Documenti di Didattica
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PAGE
GENERAL KILN SECTION
1 Description of Main Kiln System 04
2 Kiln Operation Priorities 05
3 Kiln System Stability 06
4 Main Parameters, Trends and Absolute Values 08
5 Main Parameters to Control and Evaluate Kiln 13
6 Variables which the Operator Cannot Control 15
7 Variables which the Operator Can Control 15
8 Kiln Limitation Factor 16
9 Kiln Operation Target 17
10 Optimization of Kiln System 18
11 List of Most Frequent Factors when Kiln Operation
Is not Satisfactory 19
12 List of Typical Kiln Operation Problems 20
13 What to Look for When Looking Inside a Kiln 21
14 Kiln Upsets 27
15 Kiln Cycling 28
16 How to Break a Cycle in a Kiln 29
Page 1 of 98
24 Loss of Section of Refractory Lining 37
25 Cooler Drive or Clinker Conveyor Stopped 37
26 Red Clinker at Cooler Discharge 38
27 Rapid Rise of Temperature in Coal System 39
28 Power Failure 40
29 A Chain Fire 42
30 Heavy Rain or Thunder Storm 43
31 Sudden High Positive Pressure 43
32 Overheated Kiln Bearing 44
33 Kiln Hazardous Conditions 44
COOLER SECTION
60 Cooler Function 76
61 Cooler Operation 77
62 Cooler Controllers 77
63 Rule on Cooler Operation 78
64 Main Sensors to Control the Cooler Operation 79
65 Particle Size of Clinker 80
66 Operation of Cooler Fans 80
67 Clinker and Air Distribution 81
COMBUSTION SECTION
68 Flame 82
69 Rules on Flame 85
70 Combustion 86
71 Heat Transfer in Rotary Kiln 89
72 Burner Pipes and Nozzles 89
73 Fuels in Cement Industry 92
74 Solid Fuels 94
75 Drying, Grinding and Firing Solid Fuels 96
76 Comparison of the Three Major Fuels 97
77 Combustion Reaction 97
Page 3 of 98
78 Non-Combustibles (Ash) 98
Wet Process
Better homogeneity of raw feed
Dust produced is approximately 15 to 20% of clinker production
Dust return to kiln by means of
Vortex at feed location (mixing problem)
Scoop near kiln discharge
Dust insulation in burning zone
Back end temperature is the main parameter to control and react on behavior of slurry through
chain system. (ring formation in chain, spillage near feed end)
High heat consumption (near 1300 kilocalories or 4676 MBtu/st), therefore there is a lower
secondary air temperature.
All other parameters are the same as a dry process kiln.
Long Dry
Feed is dry dust.
Page 4 of 98
Long residence time (up to 2 hours), so we have to take this into account when stabilizing the
kiln.
Heat consumption is approximately 920 kilocalories (3309 MBtu/st).
Natural load movement often unstable and creates “pushes”.
1. Protection of the personnel working in and around the kiln system is a basic safety rule that
must be strictly followed at all times.
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d) Burning zone
Do not over-heat; keep the raw load near end of flame.
Set a maximum amps level on kiln motor.
e) Cooler
Avoid overloaded cooler grates, cut kiln speed down to protect the cooler
grates.
Avoid high exhaust gas temperature; could damage dust filter system.
Avoid high clinker temperature; could damage the clinker evacuation circuit.
3. Quality.
To produce a well-burned clinker with good free-lime at the desired liter-weight
4. Stability.
Continuous operation should always have priority over maximum production.
Stable kiln operation is the key to long refractory life, high fuel efficiency and uniform
quality clinker.
5. Optimization.
Strive for optimum production level at the lowest possible cost.
1. Stable Feed
a) Chemical
Feed quality range should be:
+/- 0.4% in CaO
+/- 0.4% in SiO2
+/- 0.2% in Al2O3
C3S variations in clinker not to exceed +/- 3%
Page 6 of 98
Approximately 25% relative potential liquid phase in the clinker is good for kiln burning
and fuel saving.
b) Physical
Good and accurate feed rate indication.
Weigh-feeder should be linear at low, medium and high feed rate.
Good calibration by physical weight of the material should be done at every major kiln
shutdown.
Good feed and speed ratio.
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Hood pressure control is critical because it prevents the cooler variations to upset the
burning zone conditions.
Hood pressure set point should be set as close as possible to zero, while remaining
negative.
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Absolute value allows one to draw conclusions about efficiency of the kiln system and the kiln
operation.
BET trend is important for the kiln operation.
With the use of water spray in the back end, the water volume will show the reactions of the
back end temperature.
Material Temperature
Slow reaction compared to gas temperature.
In wet process kiln, material temperature is a good indication of the behavior of the material in the
chain system.
Page 9 of 98
It is often used only to detect hot spots on the kiln shell, an estimation of brick thickness, and
coating in the kiln.
On bigger charts, it gives a good indication of the burning zone temperature profile.
It is one of the fastest indications of a slowly moving ignition point in burning zone.
It is a very good indication of flame variations due to the burner pipe position, flame shape and
direction. (Good indication when adjusting flame in kiln).
Absolute value is important to detect hot spots and rings.
Trend indicates changes in the burner system, kiln speed, ignition point movement and
operating conditions which are affecting the temperature profile of the burning zone.
NOx Analyzer
Essentially it is an indication of the flame temperature. Higher is the flame temperature, the
higher will be the NOx concentration.
NOx content in the flue gases in the smoke stack originate partly from high temperature
synthesis in flame from oxygen and nitrogen.
NOx level has been measured in the range between 500 and 2000 ppm in the Lafarge group.
NOx increase with excess air and is strongly correlated to low excess air levels.
Page 10 of 98
At higher levels, i.e. 3% and greater, NOx is weakly dependent on excess air.
Correlation between burning zone temperature and NOx level is good.
NOx is generally, but not systematically correlated with the kiln drive amps. NOx gives a truer
picture of burning conditions. Kiln drive amps will change due to ring formation and
degradation, whereas NOx signal will not.
NOx correlates better with clinker liter weight than free lime.
NOx is affected by fuel changes. Natural gas flames yield the highest NOx level.
All the factors having an impact on the flame temperature will affect the NOx signal like the
following:
The secondary air temperature,
The primary air temperature,
The burning zone temperature,
Chemical composition and fineness of the fuel,
The air and fuel ratio and
The flame environment (reduced or oxidized atmosphere).
A quick decrease in the NOx signal is an indication of the burning zone temperature dropping.
A slow and even decrease on the NOx signal is an indication of a slow cooling of the burning
zone and is related to a bad material preparation from the kiln back end.
On the automatic kiln control system developed by Lafarge, the program is giving 30% of it as
evaluation of the burning zone state to the NOx signal, 55% to the kiln amps, and 15% to the
clinker temperature at the kiln outlet.
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Hood Draft
Absolute value is important and is automatically controlled at a constant value (usually looped
to cooler exhaust fan damper / fan).
It should be low as possible (to reduce in-leakage).
It is the separation between cooler and kiln and it should be always constant to avoid influences
of changes in the cooler gas flow to the kiln operation.
A poor regulation of this signal will induce variations in the kiln gas flow and could bring the kiln
into cycling.
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Variations of the under grate pressures trend are reflected by variations in the cooler grate
speed.
Under grate pressures together with cooler drive amps, should give an indication of the clinker
size.
Under grate pressure set point should be at least 5 inches (H2O) in order to get good heat
recuperation from the clinker bed in the cooler.
Oxygen Analyzer
Trend and set point value are very important.
It should be maintained as constant as possible.
It can supply indications about general kiln conditions, burning zone and back end temperature.
One of the best indications when the kiln is pushing to indicate if the push is still on or over
(related with the amount of CaO in the kiln gases).
It should be kept as low as possible when the kiln is stable, without going into CO range.
However, when using coal or coke, set point should be increased to overcome the fuel quality
variations.
Kiln Amps
It is a very good indication of the burning zone state, accurate at 80% of the time.
NOx Analyzer
Nitrogen Oxide level is related to the flame temperature than the burning zone temperature.
NOx vary all the factors that has an effect on the flame.
It is a very good indication of the burning zone state.
Fuel Flow
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It should be related to the kiln feed rate.
It should be used as the main controller for the burning zone and the kiln back end temperature.
Kiln Speed
It should be related to feed rate.
It should be set with a constant feed ratio.
Small variations of the kiln speed (1 to 3 revs) could be used to control the burning zone state.
However, kiln speed variations should be used only after the fuel flow rate has been used as the
primary controller on long wet and dry kiln.
Often if over used, speed variations in the material loading of the kiln and will lead the kiln into
a cycle.
On large temperature variations in burning zone like raw material pushes, the kiln speed must
be used with wide variations (as example 30 revs or even a complete stop) to avoid raw
materials to go in the cooler and to re-heat the burning zone.
Fan Draft
It should be related to the oxygen level, fuel flow rate and feed rate.
It is the main controller to keep the temperature profile along the kiln.
The rpm variations should be small during kiln normal operation +/- 15 rph.
During kiln pushes and kiln slow speed, large speed variations will be required to maintain the
chain gas temperature under safe limit of the chain system.
Gas Temperature
It is the main variable to control the kiln.
Page 14 of 98
It should be kept inside a certain “T” range.
It is controlled by the ID fan speed variations and the fuel rate.
Oxygen level
It is related to the ID fan speed and fuel rate.
Minimum and maximum level limits need to be established, to control combustion efficiency.
When kiln stability has been reached the O2 level should be set in auto with the ID fan speed to
lock the temperature profile of the kiln.
Hood Pressure
Control of excess air by cooler exhaust fan
Open during kiln pushes
Need to be kept stable to avoid variations in cooler to upset the burning zone
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Quality and characteristics of the raw materials
Quality of the fuel used as a example: heat value, ash content, volatile matter and moisture level
Dust quality and quantity returned to the kiln
Accuracy of the feeders
Chain system design
Accuracy and good response of all control loops and sensors of the kiln system
For these variables that he cannot control, the operator should be kept informed of any changes done
and should make sure that those variables are kept inside an acceptable range to maintain a good kiln
stabilization.
Page 16 of 98
Settings on the burner pipe and its position
Primary air settings and fuel tip velocity
Set point on cooler fans flow
Set point for the under grate pressure and the clinker bed depth in the cooler
Diameter of Kiln
Gas velocity in kiln (70 ft/sec in free section of kiln and 30 ft/sec in chain section maximum)
Heat load in front of kiln, flame erosion on kiln walls
ID Fan Capacity
Maximum fan speed and low oxygen level
Cooler Capacity
No red clinker should be present after third compartment of cooler in normal operation
Clinker discharge temperature not to exceed 170oF (80oC)
Cooler exit gas should be about 370oF (190oC)
Bed depth to allow good under grate pressure (15”) with sufficient fan capacity
Page 17 of 98
Stable kiln operation
Clinker Temperature
Not to exceed 230oF (110oC) as it could promote quality problems (false set) during the grinding process
Page 18 of 98
Operate the kiln:
With higher free lime
1) High leakage, pre-heater only into feed end seal (more than 5%)
Page 19 of 98
2) Faulty suspension results in high pre-heater outlet temperatures, thus reduces capacity (bleed
air)
3) Poor operating practices (burning techniques)
4) Reducing conditions in kiln
5) Reducing conditions in burning zone due to flame impingement with load
6) Lack of momentum at burner tip leads to long, lazy flame
7) High primary air, (30%+) due to direct firing of coal, (critical in dry process kiln)
8) High level of volatile elements in raw feed particularly chlorine
9) Systematically hot burning
10) Inadequate chain system
11) Poor cooler heat recovery due to cooler fan design
12) Poor cooler heat recovery due to excessive air flows, insufficient pressure in under grate
compartments
13) Chemically variable raw mix C3S, more than 10 points over a shift
14) Variable slurry moisture (more than 3 points)
15) Variable addition of hi-alkali or hi-volatile dust from precipitator (over a period of more than
one-half hour)
16) Erratic feed rate
17) Erratic fuel rate (wet coal)
18) High leakage into hood seal (more than 10% of combustion air)
19) Inadequate or obsolete design of equipment or facilities
20) High leakage into pre-heater and down-comer duct
21) Flame erosion on lining could create premature brick failure
22) Kiln misalignment, excessive tire clearances and other factors of shell deflection
23) Bricking techniques lead to rings not tight enough
24) Low slurry moisture
25) High slurry moisture
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1) Heat consumption higher than normal
Long dry: Higher than 3.4 MBtu/ton
Long wet: Higher than 5.2 MBtu/ton
Four stage Pre-heater: Higher than 3.1 MBtu/ton
2) Output lower than nominal and / or standard
3) Kiln is unstable and requires frequent massive shutdowns
4) Kiln is cycling spontaneously without any action of operator
5) Kiln is out of draft with output below nominal
6) Stack stinks – SO2 emissions are high
7) Mud ring in chain section on wet kiln
8) Back-spills on wet kiln
9) Burning zone rings
10) Discharge end rings
11) Snowmen in cooler
12) Frequent burning zone burnouts (brick life is less than 3 months)
13) High dust return (above 20% of clinker) causes handling problems
14) Cyclones plug-ups (four stage pre-heater)
15) Build-ups in pre-heater feed box (four stage pre-heater)
16) Cooler exhaust system seems undersized/under-designed
- Hood frequently under pressure (during pushes)
- Exhaust temperature is higher than normal
- Bleed in damper is open very often
- Frequent bag burnouts in cooler bag house
17) Red grates in the cooler all the time. Frequent grates burnouts
18) Red rivers on side of cooler
19) Under pushes, cooler speed up to maximum, yet some fans stop blowing any air (pressure
overload)
20) Kiln drive seems undersized, kicks out upon start-up after a short shutdown
This may sound somewhat elementary, but we should never forget that we are looking into an
extremely luminous source. Although filtering glasses are used, the light source is so strong that focusing
the eyes into it for too long a time could cause partial blindness. One should look no longer than one
minute at a time into the fire. If longer viewing is required, look a side for few seconds occasionally to
rest the eyes. Looking steadily too long at the flame results in the eye losing its ability to see details,
hence the need for a short rest every minute or so.
The question of what type of colored filter glass to use must be left to the operators. Burning
with a natural gas flame usually makes necessary a darker colored than oil fire would require, because of
the greater luminosity of the flame. As a rule, one should always use a glass that enables him to see
under and behind the flame. Once a certain glass has been chosen, the operators should stay with this
glass at all times in order to properly judge the burning zone conditions. How frequently should one look
into the burning zone? There is no set answer to this question. Experienced operators sometimes
become over-confident and think that it would be perfectly safe to leave the kiln alone for periods in
excess of 30 minutes. This action however, is against good burning practice. The secret of every good
operator is his ability to recognize a change in kiln condition at the time a change takes place and not
later. For this reason, a good operator will never leave a kiln too long a time unchecked. When things
are going smoothly, the kiln should be checked every half hour, with more frequent checks if
adjustments are being made. There is no such thing as operating a kiln by the instrument alone, as the
instruments do not show, for example heavier and lighter loads entering the burning zone until it is
almost too late to make the necessary adjustment.
The kiln condition can be estimated from the color observed in the hottest part of the flame.
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Appearance of burning zone
Appearance of coating
Coating should begin approximately ½ diameter of kiln size from the nose ring
Color of coating tells a great deal about the condition in burning zone as coating acts as heat
storage in burning zone
Overall thickness of coating should be between 9 and 12 inches and is dependent of the type of
raw mix
Check for ring formation near lower or upper section of the kiln
If the surface of the coating appears smooth, then the burning zone in this area is hot
If the coating appears “lumpy” then the burning zone is okay
A bare spot without coating could be due to flame erosion, thick brick or high flame
temperature in this location
Appearance of the coating falling off from the top of the kiln shell:
Large pieces: normal
Fine noodles dripping: too hot
The location where the coating pieces are falling from the top of the kiln wall, above the end of the
flame is generally where the raw load is. So whenever the raw load cannot be seen in the bottom and
behind the flame of the kiln, try to look at the top.
Page 23 of 98
Is clinker balling or fine?
Is material sticky?
Is material heavy or light?
Is material movement fast or slow?
Is material climbing low or high in the wall? (material should climb up +/- to the 10 o’clock
position in normal operation)
Appearance of material before falling in the cooler, fine or nodular
Flame appearance
Page 24 of 98
Bright or dark
White or orange yellow
Eroding the coating or the brick wall
Aiming high, low or in the center
Eroding the material load
If fuel is burning in suspension or in the material load
Position of the ignition point when coal or coke is used
The flame temperature should be as hot as possible as long as it does not create problems with the
coating and the kiln refractory. Whenever a change is made on the flame shape, a close monitoring of
the shell temperature should be done.
Coal flames
Page 25 of 98
Nose ring appearance
Check the condition of the cast-able or the refractory on the top of the nose ring if okay
Check the temperature aspect and the wear of the nose ring castings
Check if the nose ring seal is in good condition
Secondary air
Calm or upset
Dusty if the clinker is fine
Clear if clinker is balling
Foggy and white if temperature is hot
The secondary air temperature has a major influence on the flame and its shape.
Primary air
Page 26 of 98
Appearance on load during kiln jacking (sticky or normal)
Look at the sealing efficiency of the kiln back end (no suction or gases movement inside of kiln should be
observed).
When kiln is shutdown, the gases should be bottled inside of the kiln as fast as possible by closing the
kiln back end damper or its equivalent and by adjusting the hood pressure set point, slightly positive.
The procedure need to be done to avoid heat loss from the kiln to insure a slow cooling of the refractory
and avoid thermal shocks on the bricks.
KILN UPSETS
Too much liquid is formed and all temperatures are above the solid state temperature therefore no
coating is formed. Coating will be lost and this could damage the refractory.
A) Appearance the kiln could be white and hazy in front end and the clinker will be balling.
B) Appearance of the kiln could appear cold if burning is too far. The clinker could be fine (very
long burning zone).
KILN CYCLING
This is an unstable condition when the load in the kiln decreases, causing the temperature of the
burning zone to rise and forcing the operator to reduce the fuel rate. Then, the burning zone starts to
cool off in turn forcing the operator to increase the fuel rate. In severe cases, the temperature continue
Page 28 of 98
to drop, even though the fuel rate is at maximum and it become necessary to reduce the kiln speed to
slow down the entry of the feed into the burning zone. Once a kiln gets into an upset such as this, the
cycle will repeat.
Reduce feed/speed ratio by approximately 10% in order to change the material load in the kiln
(also mainly to change the material load in the chain system).
Increase the fuel flow rate by 5% above the normal setting of the current production level.
Keep the oxygen level above 2% and try to control the back end temperature variations as much
as possible by using fuel rate and ID fan variations.
Page 29 of 98
Let the kiln amps vary and do not attempt to chase them by varying the kiln speed. Just try to
control them if they get above or below the critical range by varying the fuel flow rate.
If the kiln speed need to be varied than it should be done with very small variations, in order to
avoid upsetting the material in the kiln.
If the kiln speed needs to be increased to go back to normal production level, then it should be
carried out more slowly than normal.
As you get to normal production level, fuel settings should be held above normal before returning to
normal operation settings.
Indicators:
By visual observations
Shell scanner sharp and rapid shell temperature increase to level above 850oF (450oC)
Visual observations of loose refractory bricks in the material load of the kiln or in the clinker at
the cooler discharge
Indicators:
On rush of raw feed into and beyond burning zone
“Black feed” position advanced more than ½ way under the flame
“Black-out” in burning zone
Red grates in cooler
Rapid rise in cooler grate and clinker discharge temperatures
Cooler drag-chain amperage increases rapidly
Actions to Take
First and foremost, do not wait until raw feed is in the cooler; act when the first signs of impending
problems are visible in the burning zone.
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum (or turn on auxiliary drive)
Reduce fuel and ID fan speed in accordance with standard slowdown procedures to protect the
kiln back end temperature
Reduce cooler grate drive speed (switch to manual control) to allow material in cooler more
time for cooling
Adjust cooler air flow rates to obtain maximum cooling without the hood pressure going positive
Advise all unauthorized personnel to stay clear of the firing floor, cooler and coal mill area
Indicators
Visual observations of large junks in burning zone
Sudden drop in kiln back end draft
Large drop in oxygen content of kiln exit gases
Hood pressure tending towards positive side
Sudden change in kiln drive amperage
Page 32 of 98
Possible Effects and Dangers
Overloading cooler with unburned feed
On rush of excessive amounts of feed into the burning zone
Damage to cooler drives and grates
Large pieces jamming cooler hammer crusher
Red hot clinker leaving cooler
Actions to Take
When amount of feed and ring fragments in burning zone are extremely large:
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum
Reduce fuel and ID fan speed to keep back end temperature under control
Switch cooler grate control to manual and reduce grate speed
Adjust cooler air flows to maximum flow possible, without the hood pressure going positive
Have personnel on standby to watch the cooler and the hammer crusher for possible
overloading, overheating and jamming
Indicators
Clinker balling in burning zone
Material load sausage-like
Coating dripping off the wall
Sliding molten clinker bed in burning zone
Burning zone recording temperature too high
Page 33 of 98
Cooler under grate pressure too high
Material load turning to liquid in burning zone
Very brilliant and white burning zone
Possible Actions
Reduce fuel flow rate to minimum until sausaging stops
Increase kiln speed approximately 10 rph until sausage is broken
Provide maximum air in cooler (without hood pressure going positive)
The kiln rotation to be adapted is the aspect of the material near to fall into the cooler. No liquid
material in the cooler, stop kiln rotation if needed.
Reduced primary air flow, then as soon as the objective of breaking the agglomeration is
accomplished,
Reduced the kiln and ID fan speed then increase fuel flow rate to normal operating conditions
Preventive Measures
If “sausaging” is frequent and result of easy-burning mix, have laboratory evaluate possibility of
providing a mix with less percentage of liquid content
Make more frequent, vigilant observation of the burning zone conditions
Evaluate flame position and shape to determine if thinner, longer flame is possible
Possible Reasons
Feed shortage
Combustion in exit gas
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ID fan speed too high
Kiln speed too low
Chain fire
Possible Actions
Immediately de-energize electrostatic precipitator
Immediately reduce fuel flow rate and ID fan speed to obtain less than 0.3% oxygen in exit gas
Warning: Do not cut off fuel flow rate completely as this could trigger an explosion.
Increase kiln speed and feed rate
Warn personnel to stay clear of kiln back-end
Do not open any doors in kiln back-end
Then as soon as the primary objective of bringing the kiln back-end temperature under control is
accomplished:
Return kiln control variables to normal to restore operating conditions
Check out back-end to determine if thermal damage had occurred
Preventive Measures
Do not operate kiln without feed for more than 10 minutes
Provide alarms and properly maintain kiln instrumentation to obtain warnings before the back-
end temperature gets out of maximum range
Maintain close vigilance over combustion, back-end and flow conditions during kiln starts,
shutdowns and upsets
Page 35 of 98
Indicators
Combustibles in exit gases
Oxygen in exit gas too low
Flame extinguished for poor ignition conditions
Burning zone temperature too low
Excessive fuel rates and/or insufficient kiln draft
Possible Actions
Immediately de-energize electrostatic precipitator
Immediately reduce fuel flow rate (do not shut off)
Increase ID fan speed to obtain:
a) Zero combustible in exit gas
b) Oxygen between 0.2 and a maximum of 0.5% in exit gas
After black smoke has cleared, maintain the low oxygen/zero combustibles for at least 10
minutes before restoring kiln variables to normal
Preventive Measures
Improve control over flame and firing conditions
Make frequent, vigilant observation of fuel flow rates, gas analysis, flame and kiln draft
conditions during kiln starts and upsets
Indicators
Irregular and unusual flame shape
Fragmented flame where part of flame impinges on lining near kiln discharge area
Preventive Measures
Frequent visual inspection when looking inside the kiln
Regular inspection and maintenance of burner pipe during each prolonged kiln shutdown
Improve protection (castables, air cooling) for burner pipe
Maintain primary air flow for at least 2 hours after a kiln has been shutdown or pull back the
burner pipe immediately when kiln is being shutdown
Indicators
Loose bricks in clinker bed of burning zone
Delineated (linear instead of round) red spot on kiln shell
Rapid rise in kiln shell temperature
Possible Actions
Immediately shutdown the kiln
Preventive Measures
Employ proper refractory installation methods and procedures
Make annual checks of kiln alignment and shell ovality
Have refractory manufacturer provide uniform shapes and proper expansion allowance for each
type of brick
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Avoid excessive turning when kiln is cold during shutdowns
Indicators
Cooler overloaded
Large chunks of coating in cooler
High under grate pressure
High cooler drive amps prior to drive stop
Clinker transfer chutes plugged
Possible Actions
Immediately reduce kiln speed to minimum and attempt to restart clinker belt and/or cooler
drive
If drives cannot be restarted within 5 minutes, shutdown the kiln
Note: After kiln has been shutdown, consider possibility of turning the kiln in less frequent intervals
to prevent further overloading of cooler. (Kiln still had to be rotated periodically nevertheless)
Preventive Measures
Know at what amperage the cooler drive is likely to fail and provide alarm for overload
Adjust kiln parameters (namely kiln speed) before cooler can become overloaded at the times
when heavier feed load is observed in the burning zone
Indicators
Page 38 of 98
High drag chain amps
Sudden drop in under grate pressure (grate out)
Excessively high under grate pressure (cooler overloaded)
Cooler drive amps and clinker bed depth too high
Cooler loaded with coating and ring fragments
Snowman formation at cooler inlet
Possible Actions
Immediately make a visual check of the cooler to determine reason for red-clinker discharge
If cooler grate out, shutdown kiln
If cooler overloaded, reduce kiln speed to minimum and reduce cooler grate drive speed to
allow more time for cooling
Increase air flow into cooler
Activate water spray at cooler discharge and reroute clinker to prevent damage to conveyor
belts
Preventive Measures
a) On frequent grate failures
Investigate for possible faulty grate installation methods by maintenance department
Investigate quality of grates and bolts used
b) On frequent one-sided loading of cooler bed
Investigate possible cooler design changes
Investigate possibilities for elimination of stalagmite (snowmen) formation at cooler
inlet
c) On frequent overloading of cooler due to upsets
Slow down kiln speed before raw feed enters cooler or cooler can become overloaded
(make your corrective moves before things get out of control)
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RAPID RAISE OF TEMPERATURE IN COAL SYSTEM
Possible Actions
Warning: Do not open any door in the system that could provide the oxygen for an explosion or
a more serious fire.
Inject inert gas (CO2) into coal mill inlet
Flood coal mill with kiln feed or excessive coal
Warn all personnel to stay clear of system
Stop or reduce air flow to coal mill to minimum
POWER FAILURE
Possible Actions
Immediately start auxiliary power generator and primary air fan (coal mill fan on direct fired
kilns)
Retract burner pipe and protect TV monitor in kiln hood
Start ¼ turn on kiln not later than 10 minutes after the power failure
If available, close feed-end damper manually to prevent hot gases from escaping from kiln by
natural draft
Page 41 of 98
Instructions should be given to all members of the shift for specific responsibilities during a power
failure as example:
Operator A:
Carry out safety procedures on kiln system
Start the auxiliary power system
Close kiln back end (if on auxiliary system)
Rotate the kiln
If it is raining continuously, rotate kiln as soon as possible
Protection of burner pipe (pull out of kiln
Call the power company
Operator B:
Get to main power breaker and try to reset it
Go to kiln back-end and close ID fan louvers (if they are not connected on the auxiliary drive)
If the auxiliary drive control is not remote, make kiln rotation in local
A CHAIN FIRE
Indicators
Rapid, sudden rise in intermediate and exit gas temperatures
By visual observation
Possible Actions
Warning: Under no circumstances should water be added at the feed end.
Page 42 of 98
Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum (but don’t shut fuel off completely)
At the same time, reduce ID fan speed to obtain zero combustibles and less than 0.3% oxygen
Increase kiln speed and feed rate to maximum until the back end temperature is under control
On wet process kilns, clear all personnel from firing floor
Preventive Measures
Avoid operating the kiln for more than 10 minutes when there is feed shortage
Establish and enforce maximum permissible operating limits for intermediate and/or exit gas
temperatures
Possible Actions
If storm occurs shortly after a kiln shutdown;
Jack (turn) kiln more frequently or continuously on auxiliary drive
Start auxiliary power generator in preparation for a possible power failure
Possible Reasons
ID fan failure
Large ring or build-up broken loose inside kiln
Instrumentation failure of cooler air flow, cooler stack damper, or ID fan control
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Steam explosion on wet-process kilns
Possible Actions
Immediately clear all personnel from firing floor
Immediately reduce fuel rate to minimum and increase ID fan speed
Reduce cooler air flow rates into under grate compartments
Open cooler excess air damper manually
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Type of oil to use for the bearings to be confirmed by your maintenance department
There are Three Common Techniques for Burning Clinker in a Rotary Kiln
Maintain a constant kiln speed, and vary the fuel rate to counteract the temperature changes in
the burning zone
Maintain a constant fuel rate, and vary the kiln speed to hold the burning zone temperature at
the desired label
Vary the kiln speed, the fuel rate or both to maintain the desired burning zone temperature
These techniques have one error in common. They show concern only for the burning zone
temperature.
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Unfortunately, many kiln operators think that this is good enough, reasoning that, as long as good-
clinkers are produced, what more is necessary? The fallacy of this reasoning lie in the fact that ideal
stable kiln conditions can be obtain faster and more economically when equal consideration is given to
all zones in the kiln and not the burning zone alone.
The process of clinker burning, therefore the process of rotary kiln control starts not at the place where
the feed enters the burning zone but at the point where feed enters the kiln.
The Proper Operation Technique is:
Vary the kiln speed, the fuel rate and the induced draft fan in any combination to maintain the proper
burning zone temperature and maintain a constant back-end temperature for a given rate of feed. This
technique is called; “Burning a kiln from the rear”.
By doing so, you prevent the variations instead of reacting to them when they reached the burning
zone.
If you stabilize the kiln back-end temperature you will be able most of the time to overcome the burning
zone temperature variations mainly by using the fuel input to the kiln and the ID fan speed.
In long wet and dry kilns, kiln speed variations should be avoided as much as possible in normal
operation as it create variations in the material loading of the kiln and eventually could lead to the kiln
into an upset.
If kiln speed variations is to be used, then they should be small (1 to 3 rph) keeping in mind that the
material load of the kiln will be more or less +/- 2 hours later as it will reach the burning zone, (kiln
retention time).
However, speed variations must be used on pre-calciner kilns to control the burning zone temperature
as the calcinations rate or the feed preparation is done by the fuel input on the pre-calciner burners.
The feed/speed ratio must remain constant all the time once the perfect loading of the kiln has been
found. Speed/feed ratio should not be changed to control the kiln.
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BURNING ZONE EVALUATION
The burning zone condition can be estimated from the colors observed in the hottest part of the flame.
An orange-yellow color is normal.
When looking into burning zone, one will observe a sharp color change of the lowest part of the feed
bed under the flame from dark to bright.
This point in burning zone is of great importance to the operator as it is the earliest indication when the
burning zone tends to warm up or to cool down.
In normal operation, the position of the dark feed remains stationary approximately one quarter of the
distance into the flame. This point should be used at the main indicator for evaluation of the burning
zone.
If the dark feed move further under the flame (towards the front of the kiln) the burning zone is cooling
down.
If the dark feed shifts in the direction of the kiln rear the burning zone is warming up.
The position of the dark feed can feed can move because of changes in the flame shape, the feed
loading of the kiln or if the feed to kiln is harder to burn. Any change in the position of the dark feed
must be viewed in the light of all of these influences.
The operator must be able to see the dark feed whenever he looks inside the kiln and he must regulate
the operation of the kiln so as to achieve this;
A slow shifting of the dark feed in either direction can usually be counteracted by a small change in the
fuel input rate in order to keep the feed in its proper place.
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If it become necessary to counteract the condition in which the feed has slipped too far under the flame
than the kiln speed should be varied to restore the dark feed position to the proper location.
When there is no movement (up or down) of the dark feed, and no changes were made on the kiln
speed, the fuel rate and the ID fan speed for the last 2 hours, and the back-end temperature has
remained stable than;
The kiln temperature profile should be considerately satisfactory and the kiln system stable,
Then the burning zone should be considered as set point for this kiln feed;
When the burning zone as reached this condition than the related back-end temperature, and gas chain
temperature should be considered as set point also for this kiln feed.
Whenever the operator has achieved a perfect and stable temperature profile on the kiln system, the
value of the following sensors should be taken as references set point for future operation and are:
Back-end temperature
Gas chain temperature
Material chain temperature
Kiln amps
Burning zone temperature
NOx value
And these values need to be correlated to the main controllers on the kiln which are:
The feed rate to the kiln (and the type of clinker produced)
The kiln speed
The ID fan speed
The fuel rate to kiln
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The oxygen level
References and set point for operation need to be established on each type of clinker produced and this,
at the maximum feed rate on each kiln system.
Also a copy page of the kiln operation should be taken.
With all these references, the operator has all the tools to make an optimized kiln operation.
The Burning Zone Temperature or dark load position, NOx signal, and kiln amps level which has
the dominant influence on the clinker quality
The Back-End Temperature or the gas chain temperature which are the principal controls on the
operation stability
The Percentage of Oxygen in the exit gas, which governs the combustion and the fuel efficiency
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In most conditions, except for the emergencies or upset conditions, the operator will find that these
three variables can be maintained within reasonable limits by means of adjustments of one or more of
the 3 basic controls.
The operator needs to use one or all of its three controllers to keep these variables inside their limits.
The operator must be alert and correct any out of range conditions as soon as it reaches the limits of
tolerance.
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Correction should be made promptly, but care must be exercised to avoid overreacting as this could lead
the kiln to an upset.
Because any of these variables can be within, below or above the allowable range, there are 27 possible
conditions that will be encountered by the operator.
These are shown graphically in the following figure. Note that a case number has been assigned to each
condition as an aid to identification. This chart should be used by the operators to understand the logic
of good kiln operation procedures where the Back-End Temperature, the Burning Zone Temperature
and Oxygen level were all taken in consideration in order to make a logic correction to an out of range
variable.
Kiln cannot operate in a stable condition at all times and it will eventually get colder.
Sometimes heavy rush of feed might end up too far under the flame (halfway under the flame).
Operator must then decide if he will be able to control the heavy feed load only by increasing the fuel
flow, or if he needs to reduce the kiln speed.
The determinant factors to be considered are the oxygen level, back-end temperature, movement of the
feed rush, and conditions in the cooler.
Assuming that it is impossible to maintain the same kiln speed, the operator must determine how much
the kiln speed can be slowed down depending on the magnitude of the push.
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Only experience can tell the operator how much the kiln has to be slowed down.
When in doubt, the kiln speed reduction should be greater than required. This will help to
overcome the problem faster.
Never allow the raw, unburned feed to enter into the cooler, even if it means that the kiln must
be stopped and rotated on ¼ turn or the auxiliary drive.
As soon as the kiln has been slowed down, the operator must;
Try to keep the back-end temperature within acceptable limits variation (i.e. 75 to 100oF).
Cut down the fuel flow to maintain the oxygen level above 0.5% and to keep back-end
temperature inside the limit range.
Evaluate the cooler conditions, grate speed, grate temperature, inlet temperature of gravel bed
collection system and secondary air temperature.
Often, the cooler will have to be switched on manual mode to protect it to become overheated
as often regulation of cooler are made for small variations only.
As the kiln is on slow speed, it is necessary to determine when the speed can be increased back again.
In that case, the oxygen level is the main factor to look at.
Try to keep the same values on the fuel flow and ID fan speed in order to observe the O2 variations.
When O2 level increases, the burning zone is warming up.
As soon as the oxygen level start to increase, increase the kiln speed slowly i.e. +/- 3 rph if the
burning zone is still dark and very dusty.
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Observe the reaction of the O2 level if it keeps on raising.
If so, increase kiln speed by 3 rph at every 10 minutes, and keep on increasing as long as the
oxygen level does not drop.
Keep fuel flow always one step ahead of normal operation level, (i.e. when rotation speed is at
24 revs, set fuel flow for 27 revs), and ID fan speed accordingly.
Stop increasing kiln speed approximately 1 ½ to 2 hours after initial slow speed in order to
overcome any upset in the material load of the kiln created by the speed variation.
Restart increase the kiln speed after reception of material from slowdown is over.
Kiln speed increase should be reduced around 80 revs as we are getting near full production (i.e.
2 revs at every 20 minutes).
When full production has been reached (i.e. 85 revs) the fuel flow must be kept one step higher
than normal for at least 2 more hours, and then it must be cut down slowly following the normal
operating procedures to get the load at the end of the flame again.
A slowdown made in time and at proper speed will requires about 20 minutes before to restart to
increase the kiln speed again (as O2 start to go back up).
Usually, the kiln should be back in full production about 4 hours after the slowdown was made.
Slowdown Example:
Check:
Visual inspection of burning zone, look for dark load
Oxygen level and trend
Back-end temperature and trend
Kiln amps and trend
NOx signal and trend
Kiln speed
Kiln feed indicator
Secondary air temperature and trend
Clinker load on grate in cooler
Cooler fans under grate pressure
Kiln draft and hood pressure
Gravel bed filter or DC temperature
Water spray and precipitator
Then an evaluation of the kiln and burning zone state need to be done in order to compare actual
settings with the target value and limit ranges established before.
Wait at least 30 minutes before changing any values, unless there is an emergency condition in order to
evaluate if the kiln is warming up, cooling down or stable.
PLAN OF ACTION
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If the burning zone is hot (not drastically hot) and the kiln is stable
Decrease fuel flow by 3%
Then decrease ID fan speed to keep the same O2 level
Wait approximately 20 min (retention time of the burning zone) to see the reaction of your
move
Then repeat the same procedure again or stay there if dark load is moving in position or if the kiln amps
are dropping.
This procedure should be done on each shift in order to get the best kiln condition and the best heat
consumption possible at all times.
Whenever the dark load, the kiln amps and the kiln back-end temperature are back inside their target
range, then the 27 conditions procedures should be done again to maintain the kiln back-end and the
burning zone temperature on set point and the kiln temperature profile stable.
When the perfect temperature profile balance has been reached, we can eventually set the oxygen level
on automatic (looped to the ID fan speed). This will allow the gas flow in the kiln to be constant and will
help to maintain the kiln system stability.
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Theoretically speaking, as we reach this situation, no more moves on the fuel rate, feed rate and kiln
speed need to be done and the kiln should remain in balance until an upset on the material load or a mix
change creates an upset again.
So the oxygen level control should be set on automatic whenever the temperature profile in kiln is
satisfactory. Every time this is not so or the kiln is slightly upset, the oxygen should remain in manual
and used to establish a good temperature profile inside the kiln.
KILN PREHEAT
General Information:
The pre-heat period last around 12 hours. A minimum of 8 to 12 hours is necessary
The reference temperature during this period should be the kiln feed end temperature
The target temperature should be approximately 300oC or 575oF at the precipitator inlet
Start kiln rotation (1/4 turn) 2 hours after flame on
After make ¼ turn every 30 minutes until the end of pre-heat period
First Period:
For 12 hours with gas flow of 13 m3/min or 450 ft3/min
Do not exceed 170oC or 340oF at the filter inlet during this period
Two hours after the flame on, make ¼ turn every 30 minutes during the balance of this period
Second Period
For 12 hours, increase the precipitator inlet temperature so it could reach 230oC or 450oF
Make ¼ turn every 30 minutes during this period
Third Period:
For 12 hours, increase the precipitator inlet temperature to reach 300oC or 575oF
Make ¼ turn every 30 minutes during this period
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HEATING (To reach temperature ready to put feed on)
General Information:
The reference temperature is the gas chain inlet temperature
The target temperature should be approximately 40oC or 105oF lower than the normal operation
temperature
The rate of increase of the temperature should be approximately 50oC or 125oF per hour
The temperature increase per hour should be done according to the following:
Length of refractory installed;
Complete kiln: 35oC or 100oF per hour increase
Repaired burning zone: 50oC or 125oF per hour increase
The cooler system is usually down, leaving only the nose ring fan and the primary air fan running
During this period, it is most important to keep the greasing system on the kiln drive running
As soon as the kiln is running continuously, start cooling fans on the burning zone
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Heating rate in large diameter kiln (>14’) should not be higher than 50oC or 125oF per hour to
allow both tire and shell to expand at proper rate
The larger the diameter of the kiln, the more care has to be taken to get it running
FEED ON KILN
General Information:
Feed rate is approximately 50% of normal feed rate
Feed rate increase of about 5 tons every hour
Kiln speed should be maintained at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs until the material reaches the burning
zone (to get material in burning zone quick)
Target for chain inlet temperature; 800oC (1472oF) or 40oC (100oF) below normal operation
temperature
Set ID fan speed to maintain about 3% the oxygen level
Start high voltage on precipitator
Start remaining items on cooler system (all cooler fans with dampers set as required)
Maintain those settings until the start-up reactions occurs (push should take +/- 2 hours)
In order to promote good coating formation in the burning zone, stabilize the kiln at 1.1 rpm or
66 revs at about 70 tph for 24 hours
After this period, take the kiln up to optimum operation level with normal operation procedures
Preparations:
72 hours before light-up, call the gas company to tell them the date and the hour of the light-up
4 hours before light-up, make dry run on all equipment
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Check burner pipe and its installation
Center the burner pipe, or adjust 1” down and 1” towards the load (make marks outside the kiln
for the burner pipe position reference)
Check fuel on auxiliary drive
Take locks off on kiln equipment sets
Take off wood shims on kiln rollers
Pre-heat:
Start kiln section on CRT
Open one side of precipitator (outlet and inlet damper)
Start the dust handling on the side of the precipitator in service, with the dust on ground to
avoid plugging the circuit
Start-up ID fan at 125 rpm or minimum speed, damper closed
Open ID fan damper at 10%
Start primary air fan, damper closed
Install a torch under burner pipe
Set natural gas in control room at 13 m3/min or 450 ft3/min
Open manual gas on gas line
Open supervisory cock valve near burner pipe
Adjust primary air, primary and secondary gas and ID fan to get the best flame
One hour after, start nose ring fan and make no kiln rotation for the first 2 hours
The pre-heating period should last around 12 hours. A minimum of 8 to 10 hours is necessary. The
temperature at the inlet of the precipitator must reach 300oC or 575oF.
Special pre-heating after castable has been installed near the burning zone
First Period:
For 12 hours with gas flow of 13 m3/min or 450 ft3/min
No kiln rotation for the first 2 hours
Kiln rotation at ¼ turn every 30 minutes after 2 hours
Try not exceed 170oC or 340oF at the filter inlet during this period
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Second Period
For 12 hours, increase the back-end temperature so it could reach 230oC or 450oF
Make ¼ turn every 30 minutes during this period
Third Period:
For 12 hours, increase the back-end temperature to reach 300oC or 575oF
Make ¼ turn every 30 minutes during this period
HEATING-UP
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FEED ON
Start:
Kiln feed at 45 tons/hr
Kiln speed at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs
Increase;
Kiln feed at 5 tons per hour
Fuel rate and ID fan speed accordingly (maintain fuel rate 1 step ahead of normal operation)
Stabilize the kiln at 1.1 rpm or 66 revs/hr at about 70 tph feed rate for 2 hours to promote good coating
conditions in burning zone
When increasing kiln feed, adjust the pressure and fan flow on cooler fans
When there is a good load in the cooler put the cooler on regulation
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Turn at 0.7 rpm or 43 revs/hr until 15 minutes before putting feed on
Turn at 1.0 rpm or 60 revs/hr 15 minutes before feed on
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Wait at this setting to receive the material and then increase slowly like normal procedures but always
maintain on fuel and ID fan speed settings one step ahead.
During this period, the nose ring fan is on.
The primary air fan is on with normal setting.
The cooler fans #1 and #2 on cooler are running.
Grates, clinker circuit and gravel bed filter are running.
Guidelines:
For a shutdown less than 5 hours, warm-up period should be around 1.5 to 2 hours.
For a shutdown between 5 to 12 hours, warm-up period should be around 4 hours.
Start-up speed is related to the gas chain temperature of the kiln and burning zone aspect.
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This procedure is to be developed in order to restart a kiln faster and having less perturbation in the
material load of the kiln (long dry and wet kilns).
There are many reasons why kiln must be shutdown periodically and in most cases, the operator must
decide when an immediate unscheduled shutdown of the kiln system is required. There is often not
enough time available in such situation to weigh or discuss the merits of a shutdown because a few
minutes of delay could lead to major equipment damage.
So clearly, an operator should be fully trained in what to do and what to do if such situation occurs.
Written standard procedures to cover these situations should be at the disposal of the operators to
allow them to review those procedures periodically.
COOLING PROCEDURES
The ID fan;
Should be shutdown immediately as soon as fire is cut off
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Should not be used for forced cooling at least for the first 12 hours after kiln shutdown
This is an absolute must on long dry and wet process kilns equipped with internal heat
exchangers such as chain
The ID fan inlet damper should also be closed completely for at least 12 hours
Hood Pressure:
Flow adjustments on the cooler fans have to be made to avoid the kiln hood to get on to high
pressure
The hood pressure set point should be set slightly on the positive side to prevent air from
burning zone to escape through the cooler exhaust fan
The kiln must be rotated on a regular schedule to insure uniform cooling, as the feed bed and the
refractory underneath it, take more time to cool down than the refractory wall exposed to the kiln
gases.
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If it is Raining,
Continuous rotation should be done on the auxiliary drive or on main drive at minimum speed
Then:
Maintain continuous rotation at 0.6 rpm or 36 revs during 30 minutes (flame is off)
Maintain continuous rotation at 0.5 rpm or 30 revs during 2.5 hours
Maintain continuous rotation at 0.4 rpm or 24 revs during 1 hour
Maintain continuous rotation at minimum speed on auxiliary drive for 1 hour
Then:
If it is raining, continuous rotation should be done on the auxiliary drive or at minimum speed on main
drive.
The burner pipe must be protected as the hood and the kiln discharge area remains at high temperature
for several hours after the fire has been cut off.
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Some kilns are equipped with movable burner pipes to allow partial or full retraction of the burner.
Others have to rely on primary air fan to provide necessary cooling of the burner.
Primary air fan and nose ring fan should be running at least 10 hours after the flame has been cut off.
Emptying the feed from the kiln takes special skills and experience. It could be very dangerous and could
result directly in overheating conditions either at the back-end of the kiln, the burning zone, or the
cooler. So called “chain and coal mill fires” have occurred as direct result of attempting to burn out a
kiln.
Therefore, burning out a kiln is far too risky and should never be attempted.
As soon as the feed is cut off, the flame should be cut off.
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Time (+ 4minutes) Close ID fan louvers slowly, or equivalent equipment
Adjust cooler fans to keep hood pressure slightly positive
Stop water spray system or any water system at back-end
Time (+ 10 minutes) Close main damper on precipitator, (line 1 & 2) or any equivalent
equipment
Keep the extraction of the dust system running
Keep nose ring fan running
Time (+ 15 minutes) Retract burner from kiln hood if possible if not keep primary air fan
running for cooling
Time (+ 1 hour) Reduce cooler fans #1, #2 and #3 to 25% of normal flow
Reduce other fans according to gravel bed filter inlet temperature or
other de-dusting system
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Readjust air flows under cooler
If possible, stop last fan according to filter inlet temperature
Time (+ 10 hours) Stop nose ring fan and primary air fan
Time (+ 12 hours) Make ¼ turn every hour
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Time (+ 22 hours) Start ID fan a few seconds
Open ID fan at 75%
COOLER
FUNCTION
a) The main function of the cooler is to recuperate the heat contained in the clinker coming from
the kiln as heat recovery from secondary, tertiary and to coal mill air is important for kiln
efficiency and fuel saving.
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b) The cooler must also lower the temperature of the clinker before it leaves so it can be safely
transported to the storage area
c) The clinker breaker at the cooler outlet reduce the clinker size so it can be transported on the
conveyor system
COOLER OPERATION
Cooling of the clinker material is accomplished by forcing ambient air upward through the material as it
is being conveyed through the length of the cooler by reciprocating action of the grates.
The clinker cooler is divided into two major areas, which are separated by the grate line. They are the
over grate area where the clinker is cooled down and where the hot gases are handled and the under
grate compartment where cooling air is blown into the system.
The grate line consists of many perforated grate plates arranged in overlapping rows. The alternate rows
are movable and are connected to a wheel mounted frame which is moved back and forth on its tracks
by a crank type drive that drives the grates their reciprocating motion. See figures 2 to 6.
In normal operation, the cooler is running in auto to keep a constant under grate pressure and air flow
under the second compartment in order to control the secondary air temperature.
However under upset conditions, the cooler must be switched on manual.
COOLER CONTROLLERS
In normal operation:
The speed of the grate change the residence time of the clinker inside the cooler (to control the
cooling rate of the clinker and to protect the grate to get overheated)
The air flow distribution under each compartment to maintain good heat recuperation and good
cooling of the clinker
In case of emergency: (such as a badly overheated cooler condition, the operator must always)
Decrease the kiln speed in order to reduce the clinker input to the cooler and control the heat
input
OPERATION OBJECTIVES
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To keep as much as possible:
The clinker temperature at the cooler discharge as low as possible (high temperature could
damage the clinker transport system)
The secondary air temperature as stable and as high as possible to get the best recuperation
from the clinker and improve the fuel efficiency of the kiln
To keep the depth of the clinker bed near 15” water gage in order to get good heat recuperation
from the clinker in cooler (according to fan capacity)
To keep the hood pressure always slightly negative
To set the cooler fans flow in such away to have enough capacity to get air through the clinker
bed and to insure proper cooling of the grates and the clinker load inside the cooler
Cooler settings should be such that bed grates, cooler drive unit, clinker crusher, cooler wall and clinker
conveyors system cannot become overheated.
A fundamental rule on grate cooler is to never permit raw feed or extremely fine clinker to enter the
cooler as the cooler can become overheated and damage.
During kiln pushes, lower the kiln speed in order to reduce fine clinker input in the cooler.
Never run the kiln with positive pressure as this result in troubled kiln operating conditions as:
Fine clinker in nose ring resulting to wear of kiln seal
Viewing in kiln is unpleasant and unsafe
Could damage the optical equipment and the TV camera
Formation of rings and “snowmen” in cooler inlet can be attributed to positive pressure
Exception: One exception to this rule if ever very high temperature in cooler and if needed to introduce
sufficient air in cooler.
MAIN SENSORS
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The Main Sensors to Control the Cooler Operations are:
The fans flow for each compartment
The under grate pressures under grate #1 and #2
The secondary air temperature
The grate speed under grate #1 and #2
The clinker discharge temperature at the cooler outlet
Hood Draft
Control by regulation the excess air inside the cooler by the cooler exhaust fan damper
It maintains a constant pressure in front of the kiln
A good hood pressure regulation is important for the burning zone stability
A critical factor in under grate reaction is the average particle size of the clinker in the cooler.
A fine clinker bed impose more resistance against air flow, when the under grate pressure
increase, the fan has to use more force to push the air through this kind of bed
Then the under grate pressure increase when the clinker gets finer because the smaller particles
impede the air flow through the bed
Therefore, the airflow rate is increased to restore the normal flow through the bed and the
clinker bed can become fluidized
A fluidized clinker bed is highly undesirable and dangerous, because the bed in such a state does
not move along properly in the cooler
On horizontal grate, the clinker tend to remain stationary and tend to build on top of the grates
and when sufficient weight has been acquired by the bed, it starts to move again
So the clinker cannot be properly cooled down and could choke off the airflow through the bed
The air volume for cooler fans is most commonly carried out by means of fan outlet damper.
The fan speed is constant so it is necessary to change the position of the damper to reduce or to
increase the air moved by the fan.
Fan damper is normally open at 60% as necessary leeway is required to increase air flow.
Maximum air flow is when the fan damper reached about 88% open.
The air volume output is directly related to the under grate pressure.
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The fan must have sufficient capacity to provide necessary amount of air at maximum under
grate pressure.
The maximum operating under grate pressure needs to take into account the cooler fans
capacity.
Flow rate for each fan and under grate pressure set point need to be set on for a good cooler
operation.
The fan manufacturers provide performance curve for each compartment fan.
For proper cooling, it is essential that clinker is evenly spread over the width of the cooler so that the
bed offers a uniform resistance of the air passage through its width.
When clinker passes to one side of the cooler leaving a thinner bed on the other side, the air will
naturally seek a passage through the bed where it offers the least resistance.
So air passes through bed where it is least needed and little air passes where it is needed most.
Formation of “snowmen” at the cooler inlet is the prime cause of this condition.
Various devices as dead grate, spreaders or grate with their own air supply to spread the clinker
rapidly over the width of the cooler inlet are used to fight “snowmen” formation.
For proper air distribution and good cooler regulation, no air should freely pass from one cooler
compartment to another through leaks or other opening on the compartment walls.
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The under grate pressure is usually set that the highest pressure is found in the first
compartment, and the lowest in the last compartment.
Guideline:
In cooler normal operation, no red clinker should be seen passing the third compartment.
COMBUSTION SECTION
FLAME
A flame is a stream of gases at extremely high temperature (around 3500oF or 1930oC) where the
reactions of combustion of the fuel with secondary and primary air are taking place. Anything exposed
to such a flame is bound to receive heat from it.
Flame Evaluation
Should always be evaluated during stable kiln condition
Flame Length
Could refer to the distance between the burner tip and the end of the flame which is a total
flame length
It could also refer to a distance between the point where ignition of the fuel start and where the
reaction of fuel combustion ends
It is desirable to operate a kiln with the flame as short as possible, as long as it will not create
problem in front of the kiln, hood, nose ring and refractory (Figure #1)
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Flame Shape
Could be long and “lazy” as heat is released over a relatively long distance (example A)
Could be “snappy” as heat is released over a shorter distance (example C)
Flame Direction
The flame path is not a straight line
The flame has a tendency of lift upward toward the top resulting in uneven entrance of
secondary air, or mechanical condition of the primary air pipe nozzle
A good direction target for the flame could be 2A or 2B in Figure # 2, or one inch down center
line and one inch towards the material load
Flame Target
Ignition as quick as possible
Highest flame temperature as possible
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Length as short as possible
As constant as possible
Primary air flow minimum to carry fuel in kiln
All above combined in such a way for not making erosion and direct contact of the flame on the
refractory
Flame Adjustment
Rules on Flames
a) When the primary air pipe nozzle has accidentally been warped, resulting in an erratic flame
shape and direction, immediate steps should be taken to repair this condition
b) A flame should never be allowed to impinge upon the coating or bare refractory for a prolong
length of time
c) A flame should never be allowed to strike too hard upon the feed bed
d) Oil burners or gas burners should be centered well in the primary air pipe in order that an even
envelopment of air around the fuel jet takes place
e) Flame direction should be adjusted only when the kiln is in stable operating conditions and the
temperatures, fuel pressures, and air flow rates are at normal level. Flame direction changes can
be caused by unusual operating conditions. If any attempt were made to adjust the flame at
such a time, there will most likely be an undesirable flame once the kiln returns to normal
operating conditions again
f) It is better to make the desired adjustments in flame direction in several small steps instead of a
large one in order that the operating stability of the kiln is not affected adversely
g) Once the ideal flame direction has been obtained, the primary air pipe position should not be
changed unless a definite reason (such as to combat a ring formation or hot shell conditions)
makes it desirable
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h) To protect the primary air pipe from possible damage during a shutdown, a certain amount of
primary air flow must be maintained until the temperature inside the kiln is low enough
(approximately 600oF or 315oC) that the pipe cannot be damaged. Upon power failure when
primary air fan stops, the primary air pipe must be immediately removed from the burner hood.
COMBUSTION
What is combustion?
Rapid combination of oxygen with fuel resulting into heat
Fuels contains,
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulfur
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Excess of Air (Oxidizing Conditions)
Complete combustion
Flame temperature decreases with increasing air, lower fuel economy
Recommended back-end oxygen is 1.0 to 1.5%
Combustion Gases:
Carbon monoxide (CO) with incomplete combustion
Carbon dioxide (CO2) with complete combustion
Water vapor (H2O)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Nitrogen (N2) from air
Excess oxygen (O2)
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(Ignition continues without any external source of heat)
At this point:
Heat from Reaction > Heat Lost to Surroundings
Fixed carbon:* 400 – 450oC or, 752 – 842oF
Volatile Matter: 500 – 600oC or, 932 – 1112oF
C & H (methane): 632oC or, 1170oF
Coke: +/- 800oC or, 1472oF
Fuel oil: 200 – 300oC or, 392 – 572oF
* can be considered ignition temperature of coal
Convection
Gas to Material
Gas to Wall
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Fuel characteristics
Primary air and secondary air
The burner design
Single Circuit
Control is minimal
High velocity requires high fan pressure
Results in more wear
Two Circuits
Swirl + high velocity transport air
Additional control due to swirl
High fan pressure, high wear rate
Three Circuits
Swirl + high velocity axial
Low velocity transport air
More versatile
Ejection Velocities
Gaseous and liquid fuels (with atomizing fluid)
Sonic range: 330 m/s (1083 ft/s)
Solid fuels
Single circuit: 50–80 m/s (164–263 ft/s)
Multiple circuits: 80–170 m/s (262–558 ft/s) for axial
50–90 m/s (164–295 ft/s) for swirl
20–50 m/s (65–164 ft/s) for transport
Minimum Velocities
Required to prevent solid fuel accumulation, 20 m/s (66 ft/s) in transport line and in axial $ swirl
annulus if these streams carry any fuel dust
Knowing the minimum flow rates, the pipe sizes can be determined.
Back Pressure
Typical values for a three-circuit burner;
700 – 1000 mmH2O for axial air
150 – 600 mmH2O for swirl air
600 – 1000 mmH2O for transport air
(up to 1200 mmH2O for modified three-circuit burner)
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Specific Impulse
Typically, 4 to 8 N/Gcal/h
Definition
Sp. impulse = Impulse (Newton)
Heat input (Gcal/h)
Solid Fuels:
Coal
Coal tailings
Petroleum coke (fluid, delayed)
Wood
Tires
Municipal waste, etc.
Liquid Fuels:
Oil (bunker C)
Liquid waste
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Coal slurry, etc.
Gaseous Fuels:
Natural gas (95% methane)
Landfill gases, etc.
Heating Value
Quantity of heat generated from 1 unit (kg, lb, ton, m3, liter) of fuel
Measured in kcal/kg, Btu/lb, MJ/ton, MJ/m3, kcal/liter
Can be approximated from the fuel composition
The difference between HHV and LLV depends upon the hydrogen content of the fuel.
LHV = HHV - 92.7 x % H2 (Btu/lb)
HHV LHV
Fuel %H
Btu/lb Btu/lb (% of HHV)
Coal 5 12,000 11,540 (96%)
Coke 4 14,000 13,630 (97%)
Waste fuel 10 9,000 8,070 (90%)
Fuel oil 10 19,000 18,070 (95%)
Natural gas 25 23,300 20,680 (90%)
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SOLID FUELS
Coal, oil, gas and in recent years, petroleum coke are the main fuels used in cement kilns.
Coals are judged on what is called an proximate analysis which tells the percentage moisture, volatile
matter, fixed carbon, ash, sulfur, and heat value.
Coal is very complicated in structure, containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur in
various stages of combinations.
With the application of heat, these substances from various combustible gases are classed as volatile
matter. It is the first constituent of the coal to be liberated on heating.
The carbon that remains after the volatile matter is driven off is called fixed carbon.
Combustion is the chemical combination of oxygen with certain elements of the fuel to form compounds
with the release of heat. See figure below.
This is the temperature to which it must be raised before chemical combinations with oxygen or
combustion will take place.
These combinations liberate definite amounts of heat depending on the elements entering into the
combinations.
The principal combustible elements in coal are carbon and hydrogen. Any sulfur present is also
combustible, but is of minor importance from a heat standpoint.
The chief non-combustible elements in coal are silica, alumina and iron which form the ash.
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Bomb Calorimeter
The heat value of coal can be determined by using the bomb calorimeter. A precise amount of dry coal is
fired in an oxygen atmosphere in a sealed container which is immersed in a water bath. The change in
temperature of the water is measured and knowing the specific heat of water (1.0 Btu/lbm*oF) the heat
content of the coal is determined.
Ash
Residue remaining after the fuel has been burnt.
Composed of compounds of silicon, aluminum, iron and calcium
Also some traces of Mg, Na, K and Ti.
Proximate Analysis
Determination of VM, FC, ash and moisture
Used for quick, preliminary appraisal of solid fuel
Ultimate Analysis
Quantitative determination of moisture, C, H, S, O and N
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DRYING, GRINDING AND FIRING SOLID FUELS
Liquid Fuels
Essentially composed of C, H, and S
Evaporation at 200-300oC or 572oF
Atomization promotes evaporation
Classified according to:
Viscosity (measure of internal friction)
Specific gravity
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Heating value
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas most commonly used (95% methane)
No preparation required for firing
Minimum ignition temperature (+/- 650oC or 1200oF)
Very little primary air is required
Injected at high pressure (i.e. high tip velocity) to promote turbulence
COMBUSTION REACTIONS
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Non-Combustibles (Ash)
It must be treated as a raw material in raw mix
Silica (SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Iron (Fe2O3)
BASIC PRINCIPLES
SYSTEM OF UNITS
The fundamental quantities to be measured are;
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
All other quantities that need to be measured can be expressed in terms of above quantities.
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