BIPOLAR JUNCTIONAL

4 TRANSISTOR
Syllabus
 Introduction
 Basic concept
 Types of transistors
 structure & symbols
 Transistor operation
 Conventional current flow
 Relation between different Currents in transistor
 Transistor amplifying action
 Transistor configurations- CB, CE & CC
 Circuit diagram to find the characteristics ,Input/output
characteristics
 Transistor parameters- input resistance, output resistance,
α ,β ,γ relation between them.
 Comparison between three configurations
 Transistor specifications
 Vcesat, Icmax, Vceo, Iceo, Vce, α ,β ,Vcebreakdown, Power
dissipation (to be explained during practical using data sheets)
 Testing of Transistor multimeter(To be shown during practical)

Introduction
The transistor is a three terminal, solid state electronic device. In a
three terminal device we can control electric current or voltage between two
of the terminals by applying an electric current or voltage to the third
terminal. This three terminal character of the transistor is what allows us to
make an amplifier for electrical signals, like the one in our radio. With the
three-terminal transistor we can also make an electric switch, which can be
controlled by another electrical switch. By cascading these switches
(switches that control switches that control switches, etc.) we can build up
very complicated logic circuits.

The transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947

at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs is the
research arm of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The
three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. William Shockley played a
quite different role in the invention than the other two. Shockley had been
working on the theory of such a device for more than ten years. While he
could work out the theory successfully but after eight years of trying he could
not build a working model. Fig 4.1 shows the first designed transistor.
 Bardeen and Brattain were called in to handle the engineering and
development, which they did in the relatively short time of two years, to the
consternation of Shockley. Shockley, as their supervisor, shared in the glory.
What Bardeen and Brattain had created was the "point-contact" transistor.
Shockley subsequently designed a new type of transistor called the "bipolar"
transistor which was superior to the point- contact type and replaced it. Thus
the transistor was, in large part, Shockley's creation.

Fig.4.1.First transistor made by Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain

William Shockley was raised in Palo Alto, the son of a mining engineer
and his Stanford-educated wife. He did his undergraduate work at the
California Institute of Technology (Cal Tech) in Pasadena and went on for his
Ph.D. in physics at M.I.T. When he completed his doctorate, specializing in
quantum physics, he went to work for Bell Labs.

Shockley had started working in 1936 on the solid state physics theory
that was the basis for the transistor. There was a precedence for this type of
device. The early radios had signal detectors which consisted of a fine wire,
called a cat's whisker, impinging upon a galena (lead sulfide) crystal. The
radio user had to move the cat's whisker around upon the germanium crystal
to find a suitable point of contact where a radio signal could be picked up.
These early radios worked but only imperfectly. Nevertheless the principle
upon which the crystal detector worked was the basis for the "point-contact"
transistor.

Bardeen and Brattain used germanium instead of galena in that first

transistor. They also used the equivalent of cat's whiskers, but two rather
than one. Shockley's design, the bipolar transistor, eliminated the delicate,
troublesome point contacts. Later transistors were made from silicon, a much
more common element and one that was protected from corrosion by a thin
layer of silicon dioxide.

Texas Instruments of Dallas, Texas first started commercial production

of junction transistors for portable radios in 1954. The Sony Company of
Japan soon acquired the right to produce transistors and came to dominate
the market. In the 1960's Sony began to manufacture television sets using
transistors rather than vacuum tubes. Soon afterwards vacuum tube
technology became obsolete.
In 1956 Shockley returned to Palo Alto to founded his own company. He
brought talented engineers and scientists to his company but he was a very
difficult person to work with him.

For one thing, he insisted upon posting of the salaries of all the
employees. This produced unnecessary friction among the employees.
Ultimately the top staff joined together in leaving the company. They wanted
to continue to work together in another company and Steven Fairchild of
Fairchild Camera was induced to create Fairchild Semiconductor for the
group.
Bardeen and Brattain continued in research (and Bardeen later won
another Nobel). Shockley quit to start a semiconductor company in Palo Alto.
It folded, but its staff went on to invent the integrated circuit (the "chip") and
to found Intel Corporation

The bipolar junction transistor was the first solid-state amplifier

element and started the solid-state electronics revolution. Bardeen, Brattain
and Shockley at the Bell Laboratories invented it in 1948 as part of a post-
war effort to replace vacuum tubes with solid-state devices. Solid-state
rectifiers were already in use at the time and were preferred over vacuum
diodes because of their smaller size, lower weight and higher reliability. A
solid-state replacement for a vacuum triode was expected to yield similar
advantages. The work at Bell Laboratories was highly successful and
culminated in Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley receiving the Nobel Prize in
1956.

Transistor
When a third doped element is added to a crystal diode in such a way
that two PN junctions are formed the resulting device is known as transistor.
Details of the transistor are shown in fig 4.2 , 4.3
Basically it consists of three layers and two PN junctions. These three
layers are:-
1) Emitter
2) Base
3) Collector
Hence according to third element added, two PN junctions are formed
sandwiching P or N type semiconductor between a pair of opposite
semiconductor. Depending upon three layer transistor are of two types

1) NPN - transistor
2) PNP – transistor
Significance of name Transistor
As studied in chapter 1 semiconductor diode, The forward biased
junction has a low resistance path whereas a reverse biased junction has a
resistance path. Since main purpose of transistor is to amplify weak signal,
this weak signal is applied in Forward biased junction having low resistance
path and transferred to reverse bias junction having high resistance. Since
this signal is transferred from low resistance to high resistance path it is
called “transistor” ie “Trans” means the signal transfer property of the
device , whereas “istor” means solid element in the same general family of
the resistor
Trans + istor = Transistor

Fig.4.2 Constructional details , two-diode equivalent , symbol of transistor

Fig.4.3 Cross
Sectional View , Transistor , Fabricated
Transistor

Constructional Details of the transistor

Fig.4.3 shows the constructional details of the transistor. Fig shows that
transistor has three separate region . The middle region is called as Base.
Out of the two outer region one is called as Collector and other is called as
Emitter. Although two outer region are made up of same material their
function cannot be interchanged. This is because two region have different
physical size and electrical properties. Feature of all the three layers is as
follows

Fig.4.5. Symbol of Transistor

The terminals of transistor are
1) Emitter 1.It is the outermost layer of the transistor.
2.It is heavily doped because its main function is to supply(emit)
majority charge carriers to the base.
3.Resistance of emitter is low, width is moderate and
4.Emitter is always forward biased with base.
2) Base 1.It forms the middle section of the transistor.
2.It is very thin
3.It is lightly doped compared to emitter and collector because
its function is to control the charge carriers from emitter to
collector
4.Resistance of the base layer is high and
3) Collector 1.It is other outer layer of the transistor.
2.Its main function is to collect majority charge carriers.
3.Its region is made larger than emitter and base because it has
to dissipate more power.
4.Also resistance of collector is moderate. Its Collector to Base
junction is generally made reverse biased.
Fig.4.5 shows the symbol of NPN and PNP transistor, in this horizontal
Line is called as Base and the two angular lines represent Emitter and
Collector. An arrow is placed on one of the angular lines represent the
Emitter. The arrow head on the emitter lead indicates the direction of the
conventional current in a transistor.
From the Figure it is clear that the conventional current flow from
positive to negative terminal,
 In case of PNP transistor the conventional current flow emitter to
base the arrow head is shown in inward direction ie from P to N.
 In case of NPN transistor the conventional current flow base to
emitter the arrow head is shown in outward direction ie from P to
N.
 Hence the direction of arrowheads at the emitter in NPN and PNP
transistor are in opposite direction.

Transistor without Supply  Unbiased Biasing

A transistor, with three terminals (i.e., Emitter, Base and Collector) left
open, is called an unbiased transistor or an open-circuited transistor. Under
these conditions, the diffusion of free electrons across the junction

(a)
(b)
 Fig.4.4 Unbiased Transistor

junction produces two depletion layers as shown in Fig.4.4(a). The barrier

potential, for each of these layers at 25°C, is approximately 0.7 V for silicon
transistor and 0.3 V for germanium transistor. Since the three regions have
different doping levels, therefore the depletion layers do not have the same
width.
In a more heavily doped region has the greater concentration of ions
near the junction. It has been observed that an emitter-base depletion layer
penetrates slightly into the emitter, as it is a heavily doped region, whereas it
penetrates deeply into the base as its a lightly doped region. Similarly, the
collector-base depletion layer penetrates more into the base region and less
into the collector region. Both these depletion layers are as shown in
Fig.4.4(b).
It may be noted that emitter-base depletion layer width is smaller than
that of collector base depletion layer. An unbiased transistor is never used in
actual practice. Its terminals are always connected suitably, to the dc voltage
sources (or a battery) for proper transistor action.

Transistor With Supply  Biased Transistor

The application of a suitable dc voltages, across the transistor
terminals, is called biasing. Each junction of a transistor may be forward
biased or reverse-biased independently. There are following three different
ways of biasing a transistor, which are also known as modes of transistor
operation.

N P N N P N

VCCC VCCC
VEE VEE
CE CE

Fig.4.5.Active Region Fig.4.6.Saturation Region

1. Active : In this mode, the emitter-base junction of a
transistor is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse
biased as shown in Fig.4.5 In a forward active biasing the negative
terminal of a battery is connected to N-side and positive terminal to P-
side. In reverse biasing the negative terminal of a battery is connected
to P-side and positive terminal to N-side.

N P N

VCCC
VEE
CE
 Fig.4.7.Reverse Bias
2. Saturation : In this mode, both the emitter-base and
collector-base junctions of a transistors are forward-biased as shown in
Fig.4.6. In this mode, the transistor has a very large value of current.
The transistor is operated in this mode, when it is used as a closed
switch.
3. Cut-off : In this mode, both the emitter-base and
collector-base junctions of a transistor are reverse biased as shown in
Fig.4.7. In this mode, the transistor has practically zero current. The
transistor is operated in this mode, when it is used as an open switch.

Region Emitter-Base Collector- Application

Junction Base Junction
Active Forward Reverse Amplifier
Saturation Forward Forward Closed Switch
Cut-off Reverse Reverse Open Switch
Inverse mode Reverse Forward Not used
Fig.4.8. Table showing Different Operating Modes

Transistor Operation
Fig.4.9 Shows the biased transistor setup of learning its operation. From the
figure following things are understood
1. The battery VEE acts to for ward bias the emitter junction,
2. The battery Vcc acts to reverse-bias the collector junction.
3. Switches S1 and S2 have been provided in the emitter
and collector circuits. When the two switches are open, the two
junctions are unbiased. We thus have depletion or space-charge
regions at the two junctions.

Fig.4.9.Operation of Transistor

Operation of Transistor can be studies by considering following cases of

switch S1 and S2.

Case 1 : Switch S1 closed , Switch S2 open

 If we close the switch S1, and keep the switch S2 open, the emitter
junction will be forward biased as shown in Fig. 4.10.

IE
S1 IB
Closed S2 Open

Fig.4.10.Transistor Operation with S1 closed and S2 open

The barrier at the emitter junction is reduced. Since, emitter and base
regions are just like those in a PN diode, Hence large current due to forward
biasing. This current consists of majority carriers diffusing across the
junction. Electrons diffuse from the emitter to the base, and holes from the
base to the emitter. The total current flowing across the junction is the sum
of the electron diffusion current and the hole diffusion current.

In a transistor, the base is region is doped very lightly compared to the

emitter region. Because of this, there are very few holes in the base region.
As a result, over 95-99% , of the total current is carried by the electrons
(diffusing from the emitter to the base). The emitter current I E and the base
current IB in Fig. 4.10 are quite large. The two currents must be equal (IE = IB.
The collector current IC is zero(IC = 0).

Case 2 : Switch S1 open , Switch S2 closed

If we open the switch S1, and keep the switch S2 closed, the collector
junction will be reversed biased as shown in Fig. 4.11.

IC
S1 IB S2
Open Closed

Fig.4.11. Transistor Operation with S1 Open and S2 Closed

Very Small current flows across this reverse-biased junction. The
reverse leakage current is due to the movement of minority carriers. These
carriers are accelerated by the potential barrier. As in case of PN-junction
diode this leakage current is very much temperature dependent.
 The current flow into the collector lead and out of the base lead. There
is no emitter current IE 0). The small collector current is called the collector
leakage current. It is denoted by symbol, ICBO. The subscript CBO in this
symbol signifies that it is a current between Collector and Base, when the
third terminal the emitter) is Open.

What Happen when both Switch are closed ?

As per Fig. 4.9 And from the above discussion, it should be expected
that both IE and IB to be large and Ic to be very small. However, the result of
closing both switches turn out to be very shocking. The emitter current IE is
large, as it was expect But IB turns out to be a very small current, and Ic turns
out to be a large current. Which was entirely unexpected. It is because of this
unexpected result that the transistor is such a great invention. Hence the
actual action of transistor is discussed in next topic case 3

Case 3 : When S1 closed and S2 closed

Fig.4.12 Show the transistor is operated in active region. The emitter-
base junction is forward biased by VEE and the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased by Vcc. The directions of various currents that flow in the
transistor are also indicated in Fig.4.12. As is the usual convention, the
direction of current flow has been taken opposite to the direction of electron
movement. To understand the action of the transistor, we have numbered
some of the electrons and holes. This will simplify the description

IE

IB Ic

VEE Vcc
Fig.4.12.Transistor Action in Active region
The emitter junction is forward-biased (may be, by a few tenths of a
volt). The barrier potential is reduced. The space-charge region at the
junction also becomes narrow. As such, majority charge carriers diffuse
across the junction. The resulting current consists of electrons moving from
the emitter to the base, and holes passing from the base to the emitter.

But only the electron current is useful in the action of the transistor.
Therefore, the electron current is made much larger than the hole current.
This is done by doping the base region more lightly than the emitter region.
In Fig. 4.12, we have shown electrons 1, 2, 3 and 4 cross from the emitter to
the base, and hole 7 from the base to the emitter. The total sum of these
charge-carrier movements constitutes the emitter current IE. Only a portion
of this current is due to the movement of electrons 1, 2, 3 and 4. These are
the electrons injected by the emitter into the base.
 Once the electrons are injected by the emitter into the base, they
become minority carriers (in the base region). These electrons do not have
separate identities from those which are thermal(Leakage/Minority)
generated in the base region itself.

The transistor action is that the base is made very narrow (about 25
µm) and is very lightly doped. Because of this, most of the minority carriers
electrons) traveling from the emitter end of the base region to its collector do
not recombine with holes in this journey. Only a few electrons like 3) may
recombine with holes (like 6). The ratio of the number of electrons arriving at
collector to the number of emitted electrons is known the base transportation
factor. It is designated by symbol β . Typically β = 0.995.

As per Fig.4.12, Movement of hole 8 from the collector region and

electron 5 from the base region constitutes leakage current, ICBO. Movement
of electron 3 and hole 7 constitute a part of emitter current I E. These two
currents are not equal. Actually, the number of electrons (like 3) and holes
(like 7) crossing the emitter-base junction is much more than the number of
electrons (like 5) and holes (like 8) crossing the collector-base junction. The
difference of these two currents in the base region makes the base current IB.

The collector current is less than the emitter current. There are two
reasons for this.
a. A part of the emitter current consists of holes that do not
contribute to the collector current.
b. Not all the electrons injected into the base are successful in
reaching the collector.
Hence in transistor IE = IC + IB
IE ≅ IC Since IB << small
and total collector current is
IC = ICMajority + ICMinority

NPN Transistor Operation

Fig.4.12 Show the transistor is operated in active region. The emitter-base
junction is biased by VEE and the collector-base junction is biased by Vcc.
EB CB
Junction Junction

N P N

IE IB IC

VEE Vcc
Fig.4.12 Operation of NPN Transistor
 1. In this base emitter junction is forward biased by V EE and
collector base junction is reversed biased by VCC.

2. Due to forward bias barrier voltage of Base Emitter

junction is reduced and due to reverse bias collector base junction is
increased.

3. The forward bias causes the electron in N-type emitter to

flow in to base This gives rise to emitter current IE .

4. These electron flow through P-type base and they tend to

combine with hole. As the base is lightly doped and very thin therefore
only few electron (approximately. 2-5%) combine with holes which gives
rise to current IB.
5. The remaining 95-98% of electron cross over into the
collector region and constitute collector current IC . Hence almost all
emitter current flow in emitter. Hence
∴ IE =IC + IB If IB is neglected
IE ≈ IB

6. The collector current is comprised of two components:

1. Due to majority carrier
2. Due to minority carrier
Therefore IC = IC majority + IC minority
IC =IC +ICO
7. IC0 = It is collector to base current with Emitter open (ICBO
≈ ICO )

8. IC0 is temperature dependent and it increases with every

10 C rise in temperature.
0

Operation of PNP Transistor

As shown in the fig.4.13. emitter junction is forward biased and whereas
collector junction is reversed biased due to this potential barrier voltage
reduces on emitter side
EB CB
Junction Junction

P N P

IE IB IC

VEE Vcc
Fig.4.13.Operation of PNP Transistor
1. The holes to repel emitter move toward base and constitute emitter
current IE.

2. As the base is lightly doped and very thin only few (2-5%) of holes
combine with electron and generate base current IB.

3. The remaining holes from base are attracted towards collector by

negative terminal of battery VCB.

4. Hence 95-98% of majority carrier (holes) move into collector region and
give rise to collector current IC.
5. In this way entire emitter current flow in the collector circuit The current
conduction within transistor is due to holes but in external connecting
wires the current is still due to electrons
∴ IE = I C + I B If IB <<small neglect IB
∴ IE ≈ IC

The collector current is comprised of two components

1. Due to majority carrier
2. Due to minority carrier
Therefore IC = ICmajority + ICminority
IC =IC +ICO
IC0 = It is collector to base current with Emitter open (ICBO ≈ ICO )

Current and Terminal Voltage in Transistor

VCB - + VCB + -
+ -
+ VCE - VCE
VBE VBE
- - + +
Fig.4.14 Different Voltages in NPN and PNP transistor

VCB = Voltage between Collector and Base make Collector Base junction
reverse bias
VBE = Voltage between Base and Emitter make base emitter junction
forward bias , its value is 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge
VCE = Voltage between Collector and Emitter

Different Current in Transistor

 Fig.4.15.Direction of currents in NPN and PNP Transistor

Fig.4.16.Direction of current in the NPN and PNP transistor

The directions of conventional currents in an n-p-n transistor are as

shown in Fig.4.15 and fig.4.16. Figures show the conventional currents using
the schematic symbols of n-p-n and p-n-p transistors, respectively. It is seen
that the arrow at the emitter of the transistor’s symbol points in the direction
of conventional current.

PNP transistor
The current flowing into the emitter terminal is referred to as the
emitter current and identified as IE. The currents flowing out of the collector
and base terminals are referred to as collector current and base current
respectively. The collector current is identified as IC and base current a IB.

Reverse Collector Saturation Current ICBO

When emitter is open circuited, IE = 0, and the base and collector act
as a reverse biased diode. Due to this, the collector current IC equals the
reverse saturation current. It is denoted as ICO. The is nothing but the ICO
(Reverse saturation current) of transistor. It is also defined as the current
when emitter current is zero. As ICBO is defined for transistor, it constitutes
the leakage current flowing around the junction.

Emitter current
From the Fig.4.15 and 4.16 it is clear that
IE = IC + IB
But IB is so small because base is lightly doped and its very thin , Hence
IE ≅ IC

Why Transistor is called as BJT ?

Ans. Bipolar  The conduction in a bipolar junction transistor takes place
due to both i.e. electrons and holes.
Junctional  It has two junction ie collector an emitter junction
Transistor Since it transferred from low resistance to high resistance path
 B(Bipolar) J(Junctional) T(Transistor)

Configuration of Transistor
As there are 3 terminals in transistor i.e. Emitter, base and collector,
Depending upon the terminal made common to input and output there are
three different types of configurations.

1)Common Base: Base is common between input and output.

2)Common Emitter : Emitter is common between input and output.

3)Common Collector: Collector is common between input and output.

For each connection there are specific advantages and disadvantages. But
the common thing for all these configurations is
1) Emitter base junction is forward biased
2) Collector base is reversed biased.

Common Base Configuration

As shown in fig.4.17. the base made common between input and
output i.e. input is applied between Emitter and base junction and output is
taken from collector and base.

In this configuration emitter current IE is the input current and collector

current IC is output current. IB is the base current whose direction and flow is
as shown in the figure.

Fig4.17 shows both NPN and PNP transistor in Common Base

Configuration.

Fig.4.17. Common Base Configuration (NPN and PNP)

Current amplification factor ( α )

The ratio of change in collector current(I C) to the change in emitter
current (IE )at constant collector to base voltage (VCB)is known as current
amplification factor i.e
α = change in collector current
change in emitter current at constant collector base voltage
 α = ∆ IC
∆ IE at constant
VCB

It is clear from expression IE > IC by the factor of IB as shown above,

Hence collector current is less than unity. Practical value of α is from 0.9 to
0.99

Output Current - Collector current IC

As seen from transistor action , we now know that collector current is
constituted due to two components
1. The current produced by normal transistor action. This
current is due majority charge carrier injected by emitter, hence it is
called as injected current. Its value is α IE and it is due to majority
charge carrier.
2. The another component is due to minority charge or
thermally generated charge carrier which flows is collector junction
due to reverse bias . Its value is ICBO. It is as shown in fig 4.18
Hence total collector current is given by
IC = α IE + ICBO
Here ICBO

Collector Base OpenEmitter

Fig.4.18 Leakage Current
ICBO = Collector to base current with emitter open
ICBO is usually very small but it is temperature dependent. It doubles itself per
100C rise in temperature. The value for ICBO is usually nano Amperes(η A) for
silicon and micro Amperes (µA) for germanium transistor at room
temperature.

Detail Study of Common Base Configuration

In order to understand the complete and thorough behavior of
transistor it is necessary to study the relation ship between the various
component of Voltage and current in transistor. These relation ships are
plotted graphically which are commonly known as characteristic of transistor.
For any configuration there are two types of characteristics those are

1. Input characteristics is curve plotted between input current and input

voltage keeping output voltage constant.

2. Output characteristics is a curve plotted between output current and

output voltage keeping input current constant.

Detail study of Common Base configuration

Input characteristic
Fig.4.19 shows the setup to plot input and output characteristic if CB
configuration. Input characteristics is a graph plotted between emitter
current IE(mA) and emitter to base voltage VBE(V) at constant collector base
voltage VCB (V).Fig.4.20 shows the Plotted input characteristics.

Fig.4.19 Setup for plotting characteristics of CB Configuration

Analysis of input characteristics

1. Input characteristics looks like PN junction characteristics in forward

biased because base emitter junction is nothing but forward biased PN
junction.
 2. After the cut-in voltage (0.7 fo
Si and 0.3 for Ge) Emitter
current IE increases rapidly
with a small increase in VBE i.e
its input resistance is very low

3. The Emitter current IE is

independent of collector base
voltage VCB

Fig.4.20. Input characteristic of

Common base Configuration

4. Input resistance :- It is defined as ration of emitter base voltage

(∆ VBE ) to the resulting change in emitter current (∆ IE ) at constant
collector base voltage (VCB )i.e

Rin = change in emitter to base voltage

change in emitter current at constant VCB

Rin = ∆ VBE
∆ IE VCB =
constant
The input resistance is quite small and is of the order of a few ohms. Its
value is between 20 - 100Ω and typical value is 50Ω .It value is low because
input junction is forward biased and a small change in VBE produce large
change in IE.

Output Characteristic
Output characteristics is a graph plotted between collector current
IC(mA) to the collector base voltage VCB(V) keeping constant emitter current
IE.Fig.4.21 show output characteristic graph.

Analysis of output characteristics

Fig.4.21. Output characteristics of Common Base Configuration. It is clear
from the graph that characteristics is divided into three regions , those are
saturation , Active and Cut-off.
1. The saturation region is towards extreme left where VCB = 0V.Here
current increases exponentially as VCB is increased towards 0v.As
shown in fig.4.21 ,collector current IC change large with small change in
VCB only at low voltages (less than 1V) .This region is called as
Saturation region, were both the junctions are forward biased.
Transistor is not operated in this region.
 Fig4.21 Output Characteristics of Common Base configuration
2. Next region is active region, the collector current(I C) is almost constant,
and it is equal to emitter current (IE).When VCB is increased above 1-2v
the collector becomes almost constant i.e. independent of VCB but
dependent on IE.A very large change in VCB produce small change in IC,
this means that output resistance is very high. In this region emitter-
base (EB) junction is forward biased and collector-base(CB) junction is
reversed biased. For every transistor maximum value of reverse bias is
defined.
3. The region below were IE is marked as 0mA , cutoff region. Here Both
junction of transistor are reversed biased.
4. Output characteristic can be used determine two factors
i. Output Resistance (Ro)
ii. Current Amplification factor (α )
5. Output resistance: It is ratio of change in collector base voltage
(∆ VCB)to the resulting change in collector current IC (∆ IC)at constant
emitter current IE.

Ro= Change in collector base voltage

Change in collector current at constant Emitter current

RO = ∆ VCB
∆ IC at constant IE

The output resistance is very high and of the order of several

hundreds of kilo-ohms. This is is because a very large change is Vcb
produce a small change in IC
Summary of Common Base Configuration
 In common Base, base terminal is made common between Emitter and
Collector.
 Input is applied between emitter and base circuit, which is forward
biased.
 Input voltage applied is VBE and Input current is IE.
 Output is taken across collector and Base circuit which is reverse
Biased.
 Output Voltage is VCB and output current is IC.
 Total collector Current is IC = α IB + ICBO
 Current amplification factor α is less than unity , typical value is upto
0.99
 Input resistance is very Low ranging from 20 - 100Ω , typical value is
50Ω
 Output resistance is very high upto several hundreds of KΩ ,typical
value is 1MΩ
 Leakage current ICBO is very low , typically 4µA for germanium 0.02µA
for silicon and it is temperature dependent.

Common Emitter Configuration

As shown in fig.4.22. the emitter made common between input and
output i.e. input is applied between Base and Emitter junction and output is
taken from collector and emitter.

In this configuration base current IB is the input current and collector

current IC is output current. IE is the emitter current whose direction and flow
is as shown in the figure.

Fig4.22 shows both NPN and PNP transistor in Common Base

Configuration.

Fig.4.22 Common Emitter Configuration (NPN and PNP)

Base current amplification factor (β )
Base current amplification factor (β ) is the ratio of change in collector
current (∆ IC) to the change in base current (∆ IB)at constant collector to
emitter voltage is called as base current amplification factor (β ).

∴ β = change in collector current

change in Base current at constant collector emitter voltage
 ∴β = ∆ IC
∆ IB VCE = constant

It is clear from expression IC > IB ,Therefore the value of β is greater. It

value ranges from 20 to 500.This configuration is widely used where
amplifier and for good frequency response.

Relation between α and β

α = common base current amplification factor
β = common collector current amplification factor.
α = ∆ IC (1)
∆ IE
β = ∆ IC (2)
∆ IB
For any transistor configuration
∆ IE = ∆ Ic + ∆ IB
∆ IB = ∆ IE – ∆ IC (3)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (2)
β = ∆ IC . (4)
(∆ IE – ∆ IC)
Multiply and divide equation (4) by IE
= ∆ IC . x ∆ IE
(∆ IE – ∆ IC) ∆ IE
β = ∆ IC / ∆ IE
1- (∆ IC / ∆ IE )

β = α

1-α
Example : Let for a common base configuration current amplification factor
α = 0.98 find common base current amplification factor
Solution : Given α = 0.98
Find β = α
1-α
β = 0.98
1− 0.98
β = 0.98
0.02
β = 49
Hence current amplification by common emitter configuration is more than
common base configuration.
Collector Current
As discussed in CB configuration that total collector is comprising two
components , same fact is true here. Here total collector current is due to
two factors
1.Due to majority charge carrier ie β IB
2.Due to minority charge carrier ie ICEO as shown if fig 4.28
Therefore IC = β IB + ICEO
In common base configuration total collector current is
IC = α IE + ICBO
But IE = IC + IB
IC = α (IC + IB) + ICBO
IC = α IC + α IB + ICBO
IC - α IC = α IB + ICBO
IC(1- α ) = α IB + ICBO
IC = α IB + ICBO
1- α 1- α
Comparing the equation with CE equation we get
β = α Ι CEO = ICBO
(1-α ) (1-α )

∴ IC = β IB + ICBO
(1-α )
∴ IC = β IB + ICEO

Above equation indicates that leakage current in CE is much more than

CB configuration.

Example : For a common base configuration leakage current is 10η A then

find leakage current in common Emitter configuration. Let α be 0.98
Solution :
Given
α = 10 η A
Ι CEO = ICBO = 10 * 10 -9
(1-α ) 1 – 0.98

Ι CEO = 500η A
Hence it indicates that common emitter configuration has leakage current
more than common base configuration.

Detail study of Common Emitter configuration

Input characteristic
Fig.4.23 shows the setup to plot input and output characteristic if CE
configuration. Input characteristics is a graph plotted between base current
IB(mA) and base to Emitter voltage VBE(V) at constant collector emitter
voltage VCE (V).Fig.4.24 shows the Plotted input characteristics.
 Fig.4.23. Setup for plotting characteristics of CE Configuration

Analysis of input characteristics

1) Input characteristic looks like
forward biased PN junction because
input junction is forward biased and
base emitter junction is like diode.
2) Upto a voltage called as cut-in
voltage which is 0.7V for Si and 0.3
V for germanium. Characteristics
shows very small change is current
with voltage.
3) After cut-in voltage, current IB
shows large change with change in
voltage VBE.

Fig.4.24. Input characteristic of Common emitter Configuration

4) This indicates that input resistance is low because small change in VBE
produces large change in IB. But input resistance of CE is slightly more
than that of CB configuration because the base current does not change
rapidly as that ion case of CB configuration.

5) The base current is independent of collector emitter voltage V CE. But the
curve is shifted downward , this occurs because of the fact that as VCE is
increased the depletion layer width is the base region is increased. This
reduces the effective base width and hence base current is reduced.

Input resistance
Input resistance is defined as ratio of change in base to emitter voltage
(∆ VBE) to the change in base current (∆ IB) at constant collector to emitter
voltage(VCE)
∴ Rin = change in base emitter voltage
change in base current

at constant collector emitter voltage.

 Rin = ∆ VBE
∆ IB VCE =
constant

Input resistance is of the order of few hundred which is slightly greater

than input resistance of CB configuration. Its value ranges from 600Ω to
4KΩ

Output Characteristic
Output characteristics is a graph plotted between collector current
IC(mA) to the emitter voltage VCE(V) keeping constant base current IB
.Fig.4.25. show output characteristic graph. This characteristics is also called
as collector characteristics.

Analysis of output characteristics

Fig.4.25 Show the output characteristic of transistor a in CE
configuration.

Fig.4.25.Output characteristics of Common Base Configuration

1. The output characteristics consist of three regions like Saturation

region, active region and cut-off region.

2. At voltage below knee Voltage, where VCE(upto 1V) is reduced to such a

small value that collector –base junction get forward biased and base
emitter junction is already forward biased. Below knee voltage Ic
follows VCE i.e. till that voltage collector junction is forward biased
transistor operates in saturation region.

3. In these the curve is almost horizontal. In active region collector base

junction is reversed biased. As VCE is increased there reverse bias get
increased, due to this depletion region spread more in the base than
the collector, reducing the recombination in the base. The change in
collector current is more sharper as compared to CB configuration.
 4. After knee voltage Ic is almost independent of VCE & IC is dependent of
IB. Now transistor is operated in active region. After knee voltage I C
almost constant. but a large change in VCE produce very small Ic. hence
Output resistance is very high.

5. When the input base current is made equal to zero (IB = 0) , the
collector current(IC), due majority carrier is zero and is due minority
carrier ie ICEO. The region below IB = 0 is called as cut-off region. In this
region both junction are reversed biased.

Output resistance
Output resistance is the ratio of change in collector emitter voltage
∆ VCE to the change in collector current ∆ IC at constant base current IB
∴ Output resistance = change in collector to emitter voltage
change in collector current

at constant base current

∴ Rout = ∆ VCE
∆ IC at constant IB

From characteristics it is clear that it has some slope indicating that

output resistance of CE is little less than Output resistance of CB
configuration.
The output resistance of CE configuration is of the order of few K Ω
Generally it is 10 KΩ -50 KΩ .Typically it is of 20 KΩ

Summary of Common Emitter Configuration

 In common Emitter, emitter terminal is made common between Base
and Collector.
 Input is applied between base and emitter circuit, which is forward
biased.
 Input voltage applied is VBE and Input current is IB.
 Output is taken across collector and emitter circuit which is reverse
Biased.
 Output Voltage is VCE and output current is IC.
 Total collector Current is IC = β IB + ICEO
 Current amplification factor β is very high , its value is ranges from 20
- 500
 Input resistance is very Low ranging. Its value ranges from 600Ω to
4KΩ . But its value is greater than that of Common base configuration.
 Output resistance is very high up to several of KΩ , Generally it is 10
KΩ -50 KΩ .Typically it is of 20 KΩ
 Leakage current ICEO is low , it is temperature dependent, but its value
is greater than that in case of CB configuration.
Common Collector Configuration
As shown in fig.4.26 the collector is made common between input and
output i.e. input is applied between Base and collector junction and output is
taken from emitter and collector.

In this configuration base current IB is the input current and emitter

current IE is output current. IC is the collector current whose direction and flow
is as shown in the figure.

Fig.4.26 Shows the NPN and PNP transistor connection in CC configuration

Fig.4.26.Common collector Configuration (NPN and PNP)

In this circuit battery VBB makes

emitter junction forward biased & Vcc
reverse biases collector junction

Fig.4.27 Common Collector configuration

Current amplification factor (ν )

Current amplification factor(ν ) is ratio of change in emitter current
∆ IE to the change in emitter current ∆ IE to change in base current ∆ IB at
constant collector to emitter voltage VCE.
∴ν = change in emitter current
change in base current

at constant collector to emitter voltage

ν = ∆ IE
∆ IB VCE =
constant

Current gain is high as that of common emitter but voltage gain is less
than unity.
Relation between ν and α
ν = common collector current amplification factor
α = common base current amplification factor.
α = ∆ IC (1)
∆ IE
ν = ∆ IE (2)
∆ IB
For any transistor configuration
∆ IE = ∆ Ic + ∆ IB
∆ IB = ∆ IE – ∆ IC (3)
Substitute equation (3) in equation (2)
ν = ∆ IE . (4)
(∆ IE – ∆ IC)
Multiply and divide equation (4) by IE
= ∆ IE . x ∆ IE
(∆ IE – ∆ IC) ∆ IE
ν = ∆ IE / ∆ IE
1- (∆ IC / ∆ IE )

ν = 1

1-α
Example : Let for a common base configuration current amplification factor
α = 0.98 find current amplification factor for common collector
configuration
Solution : Given α = 0.98
Find ν = α
1-α
ν = 1
1− 0.98
ν = 1.
0.02
ν = 50
Hence current amplification by common collector configuration is more than
that of common base configuration and common emitter configuration . The
value for ν highest as compared to α and β

Emitter current
As discussed in CB and CE configuration that total collector is
comprising two components , same fact is true here. Here total emitter
current is due to two factors
1.Due to majority charge carrier ie γ IB
2.Due to minority charge carrier ie ICEO as
shown if fig 4.28
Therefore IE = ν IB + ICEO (1)
In common base configuration total collector current is
IC = α IE + ICBO (2)
But IE = IC + IB (3)
Susbstuting (2) in (3)
IE = α IE + ICBO + IB
IE - α IE = ICBO + IB
IE(1 - α ) = ICBO + IB

Fig.4.28 Leakage current in CC configuration

Above equation indicates that leakage current in CC is much more than CB
configuration and almost equal to that CE configuration.
IE = ν IB + ICBO
1-α
ν = 1 ICEO = ICBO
(1 - α ) (1 - α )

IE = ν IB + ICEO
which indicates that leakage current is very high as compared to CB.
Example : For a common base configuration leakage current is 10η A then
find leakage current in common Collector configuration. Let α be 0.98
Solution :
Given
α = 20 η A

Ι CEO = ICBO = 20 * 10 -9
(1-α ) 1 – 0.98

Ι CEO = 1000η A = 1mA

Hence it indicates that common Collector configuration has leakage current
more than common base configuration.

Q.Why Common emitter Configuration is the Best configuration

Ans. Out of the three configurations
Common emitter is most widely used CE configuration is used in 90 to 95% of
all transistor application. The main reason for these are

1) High current gain

The current gain of CB is less than 1 hence low value of α will not make it
good amplifier. But current gain of CE is more than 1 typically 20-500
make CE as good amplifier.
2) High voltage and power gain
Due to high current gain. CE circuit has high voltage and power gain
because in CB circuit current gain is less than 1 and in CC circuit voltage
gain is less than 1.
3) Moderate output to input resistance ratio
 In common emitter circuit the ratio of output impedance to input
impedance is moderate. These make this circuit arrangement an ideal for
coupling between various stages.
Because of above three reasons CE configuration is widely
used.

Comparison of CB , CE , and CC Configuration

Characteristics Common Base Common Common

Emitter Collector
Input resistance Low resistance Medium about Very High about
about 100 Ω 750Ω 750 k Ω
Output Very High about High about Low about
resistance 450 kΩ 450 kΩ 50 Ω
Input Current Emitter Current Base Current IB Base Current IB
IE
Output Current Collector Collector Current Emitter Current IE
Current IC IC
Input Voltage Emitter and Base and Emitter Base and
applied Base VEB VBE Collector VCB
Output Voltage Collector and Collector and Emitter and
applied Base VCB Emitter VCE Collector VEC
Voltage gain High about 150 High about 500 Less than 1
Current gain Less than 1 High High
Phase shift
from Input to 0o 180o 0o
Output
Leakage Low ICBO High High
current ICEO= 1 ICBO ICEO = 1 ICBO
1- α 1- α
Application Used for high Used for audio Used as
frequency frequency impedance
application application matching circuit.
Common Base between Emitter between Collector between
Terminal input and input and Output input and Output
Output
Diagrams

Fig .4.29 . Table of Comparison of Different Configuration

Application of Transistor
Application of Transistor are as Follows
1) It is used an amplifier.
2) It is used as an oscillator.
3) It is used as an wave shaping circuit.
4) It is used as an multi vibrator circuit.
5) It is used as electronic switch.
6) It is used as an impedance matching circuit.
7) It is used in Radio transmitter and receiver.
8) It is used in output amplifier.

Specification of Transistor are

Different specification from data sheet are
1) Collector base voltage (VCB )
It is the maximum voltage that can be applied across base and collector of
a transistor.

2) Collector to emitter voltage ( VCE )

It is the maximum voltage which can be applied across collector and
emitter of transistor.

3) Collector saturation voltage ( VCE sat)

It is the collector emitter voltage of fully conducting transistor, it is
denoted by VCE sat.

4) Collector current ( IC )
It is the maximum value of collector current that a transistor handle
safely.

5) Collector cutoff current (ICEO )

It is the reverse current or reverse saturation current flowing between
collector and emitter of transistor with base open.

6) Forward current gain

It is the maximum ration of output current to input current of CE
configuration which decides maximum forward current.

7) Maximum collector dissipation (Pd max)

It is the maximum value of power dissipated in collector of transistor at
250c.
8) Collector-to-Base Breakdown Voltage (BVCB0)
It is the maximum value if allowable reverse voltage that can be applied
across the collector and base of a transistor with emitter open. It is
specified at 25°C.

9) Collector-to-Emitter Breakdown Voltage(BVCE)

It is the maximum value of allowable reverse voltage that can be applied
across the collector emitter of a transistor with base open. It is specified at
25°C.
10) Emitter-to-Base Breakdown Voltage (BVEBO)
It is the maximum value of allowable voltage that can be applied across
the emitter to base of transistor with collector open. It is specified at
25°C.

11) Collector-Cutoff Current (ICBO)

It is the reverse saturation current flowing between collector and base of
a transistor with emitter open.
12) Transition Frequency (FT)
It is the transition frequency at which the common emitter forward
current gain is unity and denoted by FT. Its significance is that the product
of gain and bandwidth equals the transition frequency. Hence, if both gain
and bandwidth are to be large, FT has to large, particularly at high
frequencies where bandwidth is large.

Transistor Rating
A transistor like any other electronic device, has limitations on its
operation. These limitations are stated in terms of maximum ratings. If these
ratings are exceeded, it may cause either permanent damage to transistors
or temporarily change their operating characteristics. The maximum ratings
are normally specified on the manufacturer’s data sheet. Following are some
of the important maximum ratings of a transistor
1. Maximum collector current.
2. Maximum collector dissipation at 25° C.
3. Maximum allowable collector-to-base voltage.
4. Maximum allowable collector-to-emitter voltage.

1. Maximum Collector Current

It is defined as the absolute maximum value of the current which a
collector can handle safely and is designated by IC(MAX). This limitation is
due to the localized hot spots which can occur within the transistor due to
high current densities at unavoidable current path restrictions or high
resistance points within the transistor. A common source of difficulty is
the junction area and the wire bonds that connect the transistor
terminals to the external leads.

2. Maximum Collector Dissipation

It is defined as the ability of transistor to dissipate heat in the collector
junction. Thus it is a rating used to indicate the limits on the power
handling capability of a transistor. In normal operation of a transistor, two
junctions carry approximately the some current (IE ≅ IC). But the collector-
base junction has a much higher voltage across it than emitter-base
junction. As a result of this, the power dissipation in a collector-base
junction is of more importance. Mathematically, the maximum collector
(or power) dissipation is given by
PD(max) = VCE X IC(max)
= VCE(max) X Ic
 The value of maximum power dissipation, PD(max) is usually specified at an
ambient temperature of 25°C For higher temperature, the value of P
(max) will be less.

3. Maximum Output Voltage

In most of the applications, the collector-base junction is subjected to the
highest voltages. Since there is a possibility of voltage breakdown at high
voltages, therefore, it is necessary to specify the maximum allowable
collector-base voltage or collector-emitter voltage or both. The voltage
breakdown, which can occur in a transistor is of two types, namely
avalanche breakdown and punch-through.

4. Maximum Output Voltage

The absolute maximum value of collector-to-base VCB(max) or collector-to-
emitter voltage VCE(max) which a transistor can handle safely is called
maximum output voltage.

NPN transistors
Categor
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot y Possible
Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical substitutes
use)
Audio,
BC182
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW low
BC547
power
General
BC108C
purpose,
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW BC183
low
BC548
power
General
purpose,
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW
low
power
Audio
(low
BC184
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise),
BC549
low
power
General
purpose, BC107
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW
low BC182L
power
General
purpose, BC107
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW
low BC182
power
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, BC107B
low
 power
General
purpose,
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW BC108B
low
power
Audio
(low
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), BC109
low
power
General
purpose,
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW BFY51
low
power
General
purpose,
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW BC639
medium
power
General
purpose,
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW BFY51
medium
power
General
purpose,
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W
high
power
General
purpose, TIP31C
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W
high TIP41A
power
General
purpose, TIP31A
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W
high TIP41A
power
General
purpose,
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W
high
power
General
purpose,
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W
high
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which
are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please
consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code Structure Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Categor Possible
 y
style max. max. min. max. (typical substitutes
use)
Audio,
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW low BC477
power
General
purpose,
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW BC478
low
power
Audio
(low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise),
low
power
Audio,
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW low BC177
power
General
purpose,
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW BC178
low
power
General
purpose,
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W TIP32C
high
power
General
purpose,
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W TIP32A
high
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which
are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please
consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

Testing of Transistor

Meter check of a transistor  Decided whether transistor is OK

Bipolar transistors are constructed of a three-layer semiconductor
"sandwich," either PNP or NPN. As such, they register as two diodes
connected back-to-back when tested with a multimeter's "resistance" or
"diode check" functions: Fig.4.30 and Fig.4.31 shows testing of Transistor.
 Fig.4.30.Testing of PNP Transistor

Here I'm assuming the use of a multimeter with only a single continuity
range (resistance) function to check the PN junctions. Some multimeters are
equipped with two separate continuity check functions :
1. Resistance and
2. "Diode check,"
each with its own purpose. If your meter has a designated "diode check"
function, use that rather than the "resistance" range, and the meter will
display the actual forward voltage of the PN junction and not just whether or
not it conducts current.
 Fig.4.31.Testing of PNP Transistor
Meter readings will be exactly opposite, of course, for an NPN transistor, with
both PN junctions facing the other way.

If a multimeter with a "diode check" function is used in this test, it will

be found that the emitter-base junction possesses a slightly greater forward
voltage drop than the collector-base junction. This forward voltage difference
is due to the disparity in doping concentration between the emitter and
collector regions of the transistor: the emitter is a much more heavily doped
piece of semiconductor material than the collector, causing its junction with
the base to produce a higher forward voltage drop.

Knowing this, it becomes possible to determine which wire is which on

an unmarked transistor. This is important because transistor packaging,
unfortunately, is not standardized. All bipolar transistors have three wires, of
course, but the positions of the three wires on the actual physical package
are not arranged in any universal, standardized order.

Suppose a technician finds a bipolar transistor and proceeds to

measure continuity with a multimeter set in the "diode check" mode.
Measuring between pairs of wires and recording the values displayed by the
meter, the technician obtains the following data. Fig.4.32, fig.4.33 shows how
lead of unknown transistor can be found using multimeter.
 Fig.4.32. Finding the lead of Transistor

1. Meter touching wire 1 (+) and 2 (-): "OL"

2. Meter touching wire 1 (-) and 2 (+): "OL"
3. Meter touching wire 1 (+) and 3 (-): 0.655 volts
4. Meter touching wire 1 (-) and 3 (+): "OL"
5. Meter touching wire 2 (+) and 3 (-): 0.621 volts
6. Meter touching wire 2 (-) and 3 (+): "OL"

The only combinations of test points giving conducting meter readings

are wires 1 and 3 (red test lead on 1 and black test lead on 3), and wires 2
and 3 (red test lead on 2 and black test lead on 3). These two readings must
indicate forward biasing of the emitter-to-base junction (0.655 volts) and the
collector-to-base junction (0.621 volts).

Now we look for the one wire common to both sets of conductive
readings. It must be the base connection of the transistor, because the base
is the only layer of the three-layer device common to both sets of PN
junctions (emitter-base and collector-base).

In this example, that wire is number 3, being common to both the 1-3
and the 2-3 test point combinations. In both those sets of meter readings, the
black (-) meter test lead was touching wire 3, which tells us that the base of
this transistor is made of N-type semiconductor material (black = negative).
Thus, the transistor is an PNP type with base on wire 3, emitter on
wire 1 and collector on wire 2:

Fig.4.33. Finding the lead of the transistor

 Please note that the base wire in this example is not the middle lead of
the transistor, as one might expect from the three-layer "sandwich" model of
a bipolar transistor. This is quite often the case, and tends to confuse new
students of electronics. The only way to be sure which lead is which is by a
meter check, or by referencing the manufacturer's "data sheet"
documentation on that particular part number of transistor.

Knowing that a bipolar transistor behaves as two back-to-back diodes

when tested with a conductivity meter is helpful for identifying an unknown
transistor purely by meter readings. It is also helpful for a quick functional
check of the transistor.
If the technician were to measure continuity in any more than two or
any less than two of the six test lead combinations, he or she would
immediately know that the transistor was defective (or else that it wasn't a
bipolar transistor but rather something else -- a distinct possibility if no part
numbers can be referenced for sure identification

Summary
1. Tested with a multimeter in the "resistance" or "diode
check" modes, a transistor behaves like two back-to-back PN (diode)
junctions.
2. The emitter-base PN junction has a slightly greater
forward voltage drop than the collector-base PN junction, due to more
concentrated doping of the emitter semiconductor layer.
3. The reverse-biased base-collector junction normally
blocks any current from going through the transistor between emitter
and collector. However, that junction begins to conduct if current is
drawn through the base wire. Base current can be thought of as
"opening a gate" for a certain, limited amount of current through the
collector.

Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes
1. Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108,
BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The
second letter indicates the type;
for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power
audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor.
There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is
added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main
type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a
project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the
general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.

2. Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A

 TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The
letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.

3. Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053

The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code
identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the
numbering system.

Question Bank for 4 marks

1. Explain constructional details of transistor and draw its
symbol?
2. Why is this device called as transistor?
3. Why is it called as a “Bipolar” Transistor ?
4. Explain the operation of transistor ?
5. Explain operation of NPN transistor ?
6. Explain the operation of PNP transistor ?
7. Explain different operating modes of transistor ?
8. Explain different configurations in which transistor can be
used?
9. Explain operation of transistor as an amplifier?
10. Explain common base configurations with proper
diagram?
11. What do you mean by characteristics of transistor?
12. Explain input characteristics configuration of common
base configuration
13. Explain the output characteristics of common base
configuration with neat wave form.
14. Explain with Circuit diagram common emitter
configuration of transistor?
15. Derive relation between α and β .
16. Explain input characteristic with neat diagram.
17. Explain Output characteristic of CE configuration
18. Explain with neat label diagram the common collector
configuration.
19. Give relation between ν and α ?
20. Give expression for emitter current in common collector
configuration?
21. List the characteristics of CB,CC,CE Amplifier ?
22. Compare CB,CC,CE configuration ?
23. Which of three (CB,CC,CE) configuration is widely used.
24. List application of transistor?
25. List specification of transistor?
26. Describe the terms Active , Cutoff , Saturation related to
transistor operation

Question for 2 marks

State the meaning of emitter , base , and collector ?
State function of emitter , base , and collector ?
 Describe why doping of emitter , base , and collector is
different ?
Describe why doping of emitter is high?
Describe why doping of base is low ?
Describe why doping of collector is moderate ?
Describe why width of emitter , base , and collector is
different ?
Describe why width of emitter is moderate?
Describe why width of base is thin ?
Describe why width of collector is high ?

State the resistance of all three layer ?

Draw symbol for NPN and PNP transistor ?
Why transistor is called as BJT ?
What B stand for in BJT ?
What J stand for in BJT ?
What T stand for in BJT ?
Define α of common base configuration ?
Define β of common emitter configuration ?
Define ν of common collector configuration ?
Define the term Input and Output resistance of
Transistor ?
State three configuration of Transistor ?
List four mode of operation of transistor ?
State the biasing condition of junction in Active mode ?
State the biasing condition of junction in cutoff mode ?
State the biasing condition of junction in saturation
mode ?
State the biasing condition of junction in inverse mode ?
Why saturation mode of operation is called as Closed
switch ?
Why cutoff mode of operation is called as open switch ?
29. What is resistance of BE junction of NPN transistor when it
is forward biased ?
30. What is resistance of CB junction of NPN transistor when it
is reverse biased ?
31. What is resistance of BE junction of PNP transistor when it
is forward biased ?
32. What is resistance of CB junction of PNP transistor when it
is reverse biased ?
33. Find β of transistor if α is 0.9
34. Find ν of transistor if α is 0.9
35. Find α of transistor if β is 250
36. Find α of transistor if ν is 200
37. Find Leakage current ICEO if α is 0.9 and ICBO = 100η A
 38. Find the total collector current of CB configuration if α is
0.9 , IE = 10mA
and leakage current ICBO = 100η A
39. Find the total collector current of CE configuration if α is
0.92 , IB = 10µA
and leakage current ICBO = 150η A
40. Find the total collector current of CE configuration if α is
0.96 , IB = 10µA
and leakage current ICBO = 250η A
The End
Mr Manoj S. Kavedia
9423088039
Institute of Technology Ulhasnagar
Sr.Lecturer