DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELECTRONIC PROJECT BOARD

BY

OMOKUNGBE OLUWATOBI.S

03052372

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR

OF SCIENCE DEGREE

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

IBOGUN

OGUN STATE

MAY 2008

APPROVAL PAGE
7
This project has been submitted as meeting the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of
Science (BSc) degree in Electrical/ Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, College of
Engineering and Technology, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun, Ogun state, Nigeria.

Supervisor
Name: - Engr. M.B Olajide
Signature ...............................................................
Date .......................................................................

H.O.D
Name: - Dr J. O Oni
Signature ...............................................................
Date .......................................................................

External Examiner
Name .....................................................................
Signature ...............................................................
Date .......................................................................

DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to almighty God the eternal king of Glory, the king of kings, the I am that I
am and the omnipotent.

8
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special praises to the almighty God, for his ever sufficient grace and mercy throughout the course
of this project.

9
Special thanks to our HOD, Engr J.O. Oni, my supervisor Engr. M.B Olajide and other lecturers of
the department.

I acknowledge the colossal support and encouragement received from my family members, loved
ones and friends and I must confess that I am grateful for your love and support through out the
course of this project.

ABSTRACT
An electronic project board, on which various electronic circuits could be tested, has been
designed and constructed. This device comes with an 18w audio amplifier (for audio signal
testing), and a function generator (that produces saw tooth, sine and square waveform) with
variable frequencies. The project board has AC and DC power supplies with short circuit
protection. The power supplies includes variable DC power supply with 2 to 28v output voltage, a
regulated ±5v to ±25v dc supply (no load to full load) with maximum of current rating of 3.15
amps and the A.C part of the power was taken directly from the secondary winding of the
transformer leaving it with several taps.

10
It also comprises of a solder-less breadboard with interconnected nickel plated tie points. Hence,
these high number of tee points gives the breadboard enough space to accommodate complex
circuits.

It accepts an input voltage of 220V a.c from the main source, it also comes with a switch control
and fuse protection. The designed project board finds usefulness in tertiary institutions and for
domestic purposes, especially for students. The major accessories of this design are the LM 386
(low power audio amplifier IC), TL082 (dual JFET input operational amplifier) for the signal
generator circuit , linear voltage regulators, resistors, diodes and capacitors, jack plugs, flexible
cables, bread board, analog/digital Multimeter.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approval….………………………………………………………………………………. I
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….......II
Acknowledgement………………………………………………………….…………... III
Abstract……………………………….……………………………………………….... IV
CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION
1.1 Project definition………………………………………………………………….1
1.2 Types of electronic project board…………………………………………………1
1.3 Statement of problem……………………………………………………………...4
1.4 Scope of project…………………………………………………………………...4
1.5 Aims and Objectives of the project……………………………………………….4
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1.6 Limitations of the project…………………………………………………………5
CHAPTER TWO- LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Typical electronic project board………………………………………………….8
2.2 Project model……………………………………………………………………10
2.3 Function generator………………………………………………………………10
2.4 Audio amplifier………………………………………………………………….17
2.5 Power supply…………………………………………………………………….20
2.6 DC power units………………………………………………………………….21
CHAPTER THREE- DESIGN ANALYSIS
3.1 Power supply section……………………………………………………………31
3.2 Function generator section……………………………………………………...40
3.3 Audio amplifier section…………………………………………………………44
CHAPTER FOUR- TESTING AND CASING
4.1 Testing…………………………………………………………………………..46
4.2 Casing…………………………………………………………………………...48
CHAPTER FIVE- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………50
5.2 Recommendation………………………………………………………………..50
References……………………………………………………………………….51
APPENDIX
Appendix A- Internal structure of LM 386……………………………………52
Appendix B- Internal structure of TL 082……………………………………..53
Appendix C- Bill of quantity…………………………………………………..54

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Fixed positive voltage regulators (7800 series) output ………………..46
Table 4.2 Fixed negative voltage regulators (7900 series) output ……………….46
Table 4.3 Adjustable positive voltage regulators (LM317) output …...………….46
Table 4.4 Function generator test result………………………… ……………….46

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Junction diode characteristics trainer……………………………………2
Figure 1.2 Feedback amplifier trainer………………………………………………2

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Figure 1.3 Op-amp characteristics trainer………………..…………………………3
Figure 1.4 Block diagram of electronic project board……………………………...6
Figure 2.1 DAC 457000 laboratory trainer………….……………………………...8
Figure 2.2 Band limited triangle wave…………………………………………….14
Figure 2.3 Band limited sawtooth wave…………………...………………………16
Figure 2.4 Elements of DC power unit..…………………...………………………21
Figure 2.5 Half wave rectifier circuit….…………………...………………………22
Figure 2.6 Full wave rectifier circuit……………………………………………….23
Figure 2.7 Bridge rectifier circuit……………………………………………….….25
Figure 2.8 Capacitor as a filter…….……………………………………………….26
Figure 2.9 Regulation circuit using linear regulators………………………………28
Figure 2.10 Adjustable positive voltage regulator circuit…………………………...29
Figure 3.1 Voltage doubler circuits...………………………………………………34
Figure 3.2 Voltage regulator circuits….……………………………………………38
Figure 3.3 Frequency generator circuit diagram……………………………………42
Figure 3.4 Audio amplifier circuit diagram………………………………………...44
Figure 4.1 Electronic project board casing………………………………………….48

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
An electronic project board is equipment used for testing, designing of simple electronic circuits
and carrying out experimental work. It can also be used for troubleshooting electronic circuit
boards. [1]

1.2 Types of Electronic Project Board

There are various types of electronic project boards and some are treated below;
1.2.1 Digital Electronics Trainers: These trainers are used for designing and testing of logic
circuits. They are also used for studying the operation of digital electronic devices like
multiplexers, demultiplexers, counters, adders and logic designs in existing circuits. These
trainers are made up of flip flops, pulse generators, logic gates like NAND, OR, NOR,
AND, XOR gates, etc. [1]

13
 An example is the Flip - Flop Trainer. Its objective is to construct J-K Flip-flop, R-
S Flip-flop using NAND gates, Delay (D type) flip flop, T flip flop and to verify
their respective truth tables. Its specifications are:
 Built in fixed power supply +5V @ 250mA.
 JK flip flops, RS flip flops each four individually
 Clock output with 1Hz and 10Hz frequency with switch selectable.
 Pulser output, decoder using 7447 provided.
 Low and high points using SPDT switches are provided as inputs
 LED's are provided as outputs.
1.2.2 Semi Conductor Devices Characteristics Trainers: These types of trainers are used to
observe the characteristics of semiconductor devices such as SCRs, LEDs, thermistors,
triac, diac, LDRs, zener diodes, UJTs, FETs, photo diodes, etc. [1]
An example of a semiconductor device trainer is the Junction Diode characteristics
trainer with two meters. Its objective is to draw the V-I characteristics for PN
junction diodes in forward and reverse bias conditions. Its specifications are
 Variable DC regulated power supply of 0-15V @ 250mA.
 On board Silicon and germanium diodes.
 Dual range DC Voltmeter of /15V.
 Dual range DC ammeter of 250μ A/25mA
 Different values of three resistors on board.

Figure 1.1 A Junction Diode characteristics trainer with two meters

1.2.3 Amplifier Circuits Trainers: These trainers are used to observe the operational
characteristics of amplifier circuits such as performance in certain configurations,
frequency response, gain, cross-over distortion, etc. [1]
An example of amplifier circuit trainer is the feed back amplifier trainer.

14
 Its Objective is to observe the frequency response of the feed back amplifiers and to
calculate gain of the amplifiers. Its specifications are
 .Voltage series, voltage shunt, current series, current shunt are provided on a single
board.
 Provision to study with and without feedback.
 Built in fixed power supplies of +12V @ 250mA.

Figure 1.2 A feed back amplifier trainer

1.2.4 Power Supply Trainers: These are trainers used to observe the characteristics of rectifiers,
filters, regulators, response of voltage doubler circuit. [1]
An example of a power supply trainer is the Linear Power Supply trainer. The
objective of this trainer is to observe a low voltage regulated power supply (2-7V),
and a high voltage power supply (7-35V) using IC 723 regulator. Its specifications
are
 Built in AC voltages of 12-6-O-6-12V @ 500mA.
 LM 723 IC with configuration on board.
 Different values of resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes with two
potentiometers provided on board to vary the circuit output voltages.
1.2.5 Operational Amplifier trainers: These are types of trainers used to observe the operation
and characteristics of op amps. [1]
An example of operational amplifier trainer is Operational amplifier trainer. The
objectives are to observe Op-Amp characteristics i.e., Input offset voltage, slew
rate, common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), Band width, Input bias current can be
observed. Op-Amp linear applications i.e., voltage follower, Inverting amplifier,

15
 Non-inverting amplifier, variable voltage gain amplifier, Adder, substractor,
Differential amplifier, Integrator, Differentiator can be observed.
Op-Amp Non linear applications comparator, sine wave generator, square wave
generator, Triangular wave generator can also be observed.
The specification of this trainer is listed as below
 Built in fixed DC supplies of 1V, 2V, 3V, +15V, -15V @ 250 mA.
 Variable regulated power supply of 0-5V @ 250mA.
 Four Op-Amps provided on board by using LM 324 IC, and a single Op-Amp
using 741 IC.
 Different values of capacitors and resistors, diodes to construct different circuits
provided on board.
 One 10kΩ potentiometer is provided on board.

Figure 1.3 An operational amplifier trainer

1.3 Statement of problem

In the electrical/ electronics department of the Olabisi Onabanjo University, the inadequacy of test
equipments in our laboratory has led to a decline in electronic practical works. This inadequacy is
as a result of the cost of acquiring these equipments and the fragile nature of the imported models.
This has in turn motivated the design and construction of this cheap, rugged lab trainer.
The epileptic power supply currently experienced in most parts of the country hampers
technological advancement. For a university campus like ours where there is no alternative source
of power supply, practical works in school is disrupted and this prompted us to provide a backup

16
power supply which can stand some practical works (mostly those having input voltage within it 0
to 24v).

1.4 Scope of project

The essence of this project is to design an electronic project board, on which electronics practical
works can be carried out. This project board will have a 1 KHz function generator which produces
sine, square and triangle waveforms, an 18W audio amplifier with speaker and a power supply
section which produces both a.c and d.c voltages.

1.5 Aims and Objectives of the project

The objectives of this project are
♦ Design and construction of an electronic project board.
♦ Construction of a 1 KHz function generator
♦ Construction of an 18W audio amplifier
♦ Construction of a power supply module which produces both AC and DC voltages.
♦ Construction of an electronic project board that meets the needs of most electronics
laboratory and digital training programs

1.6 Limitations of project

The design of this project is limited in some aspect; therefore it is not expected to perform beyond
these boundaries.
♦ The audio amplifier has a power rating of 18 watts.
♦ The function generator cannot produce signals beyond the frequency of 1 KHz.
♦ The AC power supply is built to produce voltages of 6v, 9v, 12v, 15v, 25v, 50v, 100v,
150v, 180v, 240v and 260v.
♦ The DC power supply is made to produce voltages of ±5v, ±9v, ±12v, ±15v, ±24v and a
variable supply of 2 to 28v.
♦ The backup power supply can only provide DC power ranging between 0 to 24v.

17
18
 INPUT
оXо FIXED DC POWER
TRANSFORMER
REGULATORS
FUSE

VARIABLE DC POWER
REGULATORS

OUTPUTS

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BACK-UP POWER
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
SUPPLY

FUNCTION GENERATOR

Figure 1.4 Block diagram of the Electronic Project board

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
The electronic project board is a multi-purpose electronics test equipment used in carrying out
practical electronic research works. [2]

Electronic test equipment (sometimes called 'testgear') is used to create stimulus signals and
capture responses from electronic Devices Under Test (DUTs). In this way, the proper operation of
the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired. Use of electronic test
equipment is essential to any serious work on electronics systems. Practical electronics engineering
and assembly requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from
the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead)
to extremely complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment. Generally, more
advanced test gear is necessary when developing circuits and systems than is needed when doing
production testing or when troubleshooting existing production units in the field. [3]

The following items are used for basic measurement of voltages, currents, and components in the
circuit under test. [4]

Types of test equipment

Basic equipment
● Voltmeter (Measures voltage)
● Ohmmeter (Measures resistance)
● Ammeter, e.g. Galvanometer or Milliameter (Measures current)
● Multimeter e.g., VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliameter) or
DVM (Digital "Volt" Meter) (Measures all of the above)
The following are used for stimulus of the circuit under test:
● Power supplies
● Signal generator
● Pulse generator
The following analyze the response of the circuit under test:
● Oscilloscope (Measures all of the above as they change over time)
● Frequency counter (Measures frequency)

20
 And connecting it all together:
● Test probes
Advanced or less commonly used equipment
Signal generating devices
● Signal generator
● Frequency synthesizer
● Function generator
● Pulse generator
Electronic circuits design can be carried out in either its solder less or soldered form.
Experimentally it is preferred to carry out a test on electronic circuit while they are isolated from
the main power supply. The design of a new electronic circuit could be carried out first on the
bread-board which allows a solder less operation before being transferred onto a Vero-board.

A typical electronic project board comprises of some of these test equipments and is capable of
handling both digital and analog circuit tests. Below is an example of a typical lab trainer or
electronic project board. [5]

2.1 A Typical Electronic Project Board Model

The DAC 457000 model is a product of the SUN EQUIPMENT corporation. It is designed
specially for school projects. It is built on a single PC board for maximum reliability. It includes 5
built-in power supplies, a function generator with continuously variable sine, triangular and square
wave forms. All power supplies are regulated and protected against shorts. [6]

21
Figure 2.1 THE DAC-457000 LAB TRAINER

Specifications [6]:
 SOLDERLESS BREADBOARD: AD-22
Interconnected with 2712 tie points nickel plated contact, fitted all DIP sizes and all components
with lead and solid wire AWG #22-30 (0.3 ~ 0.8mm). It can be changed and replaced for different
purpose and can be connected with demonstration panel. Therefore, it is very convenient for both
teachers and students.
 DC POWER SUPPLY:
(A) Fixed DC output: +5V, IAMP.
(B) Fixed DC output: -5V, 300m AMP.
(C) Variable DC output: 0V to + 15V, 1 AMP.
(D) Variable DC output: 0V to - 15V, 1 AMP.
 POTENTIOMETERS:
(A) Variable resistor VR1 =1 K (B),
(B) Variable resistor VR2 = 100K (B)
 FUNCTION GENERATOR:
(A) Frequency range:1 Hz ~ 10Hz, 10Hz ~ 100HZ, 100HZ ~ 1 KHz, 1 kHz ~ 10KHZ,
10KHz ~ 100KHz
(B)Amplitude: Sine wave output: 0 ~ 8 Vpp variable
Triangle wave output: 0 ~ 6 Vpp variable
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 Square wave output 0 ~ 8 Vpp variable
TTL mode output: 5 Vpp
 16 BITS DATA SWITCHES:
16 pieces of toggle switches and corresponding output point. When switch is set at "down"
position, the output is LO level; contrarily, it is to be HI level while setting at "up" position.
 SPEAKER: 2-112 inch diameter, 8 Ohm/0.25W to be used for load.
 FOUR CHANNEL ADAPTER:
Both of the two banana sockets' and two BNC jacks' point tips are changeable. It is suitable
for the station to be connected with peripherals.
 TWO DIGITS OF SEGMENT LED DISPLAY:
 TWO PULSE SWITCH (WITH 2 SETS OF OUTPUT):
2 pieces of pushbutton contain switches de-bouncer for eliminating the bounce caused by
switch from "open" to "close" or from close" to "open" position.
 16 BITS LED DISPLAY: 16 red LED's separate input terminals. The LED will be lighted
up when input is at "Hi level", and it will be turned off when it is at no input or at "LO
level".
 OTHER STANDARD ACCESSORIES: Power cord, Pin: 6pcs, user manual.
 DIMENSIONS: 250 x 95 x 325 mm (W x H x D)
 WEIGHT. (4.3kg)

2.2 The project model

Our design can be regarded as a system for building and testing prototype analog and digital
circuits, this is why it is in use throughout the world in hundreds of colleges, universities, technical
schools and R&D laboratories. The device is made up of three main sections namely
 Signal generator
 Audio amplifier
 Power supply
Other section includes the bread board for experiments, and the multimeter for taking output
readings.
Some of the numerous applications of the electronic project board are listed below
 Basic Electronics Training Courses
 Advanced Electronics Circuit Design

23
  Digital Circuit Experiments
 Basic Logical Circuit Tracing
 Computer Interfacing Circuits
 Circuit Trouble Shooting.

2.3 Function generator

A function generator is an equipment that is able to generate a variety of simple repetitive
waveforms. Straightforward signal generators such as RF signal generators or simple audio
oscillators focus on producing good sine waves, but in many cases other waveforms are
needed. [4]

In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may typically produce other repetitive
waveforms including saw tooth and triangular waveforms, square waves, and pulses. Another
feature included on many function generators is the ability to add a DC offset. Often some of
the low end function generators may only operate up to frequencies of possibly around 100
kHz as the various shaped waveforms are normally only needed at lower frequencies. However
many other more comprehensive function generators are able to operate at much higher
frequencies, often up to 10 or 20 MHz. [7]

2.3.1 Types of function generator

• Analogue function generator circuit

• Digital function generator circuit

Today, most function generators adopt a digital approach, analogue function generators will still be
encountered as they are still able to provide levels of performance that are more than satisfactory
for the exacting requirements needed in many development laboratories. [8]

Analog function generators usually generate a triangle waveform as the basis for all of its other
outputs. The triangle is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a
constant current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the
output voltage reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a
comparator, producing the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the
capacitor, different frequencies may be obtained. [8]

24
A 50% duty cycle square wave is easily obtained by noting whether the capacitor is being charged
or discharged, which is reflected in the current switching comparator's output. Most function
generators also contain a non-linear diode shaping circuit that can convert the triangle wave into a
reasonably accurate sine wave. It does so by rounding off the hard corners of the triangle wave in a
process similar to clipping in audio systems. [4]

The type of output connector from the device depends on the frequency range of the generator. A
typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz and uses a BNC connector,
usually requiring a 50 or 75 ohm termination. Specialised RF generators are capable of gigahertz
frequencies and typically use N-type output connectors. [4]

Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator, various means of
modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to automatically and repetitively "sweep"
the frequency of the output waveform (by means of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two
operator determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response
of a given electronic circuit. [4]

2.3.2 Waveform
Waveform means the shape and form of a signal such as a wave moving in a solid, liquid or
gaseous medium. In many cases the medium in which the wave is being propagated does not
permit a direct visual image of the form. [7]

In most cases, the term 'waveform' refers to the shape of a graph of the varying quantity against
time or distance. An instrument called an oscilloscope can be used to pictorially represent the wave
as a repeating image on a CRT or LCD screen. By extension of the above, the term 'waveform' is
now also sometimes used to describe the shape of the graph of any varying quantity against time.
The following are the types of signals generated by function generators and their analysis. [4]

a) Square wave

b) Triangular wave

c) Sine wave

d) Saw-tooth wave

 Square wave

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A square wave is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform, most typically encountered in electronics and
signal processing. An ideal square wave alternates regularly and instantaneously between two
levels. [4]

Square waves are universally encountered in digital switching circuits and are naturally generated
by binary (two-level) logic devices. They are used as timing references or “clock signals", because
their fast transitions are suitable for triggering synchronous logic circuits at precisely determined
intervals. However, as the frequency-domain graph shows, square waves contain a wide range of
harmonics; these can generate electromagnetic radiation or pulses of current that interfere with
other nearby circuits, causing noise or errors. To avoid this problem in very sensitive circuits such
as precision analog-to-digital converters, sine waves are used instead of square waves as timing
references. An ideal square wave requires that the signal changes from the high to the low state
cleanly and instantaneously. This is impossible to achieve in real-world systems, as it would
require infinite bandwidth. [9]

In practice, an ideal square wave (square wave with instantaneous transitions between the high and
low levels) is never achieved because of physical limitations of the system that generates the
waveform. The times taken for the signal to rise from the low level to the high level and back
again are called the rise time and the fall time respectively. [10]

If the system is over damped, then the waveform may never actually reach the theoretical high and
low levels, and if the system is under-damped, it will oscillate about the high and low levels before
settling down. In these cases, the rise and fall times are measured between specified intermediate
levels, such as 5% and 95%, or 10% and 90%. Formulas exist that can determine the approximate
bandwidth of a system given the rise and fall times of the waveform. [4]

The square wave has many definitions, which are equivalent except at the discontinuities:

It can be defined as simply the sign function of a sinusoid:

which will be 1 when the sinusoid is positive, −1 when the sinusoid is negative, and 0 at the
discontinuities[4]. It can also be defined with respect to the Heaviside step function u(t) or the
rectangular function _(t) [4]:

26
T is 2 for a 50% duty cycle. It can also be defined in a piecewise way [4]:

When

 Triangle wave
A triangle wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for its triangular shape.

Like a square wave, the triangle wave contains only odd harmonics. However, the higher
harmonics roll off much faster than in a square wave (proportional to the inverse square of the
harmonic number as opposed to just the inverse), and so its sound is smoother than a square wave
and is nearer to that of a sine wave. It is possible to approximate a triangle wave with additive
synthesis by adding odd harmonics of the fundamental, multiplying every (4n−1)th harmonic by −1
(or changing its phase by π), and rolling off the harmonics by the inverse square of their relative
frequency to the fundamental. [4]

This infinite Fourier series converges to the triangle wave [4]:

Fig 2.2 A band-limited triangle wave pictured in the time domain (top) and frequency domain
(bottom). The fundamental is at 220 Hz (A2). [4]
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  Saw-tooth wave
The saw-tooth wave (or saw wave) is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform. It is named a saw-tooth
based on its resemblance to the teeth on the blade of a saw. The usual convention is that a saw-
tooth wave ramps upward as time goes by and then sharply drops. [9]

However, there are sawtooth waves in which the wave ramps downward and then sharply rises.
The latter type of saw-tooth wave is called a 'reverse saw-tooth wave' or 'inverse saw-tooth wave'.
The 2 orientations of saw-tooth wave sound identical when other variables are controlled.

The piecewise linear function [4];

based on the floor function of time t, is an example of a saw-tooth wave with period 1.

A more general form, in the range −1 to 1, and with period a, is

This saw-tooth function has the same phase as the sine function.

A saw-tooth wave's sound is harsh and clear and its spectrum contains both even and odd
harmonics of the fundamental frequency. Because it contains all the integer harmonics, it is one of
the best waveforms to use for constructing other sounds, particularly strings, using subtractive
synthesis. [8]

A saw-tooth can be constructed using additive synthesis. The infinite Fourier series

converges to an inverse saw-tooth wave [4]. A conventional saw-tooth can be constructed using

In digital synthesis, these series are only summed over k such that the highest harmonic, Nmax, is
less than the Nyquist frequency (half the sampling frequency). This summation can generally be
more efficiently calculated with a Fast Fourier transform. If the waveform is digitally created

28
directly in the time domain using a non-band limited form, such as y = x - floor(x), infinite
harmonics are sampled and the resulting tone contains aliasing distortion. [4]
The saw tooth wave is applied in;
♦ The saw-tooth wave is a base of almost all typical synthetic sounds in VA and analog
synthesizers. [4]
♦ The saw-tooth wave is the form of the vertical and horizontal deflection signals used to
generate a raster on CRT-based television or monitor. Oscilloscopes also use a saw-tooth
wave for their horizontal deflection, though they typically use electrostatic deflection. [4]

♦ Figure 2.3 A band limited sawtooth wave pictured in the time domain (top) and frequency
domain (bottom). The fundamental is at 220 Hz (A2). [4]

 Sine wave
The sine wave or sinusoid is a function that occurs often in mathematics, physics, signal
processing, audition, electrical engineering, and many other fields [4]. Its most basic form is:
.
This describes a wavelike function of time (t) with:
 peak deviation from center = A (aka amplitude)
 angular frequency (radians per second)
 phase = θ

29
  When the phase is non-zero, the entire waveform appears to be shifted in time by the
amount θ/ω seconds. A negative value represents a delay, and a positive value represents a
"head-start". [7]
This wave pattern occurs often in nature, including ocean waves, sound waves, and light waves.
Also, a rough sinusoidal pattern can be seen in plotting average daily temperatures for each day of
the year, although the graph may resemble an inverted cosine wave. Graphing the voltage of an
alternating current gives a sine wave pattern. In fact, graphing the voltage of direct current full-
wave rectification system gives an absolute value sine wave pattern, where the wave stays on the
positive side of the x-axis. [4]

A cosine wave is said to be "sinusoidal", because cos(x) = sin(x + π / 2), which is also a sine wave
with a phase-shift of п/2. Because of this "head start", it is often said that the cosine function leads
the sine function or the sine lags the cosine. Any non-sinusoidal waveforms, such as square waves
or even the irregular sound waves made by human speech, can be represented as a collection of
sinusoidal waves of different periods and frequencies blended together. The technique of
transforming a complex waveform into its sinusoidal components is called Fourier analysis. [4]

The human ear can recognize single sine waves because sounds with such a waveform sound
"clean" or "clear" to humans; some sounds that approximate a pure sine wave are whistling, a
crystal glass set to vibrate by running a wet finger around its rim, and the sound made by a tuning
fork. To the human ear, a sound that is made up of more than one sine wave will either sound
"noisy" or will have detectable harmonics. [7]

2.4 Audio Amplifier

An amplifier is any device that uses a small amount of energy to control a larger amount of energy.
It is a device that changes the amplitude of a voltage or current signal. [11]

An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power and/or amplitude of a signal. It does
this by taking power from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal
shape but with larger amplitude. [12]

An audio amplifier is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low power audio signals (signals
composed primarily of frequencies between 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz, the human range of hearing)
to a level suitable for driving loudspeakers and this is the final stage in a typical audio playback
chain. While the input signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts,
its output may be tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts. [4]
30
Early audio amplifiers were based on vacuum tubes (also known as "valves"). Most modern audio
amplifiers are based on solid state devices like transistors, FETs and MOSFETs, but there are still
aficionados who prefer tube-based amplifiers, due to a perceived 'warmer' valve sound. Audio
amplifiers based on transistors became practical with the wide availability of inexpensive
transistors in the late 1960s. Audio amplifiers are used in public address systems, theatrical and
concert sound reinforcement, and domestic sound systems. The sound card in a personal computer
also contains several audio amplifiers (depending on number of channels), as does every stereo or
home-theatre system. [4]

Further developments in amplifier design led to the discovery that perceived sound quality of the
solid state amplifiers, even after several years, does not have the excellent audio quality of the best
valve amplifiers. This in turn led designers to believe that valve sound has an intrinsic quality due
to the vacuum tube technology itself; this is not true. In 1972 Matti Otala from Finland
demonstrated the origin of the problem in the Transitory Intermodulation Distortion (TIM). The
TIM distortion does not appear at steady state distortion measurements, then it was not detected by
most of the design engineers. TIM is due to the reduced open loop frequency response of the solid
state amplifiers. Further works of Dr Otala and other authors, found the solution for TIM
distortion. In high quality modern amplifiers the open loop response is at least 20 kHz, canceling
TIM distortion. But TIM distortion is still present in most low price home quality amplifiers. [4]

The next step in advanced design was the Baxandall Theorem, created by peter Baxandall in
England. This theorem states the ratio between the output distortion at an audio amplifier and the
“input distortion” concept. This new idea helps audio design engineers to evaluate better the
distortion process at an audio amplifier. [4]

The quality of an amplifier can be characterized by a number of specifications, enumerated below.

Gain
The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or amplitude, and is usually measured
in decibels. There are three categories of gain: voltage gain (Av), current gain (Ai) and power gain
(Ap). Any amplifier has a value for all three gains, but typically you must specify just one of them.
Depending on the application, Av and Ai may be expressed as a simple ratio or as the log (base 10)
of the ratio [4]:
Vout Vout
Av = , while Av ( dB ) = 20 log = 10 log (Pout /Pin )
Vin Vin

31
Bandwidth
The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplfier gives
"satisfactory performance". The "satisfactory performance" may be different for different
applications. However, a common and well-accepted metric are the half power points (i.e.
frequency where the power goes down by half its peak value) on the power vs. frequency curve.
Therefore bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the lower and upper half power
points. This is therefore also known as the −3 dB BW. Bandwidths for other response tolerances
are sometimes quoted (−1 dB, −6 dB etc.). [4]
GBW
BW = , where GBW is the gain bandwidth product (fixed for a given amplifier). [4]
Av
A full-range audio amplifier will be essentially flat between 20 Hz to about 20 kHz (the range of
normal human hearing.) In minimalist amplifier design, the amp's usable frequency response needs
to extend considerably beyond this (one or more octaves either side) and typically a good
minimalist amplifier will have −3 dB points < 10 and > 65 kHz. [13]
Efficiency
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the input power is usefully applied to the amplifier's
output. The efficiency of the amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is usefully
available. More efficient amplifiers run much cooler, and often do not need any cooling fans even
in multi-kilowatt designs. The reason for this is that the loss of efficiency produces heat as a
byproduct of the energy lost during the conversion of power. In more efficient amplifiers there is
less loss of energy so in turn less heat. [4]
Linearity
An ideal amplifier would be a totally linear device, but real amplifiers are only linear within
certain practical limits. When the signal drive to the amplifier is increased, the output also
increases until a point is reached where some part of the amplifier becomes saturated and cannot
produce any more output; this is called clipping, and results in distortion.
Some amplifiers are designed to handle this in a controlled way which causes a reduction in gain to
take place instead of excessive distortion; the result is a compression effect, which for an audio
amplifier will sound much less unpleasant to the ear. [4]
Noise
This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification process. Noise is an
undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and components. It is measured in
either decibels or the peak output voltage produced by the amplifier when no signal is applied. [4]

32
Slew rate
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually quoted in volts per second (or
microsecond). Many amplifiers are ultimately slew rate limited (typically by the impedance of a
drive current having to overcome capacitive effects at some point in the circuit), which may limit
the full power bandwidth to frequencies well below the amplifier's small-signal frequency
response. [4]

2.5 The Power Supply

This lab trainer is powered by a 220v a.c supply. The power supply section is divided into two
main sections. The first section produces A.C supply which is achieved with an auto transformer is
used to power all the circuits in the project board and while the second section provides DC power
supplies with provision for it to be varied and this is used to power all the circuits to be tested
using this lab trainer. The DC section was achieved by using a full wave voltage doubler, and
appropriate voltage regulators.

Almost all electronic circuits require a DC source of power. For portable low power systems,
batteries may be used. More frequently, electronic equipments are energized by a power supply
and a piece of equipment which converts the alternating wave form from the power lines into an
essentially direct voltage. [5]

We shall first take a view of the functional stages of power supply from the rectification to the
filter stage and the means by which we are able to generate out variable dc supplies.
2.5.1 The Transformer
A transformer is a magnetic device that takes advantage of the phenomenon of mutual inductance.
It is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is
transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. A transformer is
generally a four-terminal device comprising two (or more) magnetically coupled coils with the coil
directly connected to the voltage source called the primary winding while the coil connected to the
load is called the secondary winding [5]. In its simplest form it consists of two inductive coils
which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance. A
transformer is said to be linear if the coils are wound on a magnetically linear material.
Magnetically linear materials are those materials for which their magnetic permeability is constant.
Such materials include air, plastic, Bakelite, and wood. In fact, most materials are magnetically

33
linear. Linear transformers are sometimes called air-core transformers, although not all of them are
necessarily air-core. They find usage in radio and TV sets. [11]

The coils having high mutual inductance constitute a transformer. The coil connected to the source
of energy is called the primary coil, and the other is called the secondary coil. One advantage of
the transformer is the fact that electrical energy can be transferred from one circuit to another
without direct connection and in the process can be readily changed from one voltage level to
another. [14]

There are generally two types of transformers which are distinguished from each other merely by
the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed or wound around the laminated
core. They are core type and shell type but for the purpose of this project we shall treat the shell
type. [11]

In the shell type, the core surrounds the windings while in the core type transformer, the winding
surrounds the core. The transformer as a very simple device consists of a magnetic circuit linking
the two distinct windings i.e. the primary and the secondary windings. The magnetic circuit is
formed by an iron core and the presence of iron introduces iron losses but ensures a high
permeability of the magnetic circuit. Because of high permeability, the magnitude of the exciting
current necessary to set up the required flux in the core is small. The presence of iron core also
causes almost 100% of the magnetic flux generated by the primary to be linked with the secondary.
The core is built of thin sheets of silicon steel, an alloy of iron containing 4 to 5% of silicon. To
reduce eddy current loss, the core is laminated, the usual thickness of about 0.5mm. [11]

2.6 Dc Power Units

The dc power unit converts the a.c mains into a dc source of much lower voltage than the
amplitude of the mains. Their outputs usually have a significant ripple super imposed on it. They
usually have a lager output resistance (i.e. worse regulation) than is acceptable for most electronic
apparatus. Power units are therefore no more than a first step towards the design of a regulated dc
supply. [14]
A typical DC power unit has four elements.

34
 SMOOTH
AC TRANS ERING OR DC
RECTIFI REGUL
SUPPLY FORME CATION FILTERIN OUT-
R ATION PUT
G
CIRCUIT

Fig 2.4 The elements of a dc power unit

1.) The transformer as treated earlier is to provide a lower ac voltage than the mains voltage.
2.) A rectifier circuit to convert the ac unto dc; but with a great deal of ripple in it.
3.) A smoothing circuit which gets rid of most of the ripple, though by no means of it.
4.) A regulator for regulating the output voltage from the filtering section.

2.6.1 Rectifier
The purpose of the dc power supply is to change alternating current to direct by the rectification
process. Alternating current flows in both directions while the dc current flows in only one
direction. Since diodes conduct in only one direction, they serve as rectifiers and there are three
types of rectifiers namely [14]
• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
• Bridge rectifier
The type adopted in this project is the full wave rectifier circuit.

2.6.1.1 Half Wave Rectifier

The fig 2.5a below shows the circuit of a dc power unit with half wave rectification but no
smoothing. The rectifier is a silicon p-n junction diode, which readily conducts current when it is
forward biased by more than about 0.65V and will behave like an open circuit when reverse biased
or when forward bias voltage is less than 0.4V. Fig 2.5b shows the input and output waveform of
the circuit. The transformer output waveform is continuous; and so during the positive half cycles
the diode D1 conducts and so electric current is allowed, but during the negative half cycle, the
diode acts as an open circuit and thus no current lows through it during this period. This explains
why we have the output wave form as shown. [14]

35
 D1

load

Figure 2.5(a) Half wave rectifier circuit

V in

Vout Time

Time

Figure 2.5(b) Input and output waveform of a

half wave rectifier.[14]

36
2.6.1.2 Full Wave Rectifier
The full wave rectifier circuit, shown in fig 2.6(a) below can be analyzed in much same
way as the half-wave rectifier, Note that the secondary winding of the transformer is
center tapped. Relative to the center tap, the sinusoids from each half of the secondary
winding are out of phase with each other. [14]

Each diode is connected across one half of the winding, so one diode is reverse biased
during one- half cycle. At any particular time, therefore only one half of the transformer
output is supplying current. But the diodes are arranged so that the current through the
load resistance is in the same direction during each half- cycle of the a.c waveform. The
input voltage waveform, the individual voltage waveforms in the two diodes and the total
output voltage waveform of the voltage across the load are shown in fig 2.6(b) below.[14]

ID1

D1
Vp1

Vout
load

ID2 D2

Figure 2.6(a) Full wave rectifier circuit.

 Vin

VD1

VD2

Vout

Figure 2.6(b) Voltage waveforms of a full wave rectifier [14]

2.6.1.3 The Bridge Rectifier

An alternative way of producing full wave rectification is shown in fig 2.7(a). In this
circuit there are always two diodes conducting either A and C (as shown in fig 2.7(b)) or
B and D (as shown in fig 2.7(c)). The circuit ensures that even though the sign of the
output voltage from the transformer is reversed with each half cycle of the a.c supply, the
voltage across the load has the same sign. The output voltage of this arrangement is
therefore the same as that of the full wave rectifier in fig 2.18c above. [14]
 D A

Vp
C B

Vo
load

Figure 2.7(a) Bridge rectifier circuit

Vp

Vo
load

Figure 2.7(b) Diode A and C of bridge rectifier conducting

Vp

Vo

load

Figure 2.7(c) Diode B and D of bridge rectifier conducting

2.6.2 Filtering
All the waveforms produced by the rectifier circuit alone consist of a sequence of half
sine wave and are therefore quite unsuitable as a form of dc supply. The filtering circuit
filters out; in one way or another; most of the non-zeros frequency components of this
waveform and so greatly reduce the amplitude of the undulating until they are no more
than a “ripple”. The most common technique used for filtering is a capacitor connected
across the output of a rectified voltage as shown in fig 2.20 below. [14]

When current flows through the diode during the half cycle, the current as well as
supplying the load also changes the capacitor to the peak value of the transformer output
voltage. But when the input voltage falls again below its peak value the diode cuts off,
disconnecting the transformer from the load. The capacitor then discharges into the load,
so that between the peaks in the waveform the load current is supplied by the capacitor
only.
For full wave rectification [14]; Vdc = Vip (4FCRL/ 1 +4FCRL)
Ripple factor = (1/ 4√3FCRL) = Idc/4√3FCVip
The capacitance of the capacitor must be sufficiently large that it only loses a small
fraction of its charge through the load between each cycle of the waveform. The drop of
the output voltage between each cycle is the exponential decay of the capacitor voltage as
it discharges through the load. The discharge is virtually linear if the drop is small.
Evidently, the bigger the capacitance or the load resistance, or both the smaller the
voltage drops. The magnitude of the drop, or the peak-to-peak variation in the output, is
called the ripple voltage, as indicated in the figure below. [14]
 ID

D1

C1

Vc

Vo
RL

Vp

Ic

IL
Figure 2.8 Use of capacitor as a filter in a circuit

2.6.3 Voltage Regulation

Due to low-cost fabrication technique, many commercial integrated-circuit (IC)
regulators have been available since the past two decades. This includes fairly simple,
fixed-voltage types of high quality precision regulators. These IC regulators have much
improved performance as compared to those made from discrete components. They have
a number of unique built-in features such as current limiting, self-protection against over
temperature, remote control operation over a wide range of input voltage and fold back
current limiting [9]. This is a process of keeping the output voltage constant despite the
variation in load. It is needed in nearly all electronic equipments and most for these two
basic reasons [14]:
1. Even after smoothing there is usually a significant amount of A.C ripple superimposed
on the voltage.
2. Output voltage can be significantly affected by variations in the current drawn from the
unit due to the internal impedance of the transformer and the rest of the circuit.

In recent times, voltage regulation is achieved by using an I.C(linear voltage regulators)

which contains all circuitry necessary to implement the central function and the simplest
and most common method to achieve voltage regulation.. This is an analogue device
which works by continuously adjusting the output current to maintain a constant output
voltage. [7]
Some voltage regulators don’t need external resistors to set their output level (fixed
voltage regulator) while some need (variable voltage regulators). The fixed voltage
regulator is a 3 terminal device with unregulated output from the D.C power unit
connected between the input and common terminal while the regulated output is taken
from the output and common terminal. The regulator functions by maintaining the output
voltage close to its nominal value over a range of input voltage and output loads. At times
small capacitors are also sometimes also connected across the input and output to
improve the response transient fluctuations of voltage. [14]

Every voltage regulator dissipates power which often sets a lower practical limit to the
maximum input voltage that can be used in a particular application. The temperature of
the regulator like any electronic component will rise according to the amount of power
dissipated it, and this occurs at the p-n junction in the pass transistor, the component
which actually controls the output current. If the operating temperature of this junction is
allowed to rise above a critical value, damage will occur. This can be dealt with by
attaching the regulator to a metal heat sink, which is designed to transfer heat more
effectively to the surroundings and must be tightly attached to the case of the regulator.
[9]

LINEAR
IN VOLTAGE OUT
REGULATOR

UNREGULATED COMMON REGULATED

DC POWER DC OUTPUT
INPUT

Figure 2.9 Regulation circuit using a linear regulator

We will discuss the following three types of IC voltage regulators as it applies to this
project.
1. Fixed positive linear voltage regulators.
 2. Fixed negative linear voltage regulators
3. adjustable positive output linear voltage regulators

2.6.3.1 Fixed positive linear voltage regulator

There are many IC regulators available in the market that produces fixed positive output
voltage. The 7800 series of IC regulators are representatives of three terminal devices that
are available with several positive output voltages making them useful in a wide range of
applications. [5]
Its three terminals are labeled as input, output and ground. The last two digits (marked
XX) in the part number represent the output voltage. For example, IC 7805 is a +5v
regulators. Similarly IC 7812 is a +12v regulator and IC 7815 is a +15v regulator. A
capacitor (usually 0.33μF) is required if the power supply filter is located more than three
inches from the IC regulator. [5]

2.6.3.2 Fixed Negative Linear Voltage Regulator

The 7900 series is typically of three terminal IC regulators that provide a fixed negative
output voltage. This series is a negative counterpart of the 7800 series and shares most of
the same features, characteristics and package type. [5]

2.6.3.3 Adjustable Positive Output Linear Voltage Regulator

The LM 317 and LM 731 are IC regulators whose output voltage can be adjusted over a
wide range. The output voltage of LM 317 can be adjusted from 1.2v to 37v which
accommodates what is required for this project, so for this reason LM317 was used for
the variable power output section. It can supply output current of 100mA and is available
in TO-92 package i.e. it is also a three terminal IC regulator. Figure 3.12 shows the LM
317 connected to the external resistors R1 and R2 to produce an adjustable output voltage.
[5]
 Vin
1 2
Vout
a1 b1

LM 317
GND
0

ref
V
Adj R1 IRef

IAdj

R2
I Ref + I Adj

Figure 2.10 The LM 317 as an adjustable positive voltage regulator

In operation, the LM 317 develops a constant 1.25v reference voltage (V ref) between the
output and adjustment terminal. This constant reference voltage produces a constant
current, (Iref) through R1; regardless of the value of R2 as in Figure 3.12(a). Notice that the
value of current through R2 is the sum of Iref and Iadj, where Iadj is a very small current at
the adjustment terminal. The value of Iadj is typically around 100μA. [14]
It can be shown that considering a load of RL, the output voltage is
 Vref 
Vout = Vref + R2  I adj + 
 R1 
CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN ANALYSIS

This chapter analyzes the design of the electronic project board. As discussed earlier this
electronic project board has three sections which are the power supply, function
generator, and the audio amplifier sections. In order to have a full and detailed design
analysis, each section is being analyzed as a unit.

3.1 The power supply section

The power supply section is the first stage of this device as power is needed to drive all
other sections. This section can be further divided into two sub-sections which are the
A.C and D.C power.
3.1.1 The A.C power.
The A.C power section of this device energizes other parts and as well provides the
specified AC outputs. Since the AC power needed in this project requires several taps
translating to an increase in cost and weight, we decided to use an auto transformer. The
auto transformer best tackles this limitation as it has a single winding for both the
primary and secondary. The design of the transformer and other parameters are as below.
3.1.1.1 The Transformer Design
For the purpose of this project, an autotransformer with a former of size 4 cm by 6cm.
So the area of the transformer shall be,
A= (4 X 6) cm2
= 24 cm2
= 0.0024 m2
To determine the number of turns, we employed the formula below [14]
E1
N1= 4.44 Φmax × F
Where, N1 is the number of turns on the primary side, E1 is the primary input voltage
Φmax is the maximum magnetic flux density and F is the frequency which is 60Hz in
Nigeria.
Φmax = β x A
Where β is the magnetic flux and taken to be 1.1 and A is the core area

Φmax = 1.1 x 0.0024 = 0.00264

Substituting the value in the formula above,
220
N1 = 4.44 x 0.00264 x 60
220
= 0.703296
= 313 turns
The 313 turns acts as the number of turns needed to produce 220 volts.
6
For 6v, N = 0.703296 = 9 turns
 9
For 9v, N = 0.703296 = 13 turns
12
For 12v, N = 0.703296 = 17 turns
15
For 15v, N = 0.703296 = 22 turns
25
For 25v, N = 0.703296 = 36 turns
50
For 50v, N = 0.703296 = 71 turns
100
For 100v, N = 0.703296 = 143 turns
150
For 150v, N = 0.703296 = 214 turns
180
For 180v, N = 0.703296 = 256 turns
220
For 220v, N = 0.703296 = 313 turns
240
For 240v, N = 0.703296 = 342 turns
260
For 260v, N = 0.703296 = 370 turns

With this, the turns for the various voltages from 6v to 260v were derived.

3.1.2 The D.C Power section

This section of the device does the necessary conversion of power from A.C to D.C with
proper rectification and regulation. The DC output from this section is needed to power
the function generator and the amplifier section as well as the d.c fixed and variable
outputs.
3.1.2.1 The voltage doubler circuit
The voltage doubler circuit showed in figure 3.1 (a) does the rectification and filtering of
the AC voltage. The input to the voltage doubler circuit is taken from the 15v terminal of
the transformer. The full wave rectification was achieved by using two IN 5401 diodes
(D1 and D2). Diode IN 5401 is an industrial silicon diode that has a peak reverse voltage
rating of 100 volts. The output across the two diodes D1 and D2 is 2Vm (i.e 2 x 15volts =
30 volts), while the output from each diode 15volt and -15volts respectively. The voltage
drop across each diode is 0.7 volts and so the voltage beyond the diodes is 28.6 volts.
[14]
The capacitor C1 and C2 are for filtering purposes leaving the rectified voltage from the
diodes filtered and with some ripples. A voltage rating of 50 volts was considered for the
capacitors as this is sufficient enough to carry a voltage of 30V conveniently. The
capacitance value of the capacitor is determined by the relationship below [14]
 I
C = ×T
V p −p
Where C = capacitance in farads (F)
I = load current in amperes (A)
Vp-p = peak to peak ripple in volts (V)
T = period in seconds (s)
1
T =
Vp-p is taken to be 1 V as this is the allowable ripple voltage and period 2 F for full
wave rectifiers, where F is the frequency (60 Hz in Nigeria).
0.366
∴C = × 0.00833 = 3,048 .8µF
1
≈ 3049 µF
The capacitor 3300μF was chosen because it is the nearest available value in the market.
This circuit includes a battery for back-up power. This ensures a constant supply if there
is power failure. The diodes D3 and D4 are arranged in parallel to divert the filtered
voltage to the charging circuit [14]. The voltage at the charging point is approximately
14.3 volts, with a current limiting resistor of 39 ohms, the current at this point is
Ich = Vd.c/ R
14 .3
I ch = = 0.366 A
39
Where I ch represents the charging current while Vd.c represents the D.C voltage
available.
The current available at the charging circuit is 0.366A which is sufficient to charge the
battery optimally in a matter of time. The power rating of the resistor is determined by
applying
P = Vd.c x Ich
P = 14.3 x 0.366 = 5.23W
But the actual power measured at this point is less than 5 watts and this is due to the
voltage drop across the diodes and so a 5watts power rating is chosen for the resistor.
Same operation in the reverse direction occurs at the negative terminal of the circuit with
diodes D5 and D6 used to divert negative voltage to the negative terminal of the battery.
Diodes D7 and D8 are used to take power from the battery to the output terminal during
failure of power supply. The coupling capacitors C3 and C4 are used to eliminate the
remaining A.C components in the circuit. [13]
The output voltage at terminals B1 and B2 are +14.3V and -14.3V during PHCN supply
and + 11.3V and -11.3V respectively during battery operations.
The analysis for the voltage doubler circuit in figure 3.1 (b) is the same as explained
above, but the absence of a battery circuit makes the circuit scantier than it is in figure
3.1(a). The voltage tap from the transformer is 25V and the expected output across the
two terminals A1 and A2 are +24.3V and -24.3V respectively after the voltage drop
across the rectifier diodes D1 and D2. The choice of the filter capacitors C1 and C2 was
made after the consideration of nominal load current.
I
C= ×T
V p −p
Where C = capacitance in farads (F)
I = load current in amperes (A)
Vp-p = peak to peak ripple in volts (V)
T = period in seconds (s)
1
T =
Vp-p is taken to be 1 V as this is the allowable ripple voltage and period 2 F for full
wave rectifiers, where F is the frequency (60 Hz in Nigeria).
0.26
∴C = ×0.00833 = 2,165 .8µF
1
≈ 2,166 µF
The capacitor 2200μF was chosen because it is the nearest available value in the market.
3.1.2.2 Linear Regulators
The voltage regulation for this design is achieved with the use of IC linear regulators.
These regulators are available for different voltages in both positive and negative
values[15]. For this project the following are the list of the IC regulators used with their
respective voltage value.
For the positive voltage values
LM 7805 was used for +5V
LM 7809 was used for +9V
LM 7812 was used for +12V
LM 7815 was used for +15V
LM 7824 was used for +24V
For the negative voltages
LM 7905 used for -5V
LM 7909 used for -9V
LM 7912 used for -12V
LM 7915 used for -15V
LM 7924 used for -24V
Each of these linear regulators has a maximum output current of 1A [15]. Figures 3.2(a)
shows the arrangement of these regulators where LM 7805, LM 7809, and LM 7812
have their inputs connected to terminal B1 of the voltage doubler circuit in figure 3.1(a)
while LM 7815 and LM 7824 have their inputs connected to terminal A1 of the circuit in
figure 3.1(b). In the same way regulators LM 7905, 7909, and 7912 in figure 3.2(b) have
their input fed from terminal B2 of the voltage doubler circuit in figure 3.1(a) while LM
7915 and LM 7924 have theirs connected to terminal A2 of circuit in figure 3.1(b).
The adjustable positive output linear voltage regulator shown in figure 3.2(c) is the LM
317 with R1 and VR2 as 230Ω and 5KΩ respectively. The input voltage of this circuit is
taken across the terminals B1 and B2 in figure 3.1(a). The variable voltage output of the
LM317 has a minimum value of 1.25V, with maximum values of 28V during power
supply and 22V for battery operations [14]. It has a maximum operation current of 1.5A.
 R 
Vout = 1.25 × 1 + 2 
 R1 
 5000 
= 1.25 × 1 +  = 28 .44 volts
 230 
 B1
D1
D3 D4 D7 +
C3
-
+ C1
- R1

12V C1= C2= 3300μF 50v

C3= C4= 0.1μF 50v
D1= D2 = D7= D8= IN 5401
12V
15 V TAP ON + C2 D3= D4= D5= D6 = IN 4001
TRANSFORMER - R1= R2= 39Ω 5W
SECONDARY R2
WINDING
+
C4
D5 D6 D8
-

D2 B2

Figure 3.1(a) Voltage doubler with battery charging circuit.

(A1) V+

D1

+ C1
+ C3
.
-
-

TAP ON
TRANSFORM ER
SECONDARY - C2
WINDING
+ C1= C2= 2200μF 50v
C3= C4= 0.1μF 50v
+ C4 D1= D2= IN5401
-
D2
(A2)

Figure 3.1(b) Voltage doubler circuit.

 1 2
a1 b1
LM 7805
GND
0
+5V

B1 1 2

LM 7809
a1 b1

GND
+9V
0

1 2

LM 7812
a1 b1

GND
0
+12V

1 2
a1 b1
LM 7815
GND
0
-15V

A2
1 2

LM 7824
a1 b1

GND
0
-24V

Figure 3.2(a) Fixed Positive Linear voltage regulators used in this project.
 1
a1
LM 7905 b1
2
-5V
GND
0

B2 1
a1 b1
2
-9V
LM 7909
GND
0

1 2 -12 V
LM 7912
a1 b1

GND
0

1 2
a1 b1
LM 7915
GND
0
+15V

A1

1 2
a1 b1
LM 7924
GND
0
+24V

Figure 3.2(b) Fixed Negative Linear voltage regulators used in this project
 Vin 1 2
Vout
a1 b1

LM 317
GND
0

Vref
Adj R1 IRef

IAdj

R2
I Ref + I Adj
R1 = 230 Ω
R2 = 5 KΩ

Figure 3.2(c) Adjustable positive voltage regulator

3.2 The function generator

The function generator design is based on the TL 082 IC. This IC is a low cost, high
speed, dual JFET input operational amplifiers with an internally trimmed input offset
voltage. As shown in the circuit diagram in figure 3.3, the function generator section was
designed using two TL 082 ICs, resistors, capacitors, diodes and a switch. This function
generator comprises of the sine wave section, voltage follower section, and the square
 and sawtooth wave section. This circuit is designed to cover a frequency range of up to
1KHz. Frequency adjustment is achieved by tuning the preset variable resistor to give a
precise frequency output at the minimum setting of the frequency control pot.
The upper part of this circuit is a Wien oscillator circuit (opamp ½A) which is used to
generate the needed sine wave. The Wien network is a parallel combination of resistor
and capacitor, in series with a serial R-C network. The lead-lag network forms one leg of
the bridge, and the resistors R3 and R4 forms the other. The operational amplifier inputs
are connected across the legs of the bridge. The purpose of the resistor R4 leg of the
bridge is to adjust the gain of the amplifier so that it is just greater than the loss in the
lead-lag network. If the gain is too small, the circuit will not oscillate. If the gain is too
large, the output wave-form will be clipped. At the moment the circuit is turned on, the
circuit will begin oscillating due to the positive feedback through the lead-lag network.
The resulting signal across R3 and R4 makes it to form a voltage divider. It is advised that
R3 is a device with a large positive temperature coefficient such as thermistors, so that
increase in its resistance value, the voltage applied to the inverting input will increase. As
we have known that negative feedback decreases the gain of an op amp. In this circuit
care is taken so that the gain is decreased to a value that prevents clipping but which is
large enough to sustain oscillation. [11]
In the lead-lag network the values of C1=C2=C3=560pf, R1=R2=150KΩ, VR1= VR2=100
KΩ were selected so that the resonance frequency is
1
f =
2 π
RC

1
fm
ax = −
=
18
94 .3 H
z
2×
3.1
42 ×
15
000
0 ×
56
0 ×
10 1
2

1
fm
in = −
=
11
36 .6 H
z
2×
3.1
42 ×2
500
00 ×
56
0 ×
10 1
2

The lowest frequency obtained is 1136.6Hz and this occurs when VR1 + R1 = 250 KΩ
while the highest frequency obtained is 1.89 KHz, when VR 1 + R1 = 150 KΩ . The diodes
D1 and D2 and resistor R3=180 KΩ are for conversion of a.c components in the feedback
path of the inverting leg to keep a constant voltage level at this point.

The lower part of the circuit is used to generate the triangular and square waves. It is the
combination of a Schmitt circuit and an integration circuit. The Schmitt circuit (Op-amp
1/2B) which is a signal conditioning circuit generates the square wave. This circuit is
similar to a comparator but the positive feedback gives it two threshold points [10].
Resistors R5 and R6 divide the output and establish the voltage that is applied to the non-
inverting input of the op amp. For oscillation, resistor R5 was made to be greater than R6.
The relationship below determines the upper threshold point (UTP) and lower threshold
point (LTP). [4]
Assuming a swing of ±10V for the ±12V op amp voltage
  R6 
UTP = Vmax  
 R5 + R6 
 12000 
UTP = 10   = +0.107 V
 12000 + 100000 
 R6 
LTP = Vmin  
 R5 + R6 
 12000 
LTP = −10   = −0.107 V
 12000 + 100000 
Thus the output waveform is a square wave which swings between +10V and -10V.
The integrator (op-amp 2/2B) in the lower part of the circuit is used to generate the
triangular wave form from the output of the square wave generator. This is achieved by
choosing the feedback path of an op amp to be a capacitor. As shown in the circuit, the
inverting input of the op amp is used so if a positive-going signal is applied to the input,
the output must go negative. The feedback keeps the inverting input at virtual ground.
[11]
The current through resistor VR3 and R6 is supplied by charging the feedback capacitor.
If the input signal is at some constant positive value, the feedback current will also be
constant. We can assume the capacitor is being charged by some constant current and this
means the voltage across the capacitor increases in a linear fashion. The output of which
is a negative linear ramp. The same operation occurs for the negative half of the square
wave where the output will be a positive linear ramp. The combination of these two
outputs gives a triangular wave. The frequency of the wave form is shaped by the value
of the capacitor and the resistor which determines the charging time of the capacitor. The
frequency adjustment is done by resistors R6 and VR3.[8]
The output voltage can be determined as thus [11]
1
∫ V (t )dt
t
Vo = − i
RC 0

The op-amp labeled 2/2A is wired as a standard direct coupled non-inverting buffer (a
voltage follower), providing isolation between the waveform generators and load (thus it
eliminates loading effects) and also increases output current. [11]
 C2

VR 2 R2

VR1

C1

+12 v

R1 8
3 + 1
½A
2
- 4

-12 v

D1

R3

D2

R4 VR4 5
+
7
½AA
2/2
6
-

R8

R9

S4

R 1 = R2 = 150 K Ω
R 3 = 4 . 7 KΩ
R 4 = 2 . 7 KΩ
C3 R 5 = 100 K Ω
R 6 = 12 KΩ
2
-
+12 v
R 7 = 560 Ω
½B
1
R 8 = 1 KΩ
3
R7 5
+ 8 R 9 = 100 K Ω
+
4 2/2 B R 10 = 1 KΩ
-12 v 6 D1 = D 2 = IN 4148
-
C1 = C2 = 560 pF
R5
C3 = 2 . 2 μ F 25 v
R6 VR 3 VR 1 = VR 2 = 100 K Ω
VR 3 = VR 4 = 100 K Ω

Figure 3.3 Schematic diagram of the frequency generator

3.3 The Audio Amplifier
The audio amplifier as shown in figure 3.4 was built around the LM 386 IC. The LM386
is a low voltage audio power amplifier. It can provide 125mW to 750mW, enough for
any project that uses audio [15]. The pins 1 and 8 are used for gain control. The gain of
the amplifier is internally set to 20 but by applying a bypass capacitor C2 between pins 1
and 8, the gain is increased to 200. C2 is chosen to have a low reactance at the frequency
of operation. Thus applying capacitor C2 short circuits the internal emitter resistance RE.
[16] To select the capacitance of C2, certain conditions were assumed;[17]
 It must have low reactance at the lowest signal frequency
 The capacitance was selected to have one-tenth the reactance of the internal
emitter resistance at the lowest frequency
 The audio amplifier may have to operate at frequency as low as 15Hz.
Therefore, using the reactance equation [4]
1 1
C2 = = = 9.945 µF
2πFXc 6.284 ×1000 ×16
Due to market availability, C2 was made 10μF
VR1 acts as the volume control while C1 and C5 were used as coupling capacitors so as to
remove the a.c components from the input and output signals respectively. Their high
capacitance value was used to pass the input and output signals with little loss. C3 is used
for proper filtering of the input voltage; C4 sets the power supply rejection ratio from 6dB
with no connection between pin 1and 8 to 50dB at 1 KHz with 10μF capacitor between
the two pins. R1 and C6 provide a high frequency load to maintain stability where loud
speaker inductive reactance may become excessive.[15]
 1 2

7812
a1 b1

C2 GN D
0

C3

C1

8
VR 1
3 6
LM 386
C5

2
7
C1= 1μF 25v
C2= 10μF 25v
4
C6 C3= 0.1μF 25v
C4= 10μF 25v
C4 C5= 0.05μF 25v
R1 C6= 250μF 25v
R1= 47Ω
VR1= 50 KΩ

Figure 3.4 The audio amplifier

 CHAPTER FOUR

TESTING AND CASING

This section discusses the results obtained from the tests carried out on every section of
this electronic project board and the design of the casing.

4.1 Testing
The different sections of this device were tested separately before and after soldering.
Several tests were done for every section and adjustments were made so that the specified
outputs were derived. Below are the results obtained from the final tests carried out on
these sections.
Note: all tests were carried out with input voltage as 220V rms.
4.1.1 Power supply
The power supply section is divided into two parts, namely the AC and DC supply. The
testing was done by connecting a multimeter across the output terminals and taking the
voltage and current readings.
4.1.1.1 A.C Power
The A.C power is obtained from the auto-transformer which has 11 output terminals
producing different voltages. With the meter adjusted to 400V A.C the results obtained
are as below;
Terminal 1 = 5.83 volts
Terminal 2 = 9.1 volts
Terminal 3 = 11.8 volts
Terminal 4 = 14.6 volts
Terminal 5 = 23.7 volts
Terminal 6 = 47.5 volts
Terminal 7 = 96 volts
Terminal 8 = 143 volts
Terminal 9 = 172 volts
Terminal 10 = 235 volts
Terminal 11 = 254.4 volts
4.1.1.2 D.C Power
The d.c power section produces both fixed and variable supplies. Results obtained from
tests carried out on the fixed d.c power supply are shown in table 4.1 and 4.2 while table
4.3 shows the result for the test carried out on the variable d.c supply.

Table 4.1; Fixed positive voltage regulators (7800 series) and output voltages.
PART NUMBER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
LM 7805 5.0V
LM 7809 9.0V
LM 7812 12V
LM 7815 15V
LM 7824 24V

Table 4.2; Fixed negative voltage regulators (7900 series) and output voltages.
PART NUMBER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
7905 -5.0V
7909 -9.0V
7912 -12V
7915 -15V
7924 -24V

Table 4.3; Adjustable positive voltage regulator outputs

INPUT POWER SUPPLY OUTPUT VOLTAGES
MINIMUM(volts) MAXIMUM(volts)
PHCN 1.24 28.1
BACKUP POWER 0 23.4
4.1.2 Function Generator
The table 4.4 below shows the result obtained for the generated signals of the function
generator. This test was carried out using an oscilloscope for each of the signals and for
different values of resistor and capacitor available.
Table 4.4 Test result form the function generator
WAVEFORM OUTPUT
VOLTAGE(VOLTS) FREQUENCY(Hz)
SINE ± 10 1,150
SQUARE ± 10 1,000
TRIANGLE ±5 1,000

4.1.3 Audio Amplifier

Test was carried out on the amplifier section. With the D.C. input at 12 V and with an 8
ohms speaker the power output was 18 Watt while the frequency response was 40 Hz –
20 kHz. The gain was 46 dB while the signal to noise ratio was 50 dB.

4.2 Casing
Casing for electronic equipments is another important aspect of construction as it either
attracts or discourages the consumer or end user. A good casing is not just a box but a
container which should beautify the product and attract the targeted consumer of the
product. [4]
The material used in the casing of any electronic equipment must be carefully chosen as
it has to satisfy basic safety requirements. Various materials like metal, wood, plastic,
fibers etc could have been used. Other factors that we considered in making the choice of
material were
 Cost
 Size
 Weight
 Risk of electric shock
After considering the factors written above, we decided to use wood in making the
casing.
The dimension of the casing is 71cm × 33 cm × 30 cm and it is shown in fig 4.1 below.
30 cm

23 cm
cm
71

33 c
m

Figure 4.1 The electronic project board casing.

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion
This project has achieved the design and construction of cheap and rugged multi-purpose
electronic test equipment called an electronic project board.
This electronic project board has tackled to an extent, the problem of inadequate
laboratory equipments and unstable power supply which has hampered the development
of students’ practical skills. This device has taken care of the need of purchasing function
generators, audio amplifiers and variable power supplies.
The design stage was successful since all the components used were readily available and
for cheap prices while the construction process was successful since all the needed
outputs was achieved.

5.2 Recommendation
Since this electronic project board is useful in basic electronics training courses,
electronic circuit design and troubleshooting it is then useful in colleges, universities,
technical schools and R&D laboratories.
For optimum performance, this project board should be used with an automatic voltage
regulator.
Since the more sections a lab trainer has the more useful it becomes, we recommend that
a project work should be carried out on a model which will have the following;
 Seven segment display
 A frequency meter
 Variable clock generator
 Decoders and logic level indicator
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A
LM386 (Low Voltage Audio Power Amplifier)
General Description
The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.
The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an
external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value up
to 200. The inputs are ground referenced while the output is automatically biased to one
half the supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 milliwatts when operating
from a 6 volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation.

Equivalent Schematic and Connection Diagrams

Top View
APPENDIX B
TL082 (Wide Bandwidth Dual JFET Input Operational Amplifier)
General Description
These devices are low cost, high speed, dual JFET input operational amplifiers with an
internally trimmed input offset voltage (BI-FET II™ technology). They require low
supply current yet maintain a large gain bandwidth product and fast slew rate. In addition,
well matched high voltage JFET input devices provide very low input bias and offset
currents. The TL082 is pin compatible with the standard LM1558 allowing designers to
immediately upgrade the overall performance of existing LM1558 and most LM358
designs. These amplifiers may be used in applications such as high speed integrators, fast
D/A converters, sample and hold circuits and many other circuits requiring low input
offset voltage, low input bias current, high input impedance, high slew rate and wide
bandwidth. The devices also exhibit low noise and offset voltage drift.
Typical Connection Connection Diagram
(Top View)

Simplified Schematic

APPENDIX C
BILL OF QUANTITY
DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION UNIT AMOUNT TOTAL
COST(N) USED COST(N)
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Capacitors 560pF 30 2 60
2.2μF 25v 30 1 30
Diodes IN 4148 20 2 40
Resistors 1 KΩ 20 2 40
4.7 KΩ 20 1 20
150 KΩ 20 1 20
12 KΩ 20 1 20
100 KΩ 20 2 40
560Ω 20 1 20
2.7 KΩ 30 1 30
100 KΩ variable 50 4 200
IC TL 082 300 2 600
Switch 3 pole 350 1 350
2 pole 300 1 300
TOTAL 1,770
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
Capacitors 0.1μF 25v 25 1 25
0.05μF 35 1 35
10μF 25v 40 2 80
250μF 25v 45 1 45
1μF 25v 35 1 35
Resistors 50 KΩ variable 50 1 50
47Ω 20 1 20
IC LM 386 450 1 450
LM 7812 100 1 100
TOTAL 840
POWER SUPPLY
Capacitors 2200μF 25v 45 2 90
3300μF 25v 50 2 100
0.1μF 25v 25 4 100
Diodes IN 5401 20 6 120
IN 4001 10 4 40
Battery 12v 7AH 2,500 2 5,000
Resistors 39Ω 5W 20 2 40
230 Ω 20 1 20
5 KΩ variable 50 1 50
Regulators LM 7805 100 1 100
LM 7809 100 1 100
LM 7812 100 1 100
LM 7815 100 1 100
LM 7824 100 1 100
LM 7905 100 1 100
LM 7909 100 1 100
LM 7912 100 1 100
LM 7915 100 1 100
LM 7924 100 1 100
LM 317 150 1 150
Transformer Former and core 1500 1 1500
21 ½ gauge Coil 3000 ¾ pound 2,250
Insulator 480 1 length 480
TOTAL 10,940
MULTIMETER Digital 2,300 1 2,300