Coding
• Refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put in to a limited number of categories or classes.
• Such classes should be appropriate and have the characteristic of exhaustiveness, that is,
there must be a class for every data item; and also mutual exclusivity, meaning that a
specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set.
• Coding is necessary for efficient analysis
• Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage
• Coding is usually done by hand and the usual method is to code in the margin with a
color pencil or to transcribe the data taken from the questionnaire to a coding sheet.

31
Classification
• Classification of data is the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics
• Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in
this way the entire data gets divided into a number of groups or
classes
Classification is of two types:
1. Classification according to Attributes
2. Classification according to Class Intervals

1. Classification according to attributes –


• It is classified on basis of common characteristics which can be either descriptive
(such as literacy, sex, honesty) or numerical (like weight, height, income)
• Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon, which can’t be
measured quantitatively – only their presence or absence in an individual item can
be observed
2. Class Intervals –
• The numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be
measured thru some statistical unit – data relating to income, production, age,
weight are examples
• Such data are classified on the basis of class intervals – each group of class
interval, thus has an upper and a lower limit, known as class limits
• The difference between two classes is known as the class magnitude
• The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency

All the classes/groups, with their respective frequencies taken together and put in the form of a
table are described as group frequency distribution or simply frequency distribution

Important points to consider:


i. How many classes should be there? (typically 5 – 15 classes are usual)
ii. How to choose class limits? (normally, class limits should be located at multiples of 2, 5,
10, 20, 100, etc)
Class intervals may be stated thus:
Exclusive Type Class interval:
10 – 20
20 – 30
30 – 40
40 – 50
These are known as exclusive because, the upper limit of a class interval is excluded and
items with values less than the upper limit (but not less than the lower limit) are put in the given
interval
Inclusive Type Class interval
11 – 20
21 – 30
31 – 40
41 – 50
In the inclusive type class interval the upper interval is also included in the class interval

32
iii. How to determine the frequency of each class?
Can be done by tally sheets or mechanical devices

Tabulation
• When a mass of data has been collected, it becomes necessary to arrange it in a concise
and logical order
• Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in a compact
form, for further analysis
• Tabulation is essential for:
 It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum
 It facilitates the process of comparisons
 It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions
 It provides a basis for various statistical computations

Principles of Tabulation
1. Should have a clear, concise title, which is self explanatory
2. Should be distinctly numbered, for easy reference
3. The column headings (captions) and row headings (stubs) of the table
should be clear and brief
4. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed
directly beneath the table
5. Sources of the table must be indicated just below the table
6. Usually the columns are separated by lines, which make the table
more readable and attractive
7. Those columns whose data has to be compared should be kept side by
side. So also the percentages and/or averages – close to the data
8. It is important that all column figures be properly aligned. Decimal
points and + or minus signs should be in perfect alignment
9. Abbreviations should not be used
10. Table should be made as logical, clear, accurate as possible
11. Total of rows should normally be placed in the extreme right
column and that of the columns should be placed at the bottom
12. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be
chronological, geographical, alphabetical, etc., to facilitate
computation

33
UNIT-V: Research Analysis and Report Writing: Multiple Regression(General Linear Model),
Principals of Component Analysis, Discriminate Analysis –Factor Analysis- Types of Reports-
Contents of Report-Formats of Reports-Presentation of Reports.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY


• Mean
• Median
• Mode
Measures of Central Tendency
• These statistics provide a measure of what values lie at the center of
the distribution.
• The most common is called the MEAN or sometimes the AVERAGE (or
the EXPECTED VALUE)
• The formula for the sample mean is the sum of all values divided by
the number of observations.

Mean
Mean is used for interval (ratio) data such as income, age, wage rate and
n
test score etc.
∑ xi
x= i =1

Response Percent of respondents


Town -I Town - II
Very important 10 5
Important 30 20
Neither Imp nor unimportant 20 10
Unimportant 25 40
Very unimportant 15 25

Mean

34
Median
Median is used for ordinal or interval level of data, but not for nominal level
of Data as it requires ordering of items from Highest to lowest or vice versa.

Age in Group
(In years) No of respondents
0-20 15
20-40 32
40-60 54
60-80 30
80-100 19

Mode
Mode is used to measure the qualitative data. Since mode requires only
frequency, it can be applied to any set of data at the nominal, level of data
Discipline Frequency( No of applicants)
Engineering 210
Commerce 180
Arts 110
Science 90
Others 50
Total 640

35
Life in Hours No of Bulbs
0-20 9
20-40 17
40-60 45
60-80 46
80-100 32
100-120 18
120-140 14
140-160 10
160-180 9

Measures of dispersion or variability


• The formula for the sample variance is the sum of squared deviations
from the mean divided by the number of observations minus 1:
1 n
s =
2

n − 1 i =1
( xi − x ) 2

• The sample standard deviation (= s) is simply the square root of the


sample variance.
• The book ignores another common measure of dispersion, the
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION, which is, simply a mean-standardized
standard deviation. The coefficient of variation is the standard
deviation divided by the mean, and is thus a measure of “relative”
dispersion rather than “absolute” dispersion.
• s
C.ofV . =
x

Skewness
• Skewness tells us about whether the data is symmetric or not.
Shape of the Distribution

36
• The shape of the distribution provides information about the central
tendency and variability of measurements.
• Three common shapes of distributions are:
– Normal: bell-shaped curve; symmetrical
– Skewed: non-normal; non-symmetrical; can be positively or
negatively skewed
– Multimodal: has more than one peak (mode)

Relative Locations for Measures of Central Tendency

Karl Pearson Coefficient of Skewness is given by


Mean − Mode
Skew= σ

Bowley’s Coefficient of Skewness


(Q + Q1 − 2 Median )
Skew= 3
Q3 − Q1
• Karl Pearson Coefficient of skewness Lies between -3 and +3.
• Bowleys Coefficient of skewness lies between -1 and +1
Kurtosis
• Kurtosis refers to the degree of flatness or peakedness of a curve.
• Measures of Kurtosis
– Kurtosis is a measure of the flatness or peakedness of a
Distribution
• Normal Kurtosis - Mesokurtic
• Flat Kurtosis - Platokurtic
• Peaked Kurtosis - Leptokurtic
– A Measure of Kurtosis based on the 4th moment about

µ
2

kurt = 4
−3
µ
2

37
Correlation
Correlation tells us the degree of association between two or more variables.
The limits for correlation coefficient are -1 to +1
n∑ xy − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
r=
[n∑ x 2
][
− ( ∑ x ) * n∑ y 2 − ( ∑ y )
2 2
]
1. The annual advertising expenditure (in lakhs of rupees) and the
corresponding annual sales ( in crores of rupees) for the past ten years
of a company are presented in the table. Find the correlation
coefficient between annual advertising expenditure and annual sales.
Also test the significance of correlation coefficient at 5% L.O. S
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Annual
advertising
expenditure 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Annual Sales 20 30 37 50 56 78 89 100 120 110

Test for significance of correlation coefficient:


H0 : r = 0 H1 : r ≠ 0
r ( n − 2)
t=
Test statistic: 1− r2

Fallows t-distribution with n-2 degrees of freedom


Probable error of correlation coefficient is used to in determining the
reliability of the value of coefficient of correlation.
1 −r 2
P.E = 0.6745
n

38
If r< P.E then there is no significant relation between the variables.
If r>6( P.E) then there is significant relation between the variables.
Using probable error we can find the limits for the population correlation
coefficient by using the relation
r ± P.E

Regression
Line of regression of y on x is
Line of regression of y on x is
y = a +b x x = a +bxy y
yx

σy
y−y =r
σx
(
x−x ) x−x =r
σx
y−y( )
σy
n( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y ) n( ∑ xy ) − ( ∑ x )( ∑ y )
byx = bxy =
(
n ∑ x − (∑ x) 2
) 2
n (∑ y ) − (∑ y )
2 2

Find the lines of regression and estimate the value of y when x= 16 and
value of x when y=17
P rice (Rs) 4 6 9 10 8 12 14 10 15 12
S upply (Tonnes) 8 10 12 15 11 13 15 10 16 10
Find the line of regression of y on x for the following data
Annual sales :20 23 25 27 21 29 22 24 27 35
Sales force :8 13 8 18 23 16 10 12 14 20
Annual advert
Expenditure :28 23 38 16 20 28 23 30 26 32

Preparation of Report/Thesis
Has to prepare the report
The layout of the report is as follows:
 The prefatory part
 The Main Body/Text
 The Supplemental Part

The Prefatory Part


 Title page
 Certification
 Acknowledgments
 Preface
 Contents page

The Main Body


 Introduction
 Summary of Findings
 Main Report
39
 conclusion

The Supplemental Part


 References, or
 Bibliography
 Appendices
 Index

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA


PRESENTING RESULTS: Written and Oral Reports
Written Research Report
• Short report
– For well-defined, limited-scope problems with straight-forward
methodology
– Usually 5 or fewer pages

40
– Formats
• Findings summary (graphical or tabular) attached to letter
of transmittal
• Business letter
• Internal memorandum
• Short Report (Memorandum)
– Reason for writing
– Answer direct inquiry with specific answer and supporting detail
– Expository style with brevity and directness
– Attach detailed materials as appendices when needed
• Long report
– Technical report
– Management report

LONG REPORT COMPONENTS


• PREFATORY ITEMS
– LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
– TITLE PAGE
– AUTHORIZATION LETTER
– EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
– TABLE OF CONTENTS
• INTRODUCTION
– PROBLEM STATEMENT
– RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
– BACKGROUND
• METHODOLOGY
– SAMPLING DESIGN
– RESEARCH DESIGN
– DATA COLLECTION
– DATA ANALYSIS
– LIMITATIONS
• CONCLUSIONS
– SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS
– RECOMMENDATIONS
• APPENDICES
• BIBLIOGRAPHY
WRITTEN REPORT CONSIDERATIONS
• ORDER OF REPORT
– SENTENCE OUTLINE
– TOPIC OUTLINE
COMPREHENSIBILITY
– READABILITY INDICES
– PACE
– TONE

PRESENTATION OF STATISTICS

41
• TEXT PARAGRAPH FORMAT
• SEMI-TABULAR FORMAT
• TABULAR FORMAT
• GRAPHICAL FORMAT

GRAPHICAL FORMATS
• LINE GRAPHS
• AREA CHARTS
• PIE CHARTS
• BAR CHARTS
• PICTOGRAPHS/GEO-GRAPHICS
• 3-D GRAPHICS

ORAL PRESENTATIONS
• PREPARATION
– LENGTH
– CONTENT
– STYLE
• SCRIPTED
• EXTEMPORANEOUS
– AUDIOVISUALS
• TYPE
• ROLE
• CONTENT
– OPENING
– FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
– RECOMMENDATIONS
• DELIVERY
– VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS
– PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS
• CHALKBOARDS
• WHITEBOARDS
• HANDOUT MATERIALS
• FLIP CHARTS
• SLIDES
• OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES
• COMPUTER-DRAWN VISUALS
• COMPUTER ANIMATION

WRITING BUSINESS REPORTS AND PROPOSALS


42
Objectives
 Discuss the structure of informational reports.
 Explain the structure of analytical reports.
 List the most popular types of visuals and discuss when to use them.
 Clarify five principles of graphic design to remember when preparing
visuals.
 Identify and briefly describe five tools that writers can use in long
reports to help readers stay on track.

Deciding on Length and Format


When selecting a format, you have four options:
 Preprinted form
 Memo
 Letter
 Manuscript

Organizing Informational Reports


To arrange your material, use a topical organization such as
 Importance
 Spatial orientation
 Sequence
 Geography
 Chronology
 Category

Analytical Reports
 What are some drawbacks of using the direct approach for a research
and analysis report?
 Under what circumstances would you write a justification report?
 Under what circumstances would you write a report based on a logical
argument?

Structural Approaches for Logical Argument


 2 + 2 = 4 Approach
 Scientific method
 Yardstick approach
Preparing the Final Outline
 What is the purpose of a final outline?
 What does a final outline force you to reevaluate?
 Are outline headings important?
 The final outline gives you a visual diagram of the report.
 You reevaluate the information you have collected.
 Yes, they affect the tone of the report.
Visual Aids

43
 Clarify and simplify the text
 Depict relationships between points
 Emphasize and summarize points
 Attract and build credibility
 Reinforce understanding

“Visualizing” Information
 Decide on the message.
 Identify points requiring visual support.
 Maintain a balance between illustrations and words.
 Consider your production schedule.

Which Graphic Should You Use?


What is the best use of each of the following types of graphics?
 Tables
 Bar charts
 Pie charts
 Line charts

 Flow charts
 Maps
 Drawings
 Organization charts

Using Graphic Design Principles


 Continuity
 Emphasis
 Contrast
 Simplicity
 Experience

Fitting Graphics Into Text


 Introduce graphics in the text.
 Place them near the text they illustrate.
 Choose titles and legends that convey a message and explain the
graphic clearly.
 Match title and legend style to heading style (informative or
descriptive).
 Phrase all legends and titles consistently throughout the report.

Composing Reports -- True or False?


 All reports are written formally.
 To achieve a formal tone, use personal pronouns.

44
 By using verb tense consistently, you add to the clarity of your report.
 False, many can be informal.
 False, use impersonal words.
 True

Guiding Readers through Reports


 Start with an opening that indicates the report’s subject and
importance.
 Use headings, subheadings, and lists effectively.
 Use transitions to bind the report.
 Use preview and review sections.
 Create an ending that leaves a strong, lasting impression.

Test Your Knowledge


 What are your options for structuring an informational report?
 What are your options for structuring an analytical report?
 How does topical organization differ from logical organization?
 When is it appropriate to use tables, line charts, surface charts, and pie
charts in a report?
 What five principles apply to effective visuals for business reports?
 How does a flowchart differ from an organization chart?
 What tools can you use to help readers follow the structure and flow of
information in a long report?
 What ethical issue is raised by the use of technology to alter
photographs in reports?
 What is the purpose of adding titles and legends to visual aids in
reports?
 How do writers use transitions in reports?

COMPLETING FORMAL REPORTS AND PROPOSALS


Objectives
 List the three tasks involved in completing reports and proposals, and
briefly explain what is involved in revising them.
 Explain the prefatory parts of a formal report
 Describe four important functions of a formal report’s introduction, and
identify the possible topics it might include.

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 Discuss the four areas of specific information that must be covered in a
proposal.
 List four questions to ask when proofing visual aids.

Revising Formal Reports and Proposals


 Revise by evaluating both content and organization.
 Review for style and readability.
 Edit and rewrite your message clearly and concisely.
 Refer to Chapter 6 for more tips on revising and proofreading.

Deciding on Report Format


 Formal reports
 Can be short or long
 Can be direct or indirect
 Can be informational or analytical
 Can be external or internal
 The parts you use depend upon what type of report it is.
 For long reports, prefatory parts should have their own pages.

Components of a Formal Report


 Prefatory parts
 Text parts
 Supplementary parts

Prefatory Parts for a Report


What is contained in each of the following?
Cover Transmittal letter
Titles fly Table of contents
Title page List of illustrations
Authorization letter Executive summary
Acceptance letter Synopsis

Body of a Formal Report


 What three sections are contained in the body?
 What factors should you consider when deciding on amount of detail to
include?

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 Information, analysis, and interpretation.
 Nature of the information, the purpose of your report, and preferences
of your audience.

Final Sections of the Report Text


 Summary
 Key findings of your report
 Conclusions
 An analysis of what the findings mean
 Recommendations
 Opinions about the desired course of action

Supplementary Parts
Explain what is contained in each of the following:
 Appendix
 Bibliography
 Index

Prefatory Parts of a Proposal


 Formal proposals may have a copy of a request for proposal (RFP).
 The letter of transmittal should persuade the reader you have
something to offer.
 A synopsis or an executive summary provides a preview of your
proposal.

A Proposal’s Introduction
 Background or statement of the problem
 Overview of approach
 Scope
 Report organization

Body of a Formal Proposal


The body must cover some specific information:
 Proposed approach
 Work plan
 Statement of qualifications
 Costs
 You may want to include a summary or conclusion if you need another
opportunity for persuasion.

Proofreading Formal Reports and Proposals


 Check over textual materials.
 Check visual aids:
 Is each visual necessary?
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 Are the visuals accurate?
 Are the visuals documented?
 Are the visuals honest?

Getting Feedback
 You’ll want to get feedback from readers, even if you have to nudge
them to do so.
 Be ready for less-than-glowing reactions to your recommendations.
 Be prepared to get no response at all.
 Accept criticism graciously.

Test Your Knowledge


 What are the tasks involved in revising a report or proposal?
 What are the ten prefatory parts of a formal report?
 How do writers use an introduction in a formal report?
 What four questions do writers need to ask when checking visual aids
for a report?
 What information is included on the title page of a report?
 What is a letter of transmittal, and where is it positioned within a
report?
 How does a synopsis differ from an executive summary?
 How does the summary section of a report differ from the conclusions
section?
 What are three supplementary parts often included in formal reports?
 Why is the work plan a key component of a proposal?

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