Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
How people presented themselves varied not only between different areas, but also over time.
Groups that treated material culture in a fairly similar way during Period IB (c. 1600-1500 BC)
start treating it in different ways during Period II (c. 1500-1300 BC). In southern Scandinavia
during Period II the material culture is fairly similar on the whole, but the different geograph-
ical groups use the artefacts in different ways. The level of violence seems to have fluctuated
in the area during the Middle Bronze Age, with some areas showing more signs of violence at
certain times. On the other hand the view on ageing seems to have been fairly similar over a
large part of central and northern Europe, and from age 14 one seems to have been regarded
as an adult. The dissertation also shows that long distance contacts were important and wide-
ranging, and people seem to have moved across large areas of Europe, even if the visible ex-
ISBN
ISSN 0349-4128
Bronze Age Identities:
Costume, Conflict and Contact in
Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Sophie Bergerbrant
Bricoleur Press
Staviksvägen 2
437 92 Lindome
Bricoleur@telia.com
http://www.bricoleurpress.com/
Preface
Writing a Ph.D. is a long process and many people have and insights my Ph.D. would have many more errors than it
passed my way and provided inspiration during this time. does now; all remaining mistakes in the book are, of course,
It is not possible to name them all. I am grateful for many entirely my own fault.
things, both small and great, in the course of this journey. I am also indebted to Dr Kristin Bornholdt Collins who
I am especially grateful to my supervisor, Professor Kris- commented on my text and helped me transform it into
tian Kristiansen, who has shown a genuine interest in my good academic English. Thanks are also due to Jeanette Var-
work from an early point and who has helped me with berg and Dr Jutta Kneisel for translating my summary into
many questions and different aspects of my research over Danish and German.
the years. This journey has demanded many trips to museums and
I would also like to thank the faculty, staff and Ph.D. stu- archives to look at material and related documentation. I
dents (past and present) at the Department of Archaeol- am grateful to the staff at: Prehistoric department at the Na-
ogy and Classical Studies for the support they have giv- tional Museum Copenhagen, The archaeology department
en me through the years. Particular thanks go to Dr Ing- at Stiftung, Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen Schloß
mar Jansson and Professor Anders Andrén for providing a Gottorf, Department of Prehistory at Niedersächsisches
desk at which I could work for the last two and half years. Landesmuseum Hannover and The Museum of National
I am also very grateful to Ingmar Jansson for all the time Antiquities in Stockholm, all of whom deserve many thanks
he spent writing references for me; they have surely been a for making my time at their respective institution pleasant
great help. I also wish to thank some of my fellow Ph.D. stu- and interesting. A special thank you goes to the staff at the
dents (past or present) in Stockholm and elsewhere: Anna Library of the Royal Academy of Letters, History and Antiq-
Arnberg, Lena Berg Nilsson, Dr Christina Fredengren, Ulf uities for always being kind and for taking the time to help
Fransson, Dr Joakim Goldhahn, Dr Cecilia von Heijne, Jo- me find the books I needed to write this dissertation.
han Ling, Petra Molnar, Anne Monikander, Dr Elisabet Reg- I would also like to thank the following institutions, since
ner, Serena Sabatini, Dr Ylva Stenqvist Millde, Marie Svedin, without their generous financial help this Ph.D. would not
Dr Susanne Thedéen and Dr Helena Victor. have been possible: Birgit och Gad Rausings Stiftelse för Hu-
I am most grateful to Dr Marie Louise Stig Sørensen for manistisk Forskning; DAAD Deutscher Akademischer Aus-
helping me set the foundations for this work during my tauschdienst; Ebbe Kocks stiftelse; Fonden for Dansk-Sven-
year as an M.Phil. student in Cambridge (1995/6). Thanks sk Samarbejde; Greta Arwidssons fond; Gunvor och Josef
should also go to all my Cambridge friends for making the Anérs stiftelse; Helge Ax:son Johnsons Stiftelse; Kungliga
experience so enjoyable despite all the hard work. Gustav Adolfs Akademin; Hildebrandsfonden; Letterstedt-
For encouraging my gender interests, I wish to thank Dr ska föreningen; Rosa och Viktor Tengborgs resestipendium;
Elisabeth Arwill-Nordbladh, Dr Tove Hjørungdal and Dr Stiftelen Konung Gustav VI Adolf fond för svensk kultur;
Kristina Jennbert. I am especially indebted to Dr Elisabeth Stiftelsen Montelius Minnesfond; Stiftelsen Syskonen Will-
Arwill-Nordbladh who took the time to help me overcome a ers donationsfond; STINT; and Wallenbergsstiftelsens jubi-
difficult phase in my Ph.D. work. leumsfond.
I would also like to thank Professor Henrik Thrane, Pro- Another thank you should go to Dr Håkan Karlsson and
fessor Helle Vandkilde, Dr Mads Kähler Holst, Dr Elisabeth Anna-Carin Andersson for letting me publish this book at
Barford Carlsen and many more for making my six months Bricoleur Press.
in Aarhus (2001) so enjoyable and enlightening. I am equal- Finally, my family should be thanked for supporting me
ly grateful to Professor Bernhard Hänsel, as well as the rest through the years and for not letting it show if they ever
of the staff and students at the Institut für Prähistorische gave up on this large project.
Archäologie, Freie Universität, Berlin, for making me feel at
home there during my eight-month stay in Berlin (2002/3). Stockholm April 2007
The directors of the Skelhøj project should also be Sophie Bergerbrant
thanked for letting me excavate with them, which not on-
ly improved my excavations skills, but also enabled me to
get practical, hands-on experience of Bronze Age mounds
and their structures. For this invaluable experience especial
thanks are owed to Professor Hennrik Breunning-Madsen,
Dr Mads Kähler Holst and Marianne Rasmussen.
I am very grateful to Professor Lise Bender Jørgensen,
Professor Kristian Kristiansen, Dr Neil Price, Marianne Ras-
mussen, Dr Joanna Sofaer, Professor Märta Strömberg and
Professor Henrik Thrane for reading either my complete
Ph.D. manuscript or parts of it. Without their comments
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
constructs and restricts, forcing the person and ob- sword and a flint strike-a-light (Ølmosehuse, Har-
jects into association. It envelops the body and, as aldsted, Ringsted, Sorø Ke1093B) has been osteo-
a human creation, is itself a form of material cul- logically determined as female (Bennike 1985:199f,
ture … the archaeologist has to maintain the rela- Randsborg 2006:36). A new examination of the bur-
tionship between the body and object through the ial shows that the hip bone used to determine the
study of the skeleton as well as through reference sex differs in colour and preservation condition
to the interpretation of symbolic elements of mate- from the other bone(s). In addition there is anoth-
rial culture linked to the perception of the fleshed er hip bone fragment that partly overlaps with the
living body”. One must be sensitive to this reality, bone used to determine the sex, while matching the
examine the full context of a find and read all the other fragments in colour and condition. This indi-
available clues when approaching the problem of cates that the first hip bone fragment came from a
gender and social identities. separate individual and casts doubt on the origi-
For further discussion about biological sex, sexu- nal designation of the burial. A measurement of the
ality and gender see chapter 4. femoral head suggests that it belonged to a person
with masculine traits, although it was not possible
Archaeological versus osteological to make a positive determination to either sex (Pers.
sexing comm. Pia Bennike 2007-02-09). From these correla-
As early as 1837 Bartsch had started examining tions one can see that certain artefacts belong to the
which objects accompanied women and men in male sphere and others to the female sphere. There
the grave. His work was based on the prehistoric are also a lot of objects that can be found in both
grave material from Mecklenburg. Müller conduct- male and female burial combinations like daggers,
ed a similar examination in 1876 using the Danish and these are seen as unisex objects. Many of the
Bronze Age material. Müller focused on the Bronze more traditional sexed combinations have paral-
Age and used the few well-preserved oak log coffin lels in the Central European material where skel-
graves found at the time as a starting point. Müller etal material and artefact correlations can be com-
regarded swords, other weapons and some tools as pared. In Continental Europe, for example, sword,
male objects and the belt plate and ‘diadem’ as ex- daggers and axes are found in male graves, where-
amples of female objects. In 1886 Bahnson entered as neck rings, neck collars, wheel-headed pins and
into the discussion, also basing his arguments on heart shaped pendants are found in female burials
the oak log coffin graves as well as other recent (Kubach-Richter & Kubach 1989:86, Wels-Weyrauch
finds, i.e. finds from the mid to late nineteenth cen- 1989a:188ff). Welinder (1977:83ff) discusses the arte-
tury. By this time, Sehested had excavated ploughed fact combinations found in Period II Scanian graves.
out barrows on Funen where the ‘diadem’ had been He argues that in one grave a dagger is found in
found in situ, and it was realised that it was a neck combination with a belt plate and therefore daggers
collar rather than a diadem. Bahnson points out that alone cannot be seen as an indication of males. De-
there are many unisex artefacts, such as awls, dif- spite this he has one male category that contains
ferent rings etc. (Bahnson 1886, Bartsch 1837, Müller daggers; he may have determined these graves to
1876, Sehested 1884). As Hjørungdal (1994) observes, male due to other non weapon objects in the bur-
the nineteenth-century ideal of “the needle-work- ials, but this is not explained in the text and it is
ing woman in the doll’s house” had a big influence therefore hard to evaluate his results of which arte-
on the criteria of archaeologically sexing graves. In facts indicate male versus female.
some cases even the lack of weapon was enough to
determine the grave to female. This can still be seen In this dissertation the following objects are used
1
Håkansson (1985:85)
in the work of some modern day archaeologists. for an archaeological sexing of the burials:
claims that they have As noted above, one problem with the Middle
been renumbered and
the key has been lost. Nordic Bronze Age culture material is that very few Southern Scandinavia
This, however, is not skeletons survive. The preservation of skeletons in Male: swords, axes, socketed axes, belt hooks,
the case. The materi-
al from many early ex- the different areas varies widely. There is slight- razors, tweezers, flint strike-a-lights, and slate
cavations was given ly more preserved skeletal material from Sweden pendants.
to the Anatomical In-
stitute in Lund. Un- than from Denmark, but there has been no system- Female: belt plates, neck-rings, neck collars and
fortunately they did
not keep track of the
atic examination of this material. For Scania, which bronze tubes.
origin of the bones. has a greater number of bone remains than many Unisex: include daggers, awls, arm- and finger-
Even though they are
now back in storage
other areas, much of the material found in the nine- rings, pins, fibulae and double buttons.
at the Lunds Historis- teenth and early twentieth centuries is not available
for modern research.1 My study is therefore main-
ka Muesum there is no
way of knowing from Lower Saxony
where they originated ly based on artefact assemblages, for example a full Male: axes, daggers, flint arrowheads, spear-
(Pers. comm. Ylva Ols-
son, 26/8-2002) length sword has never been found with a belt plate heads, and certain pin types.
in a closed burial assemblage. One grave with a Female: wheel-headed pins, bronze tubes, neck
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
collars, neck-rings, round bronze discs, certain istence or lack of female graves will be discussed
arm-rings such as ribbed arm-rings, bronze based on the combinations in these two graves, and
studs, and ‘diadems’ etc. compared with the standard male assemblages. For
Unisex: include Lockenring, different types of further discussion see chapter 3.
arm-rings and some fibulae.
In Lower Saxony there are only a few belt hooks and Terminology
they are generally of a different type from the Scan- Bronze Age culture and chronology
dinavian ones. There exist three belt hooks of Scan- Vandkilde (1996:11) renames the Danish Early
dinavian type: one a Period IB type found in grave Bronze Age to the Danish Older Bronze Age. She
which could be said to be a man from the Valsø- does this in order to distinguish it from the Central
magle area (Bergerbrant 2005a:165), while the others and western European Early Bronze Age, which
are single finds without exact information. There is generally is earlier than the Scandinavian. At the be-
also a belt hook of unknown type without informa- ginning of my Ph.D. work I decided to follow Vand-
tion relating to find circumstances. The belt hooks kilde’s example and referred to Periods I and II as
of ‘Lüneburg’ type are shaped like a paper stapler. the Older Nordic Bronze Age instead of the Early
There are 13 known examples, and of these nine de- Nordic Bronze Age, so as not to confuse the reader
rive from Wardböhmen (Laux 1971:67 + catalogue). when the materials are compared with other Euro-
At least five are from female graves and four from pean material, as the periods in this study are main-
male graves. Therefore belt hooks must be seen as ly contemporary with Central European Middle
unisex artefacts that appear to have been used es- Bronze Age. However, while writing the text it be-
pecially in Wardböhmen. came difficult to use the terms clearly without con-
Sword blades, if they occur alone, i.e. without oth- stant need for clarification. I have therefore chosen
er bronze objects, are here seen as belonging to the to describe the time period between 1600 and 1300
male sphere. This is the case, even though partial BC as the Middle Bronze Age regardless of which
sword blades can occur in female graves as well, area is being discussed. This may be justified by
since they have never appeared as the only object in the fact that so many traits and structures are simi-
a grave which has been osteologicaly determined lar around Europe during the time in question and
as female. In graves related to females the sword many changes happen more or less simultaneously
blades are broken (only the lower half is found in in different regions. For a more detailed chronologi-
the graves) and it is normally placed at the waist ar- cal discussion see chapter 2
ea (Ølby, Højelse, Ramsø, København Ke299). The
correlation of whole swords with males is accept- The south Scandinavian Bronze Age
ed by analogy with Continental European results, The Nordic Bronze Age culture has been given a
where the association of swords and osteological- very wide geographical area by some authors. In
ly determined male graves is well established. Un- Swedish basic archaeology textbooks such as Bu-
like Aner and Kersten, graves containing only arm- renhult (1991:49ff) and Hårdh (1993:63) the Nordic
rings or finger-rings have not been automatically Bronze Age culture covers an area from the Elbe to
determined as females, since, in my opinion, it is the Mälar Valley, including Norway up to Trønde-
not a valid conclusion. Rings are common in male lag. Bolin (1999) argued that the northern border of
graves as well, and determining a grave as that of the culture should be drawn at least as far north as
a female by the lack of weapons seems only to re- Ångermanland (north Sweden). I would, however,
flect the nineteenth century ideal of women (see argue for a different border that is farther south. In-
above). fluences have obviously passed through the differ-
The female graves assumed for Period IB are gen- ent geographical areas, but giving one culture name
erally designated as female because of the lack of to such a large geographical area with so many dif-
weapons. Hachmann (1957: 54ff) argues that graves ferent archaeological structures is problematic. By
containing certain artefacts are female, such as regarding it as one culture, as Bolin does (indirect-
small daggers, awls and certain pin types. This has, ly he interprets a Nordic Bronze Age Culture that
for example, been adopted by Willroth (1992:46f), stretches from the River Elbe to the middle part of
who designates graves containing pins as female. northern Sweden), the very notion of culture is di-
This gives him for his area of study, Angel and luted and perhaps even rendered meaningless.
Schwansen, Schleswig-Holstein, 29 male Period I Thrane (1998) poses the question: is Scandinavia
graves and just one possible female. The determi- one culture during the Bronze Age? He never re-
nation of female graves in this dissertation is ar- ally answers the question, but Thrane argues that
gued from the graves which hold female foreign barrow and cairn have different practical influ-
artefacts, such as Fallingbostel, Lower Saxony and ences on the landscape. While cairns can be seen
Fahrenkrug, Segeberg, Schleswig-Holstein. The ex- as partly useful, as they can have a side effect of
10 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
clearing an area from stones (and making it into a Bronze Age (Thrane 1975:15 fig 1, Willroth 1996:14f,
field), the barrows have the opposite effect, remov- see figure 2).
ing a field from arable use and leaving a scar in Bolin (2000:34) is correct in arguing that archaeo-
the landscape. Thrane, however, argues that they logical material and features have a tendency both
are two sides of the same phenomenon, monu- to overlap and in some cases exclude each other, so
mental structures over powerful families. Recent- one has to take into account both similarities and
ly, this has been debated concerning the Mälar Val- differences in delineating social structures and
ley cairns. Some scholars regard the cairns as bur- geographical boundaries. However, my conclu-
ial places of specific people, such as ritual leaders sion about how far the Nordic Bronze Age culture
(see Thedéen 2004:89-131). Should the south Scan- can be found is very different from his. Bolin sees
dinavian mound-building Middle Bronze Age cul- cairns and heaps of fire-cracked stones (Swedish:
ture and the cairn-building areas, for example the skärvstenshögar) as structures where the northern
Mälar Valley, really be seen as one culture? There Swedish areas intersect and overlap with the more
are clear indications that the picture is complex, southern regions. In my view, the author has the
as has been shown in recent Ph.D. dissertations by Mälar Valley material in mind when he designates
Thedéen (2004) and Skoglund (2005). these overlapping structures as the Nordic Bronze
Kristiansen (1998:68ff) argues that the Nordic Age culture. While it is correct that both cairns and
Bronze Age culture was composed of elements of heaps of fire-cracked stones exist in Scania and Den-
general European origin, such as tumulus barrows mark, the presence of each is minor compared with
and later urn burials, and components of genuine the mounds and ‘normal’ refuse patterns. The most
Nordic origin, e.g. the lurs and female belt orna- common refuse pattern in Denmark and Scania is
ments. According to Kristiansen there are some ba- seen in different kinds of pits (Artursson 2005b:130).
Figure 2: Dis- sic social and cultural traditions that define the larg- A parallel might be the mounds in the Mälar Val-
tribution of dif- er Nordic group, even though local traditions and ley, but compared with the cairns they are a minor-
ferent Bronze variations are apparent. The area where these tra- ity structure. With a broader outlook that includes
Age cultures and
groups (based on ditions can be seen expands during the Bronze Age the Central European material one finds many
map by G. We- from a smaller area centred on present day Den- overlapping structures between southern Scandi-
berinJockenhöv- mark in the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age navia and Central Europe. These structures are, for
el 1994:14). to a much wider geographical area during the later example, burying the dead in a wood or stone cof-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 11
2
References to the
different catalogues eral publications were used for Lower Saxony, in- as well as woodwork and other aspects of materi-
are Oldeberg =O+nr,
Håkansson = Hå + nr,
cluding the catalogues in Bergmann (1970) Die äl- al culture from the Middle Bronze Age in the Nor-
Aner and Kersten = Ke tere Bronzezeit Nordwestdeutschland. Neue Methoden dic region.
+ nr, Laux 1971 = L +
nr, Vandkilde 1996 =
zur Ethnischen und Historischen Interpretation Urge- The mounds that contain preserved oak log cof-
Va + nr.
3
schichtlicher Quellen; Laux (1971) Die Bronzezeit in der fins have an inner soil core and outer mantle, each
‘Empty graves’ are
those found with-
Lüneburg Heide; and Piesker (1958) Untersuchungen with different soil qualities. The unusually good
out any artefacts. This zur älteren Lüneburgischen Bronzezeit; as well as some preservation of some of the oak coffins and their
does not necessarily
mean the deceased was Prähistorische Bronzefunde (PBF) volumes (Laux 1976, contents is due to the creation of an iron pan, both
buried without grave 2000).2 In order to include some of the newer mate- at the bottom of the mound and in the upper layer,
goods. The man from
Borum Eshøj grave A rial that has come to light only after the seminal cat- sealing the core environment from the mantle. This
would have been emp-
ty if the preservation
alogue publications, the Arkæologiske udgravninger i created a very wet or water-logged soil with anaer-
conditions had not Danmark (AUD) was also consulted. My studies are obic conditions conducive to exceptional preserva-
been so extraordinari-
ly good. We know from
mainly based on the catalogue material, which is tion. Many mounds from this time period have de-
the well known oak log presented in the appendices. I also conducted some veloped an iron pan in the bottom of the mound
coffin graves that tex-
tile, wooden artefacts
studies to check the reliability of the catalogues, in- (between the subsoil and the turf), but few have
and horn objects played cluding personally examining some of the artefacts the upper layer preserved (Breuning-Madsen &
an important role in the
grave tradition. at relevant museums as well as examining select- Holst 1995:89-81). The first theory on this phenom-
ed archival material. A wide-ranging comparative enon was that iron pans resulted from podzolisa-
study such as the one undertaken here would have tion. In the 1920s the podzolization theory was still
been impossible if one had had to collect all the ma- held, but was refined with the explanation that the
terial oneself and look at all the objects held by mu- soil from the core came from wetlands. Modern re-
seums. In most cases the judgements of the authors search has shown that the soils in all parts of the
of the catalogues were relied on where dates and mound seem to come from similar types of soils.
artefact types were available. However, sometimes This has led to the view that the iron pans were cre-
the different authors disagree on basic designations, ated by gley processes. The latest result in the study
and then I have used my own judgement to deter- of iron core creation in Middle Bronze Age mounds
mine artefact type or date. For Period I in Schleswig- indicates that the redox process was responsible for
Holstein the drawings in Aner and Kersten provid- the creation of a sealed wet environment. The redox
ed the basis for classifying the objects as either Pe- process means that wet anaerobic conditions arose
riod IA or IB. The material that was examined more in the core of the mound due to oxygen depletion
closely, i.e. that with a plan for the grave, also relied as a result of the decomposition of plant remains
on my own assessment to date the object or deter- shortly after the barrow was constructed. Around
mine the artefact type. this anaerobic core area a thin, strongly cemented
One problem is that the different catalogues vary iron pan formed. It is believed that the way the tu-
in what data they present, which makes statistical mulus was built influenced the creation of the iron
comparison difficult at times. In Aner and Kersten pan (Breuning-Madsen & Holst 1998). Experimen-
there are grave structures without artefacts that are tal archaeology at the Historical-Archaeological
likely to have belonged to the Middle Bronze Age. Research Centre at Lejre has shown that it is possi-
In Oldeberg those ‘empty’3 graves are only present- ble to generate anaerobic conditions in the core of a
ed if they were found in an excavation which pro- mound while the mantle and subsoil remain aero-
duced graves containing artefacts as well. bic. The experiment also showed that this can take
place within just a short time span and that it cre-
Oak log coffins ates an atmosphere that prevents decay of, for ex-
The oak log coffin graves, some of which are found ample, textiles (Breunning-Madsen, Holst & Ras-
extremely well-preserved, are dated to the Middle mussen 2001:691ff). Breuning-Madsen and Holst
Scandinavian Bronze Age (Christensen 1998, 2006) have proposed that the core was compacted with
and contain the remains of inhumations; from lat- wet earth (if the core is created in the summer then
er phases they may also contain cremated remains. the soil is rewetted to ensure compaction), where-
4
The coffins are found in mounds, often with more as the mantle was made with less compaction. The
About 60 oak coffins
are reported to have than one grave in the barrow, but there is normal- decaying of the body, the coffin and the vegetation
been found, but many ly one central burial with a second or several other of the sods starts the gley and redox process and
of these have been de-
stroyed or have van- secondary graves in the upper layers or in the pe- the resulting iron pan stops the decaying processes
ished for different rea- riphery of the mound (Boye 1896, Glob 1970, Jensen, (Breuning-Madsen & Holst 1995:82-85).
sons (Christensen
2006:164). J. 1998). Many of the deceased were probably bur- Today, around 30 barrows with preserved oak
5
Of these, 19 definite-
ied in oak log coffins, as indicated by excavations, coffins have been excavated.4 Of these, 20 contain
ly and five probably are but only a few of them have survived intact for us to datable artefacts and they all date to a limited time
dated between c. 1391
BC to c. 1344 BC (Chris-
excavate. Some of the best preserved oak log coffins frame during the Middle Bronze Age. The creation
tensen 2006:187). also contain information about textile and clothing, of the iron pan seems to be the result of special ac-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 13
Figure 4: Iron
pan from Kong-
sted (from Holst
et al. 2006: fig-
ure 1).
tivities while erecting the tumulus. Of the dendro- more show indications of a weakly developed iron
chronologically dated coffins, 24 occupy a brief win- pan. The barrows with a well-preserved iron pan
dow dating within 505 years of each other; when seem to follow the Aarhus-Lemvig line (Holst, Bre-
the rest of the dated coffins are added, all exam- uning-Madsen & Rasmusen 2001:132-135). This
ples fall within a c. 150-year range (fourteenth and would indicate that cultural practices in mound
beginning of the thirteenth centuries BC) (Chris- construction can vary from region to region.
tensen 1998, 2006:187, Holst, Breuning-Madsen & The special preservation conditions in the bar-
Rasmusen 2001:128-131, Jensen, J. 1993:187ff). rows with an iron pan, as well as in bogs, are very
Modern scientific studies have shown that there good for the preservation of skin, hair, leather and
are many mounds on southern Jutland and in north- wool. However, the conditions do not preserve
ernmost Germany that still have a well-developed material made out of plants, such as linen (Bar-
iron pan, i.e. with an enclosing iron core, and many ber 1991:176, Ehlers 1998:6, Meloudie 2000:05). This
14 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
makes it difficult to say if linen was used during topics and themes that are dealt within the chapters
the Middle Scandinavian Bronze Age. We know will be considered in greater depth in each chapter.
that linen was used for clothing in Central Europe Relations between different Bronze Age areas
(Bender Jørgensen 1992:116). There are, however, in Europe have often been interpreted in terms of
no flax remains from Scandinavia (Sweden) from centre and periphery (e.g. Kristiansen 1987, Sherratt
the Middle Bronze Age, and it is only in the Lat- 1993). Theories such as centre and periphery (world
er Bronze Age that flax first appears (Gustavsson system theory) may in many ways seem gender
1998:66f). However, remains of linen are known neutral, mainly because they frequently appear to
from a male Period II grave from Vaale, Steinburg, be depopulated. There is nothing inherently andro-
Ke 9508 (Ehlers 1998:220, List 5 nr 4). centric in the theory when one looks at it on the
The preserved oak log coffins have mainly been surface. The problem starts when one looks at the
found on Jutland. There are, however, early stories underlying concepts. It is in many ways based on
about possible oak log coffin graves with well-pre- the domestic – public dichotomy, a concept that
served individuals in Scania, Västergötland and has been criticised by many feminists (for archae-
on Gotland (Floderus 1931, Simrishamnsbladet 3/9 ology see Arwill-Nordbladh 1994). Other theories,
1904, Weiler 1994:26). These, however, seem to have such as the so-called liberal power theories, are also
been found in slightly different circumstances. One based on the assumption of a dichotomy between
oak log coffin containing a skeleton was found in the public and domestic (Nordin 1991:7). Analyses
a bog in Scania by a farmer in the early twentieth from these kinds of theoretical viewpoints will find
century; it was immediately returned to the bog by it hard to break through the androcentric bias and
the finder (Simrishamnsbladet 3/9 1904). The pos- they impede the possibility of identifying female
sible case from Västergötland was found in a trib- power structures.
utary of Viska river during the 1870s.6 It contained In world system theory relationships between
remains of a skeleton and clothing, as well as rem- the core and the periphery are seen as relationships
nants of a probable wooden box placed next to the where the partners are more or less dependent on
head (Hildebrand 1879, Weiler 1994:26). Unfortu- each other. Based on alliances between different
nately this hollowed out oak log and its contents areas, a core area and a periphery are created. In
are not preserved in the SHM storage (pers. comm. the original theory by Wallerstein the core is seen
Inga Ullén 2004-07-27) and therefore it is not possi- as using the periphery for its raw material (Row-
ble to securely date this find. However, in the out- lands 1987:5). In north European archaeology, how-
skirts of a bog in Rone on Gotland an oak log cof- ever, the areas with the valuable raw materials (as
fin was found containing a sword blade and a pom- we understand them) are generally interpreted as
mel as well as a fibula dating to Period II (Floderus the centre. In his work on the European Bronze Age
1931:284ff, SHM 19099). Fragments of oak log cof- world system, Sherratt (1993) sees the raw materials,
fins have been found in mounds in southern Swe- such as metal, salt, and hides, moving southwards
den (Boye 1896:170ff), but none of these have been (i.e. towards the Mediterranean) and manufactured
as well preserved as the ones found on Jutland and goods, such as wine and drinking sets, going north-
Schleswig. There is therefore positive evidence wards. It is assumed by most authors that men up-
that oak log coffins were used for burials in Swe- held these contacts, even if women could have been
den as well, even if the find circumstances of the used as marriage partners to confirm the relation-
preserved ones are slightly different. This indicates ships (e.g. Kristiansen 1998:92). These assumptions
that mounds in the Danish Isles and southern Swe- rest on to the abovementioned domestic – public
den were built differently from the ones in Sch- dichotomy, where men are seen as responsible for
leswig and southern Jutland. the external contacts, and women are seen as liv-
ing their lives within the household without influ-
Theoretical framework ence on the ‘greater’ political life. It can be shown
The Middle Scandinavian Bronze Age has long been that in some cases male and female spheres inter-
studied in terms of rank and elites (e.g. Larsson 1986, act with different regions (Bergerbrant 2005a); this
Müller 1897, Randsborg 1974). Frequently the society topic is discussed in more detail in chapter 7. Gröhn
6
is interpreted with the men having the leading po- (2004:135f) argues that even if we have to use anal-
Both Oldeberg and
Weilert write that sitions, while women only obtained status by mar- ogy in archaeology the models created by anthro-
it should have been riage (e.g. Kristiansen 1998, Herner 1987:21). This in- pologists never function according to the model in
two hollowed out oak
logs, but in the origi- terpretation is often taken for granted without any practise. It is true that we will never be able to de-
nal source (Hildebrand serious discussion or theoretical framework. The scribe the individual social action fully, e.g. specif-
1897) only one is not-
ed. It may be that there general theoretical framework concerning power ic marriage alliances, and have to settle with de-
is confusion regard-
ing the two parts of one
relations between individuals, gender groups and scribing a ‘norm’, i.e. a behavioural pattern created
hollowed out oak log, different areas will be discussed below, and rele- by the fusion of a large number of actions that have
i.e. the top and the bot-
tom of it.
vant theoretical discussions concerning the specific created the archaeological record into one model as
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 15
According to Renfrew (1986a) an object can as- cause it lacks weapons (see Hjørungdal 1994), nor
sume value in three different ways: 1) prime value, does a weapon automatically make a grave mas-
where material is valued for some arbitrary reason culine. These types of conclusions should only be
such as rarity and/or inherent attraction; 2) use val- made when we have secure patterns that indicate
ue, either in its current form or in terms of its po- such a relation between object and biological sex.
tential use, and; 3) labour value, where something is We have to actually look at our material before we
valued for the work involved in the process of cre- make any statements about gender, power or sta-
ating it. This is probably a rather good measure of tus.
an object’s value. However, valuable materials such I argue that with an engendered perspective it
as textiles are often forgotten in the discussion (An- is possible to use the ‘old’ theories and hypothe-
dersson, E. 1999). Andersson (1999) points out that ses in gender studies. In studying contact and re-
the making of both leather and textiles takes a long lations between different groups one should start
time. In the Old Norse Sagas textiles in the form using and thinking in terms of peer polity interac-
of tapestry are mentioned as valued possessions tion; if the studies show that interaction has not oc-
(Göransson 1999:129ff). Despite both archaeological curred on more or less equal terms then one can
remains of textile fragments and full outfits, as well look to centre-periphery as an explanatory model.
as spindle whorls etc., textile is seldom taken into It is, however, important to examine the goods and
account as a highly-skilled specialist craft, regard- ideas that travel in both directions, and not to fo-
less of the fact that it most probably was. They are cus only on, for example, bronze. In this thesis both
also seldom taken into account as prestige items, rank and social categories will be examined. The
unless mentioned in a subordinate clause. An ex- main focus will be on the upper stratum of society,
ception to this is Price (2002), who gives clothing, as it is the remains of these individuals that provide
masks and tapestries a central role in his interpreta- the data upon which this dissertation is based.
tions of the Late Iron Age in Scandinavia. Textiles in
the Bronze Age, for example, probably had a prime Burials, society and wealth
value (textiles over leather as well as the possibility It is important to discuss what a grave symbolises.
to shape cloth into different kinds of clothing, for Does it reflect an individual’s position in life or is it
example the above mentioned cap), a use value and a tradition that hides social differences? Many ar-
a labour value, as it is likely to have taken a consid- chaeological interpretations of a living society are
erable time to make them. Therefore it is important based on grave material; my position in this ongo-
to bring textiles and other perishable material into ing archaeological debate is argued below.
discussions about the value of objects, and to con- What can mortuary studies tell us? This has been
sider the contributions of different groups or gen- a lively debate in archaeology (the archaeology of
ders in the creation of status objects. death debate, e.g. O’Shea 1982, Parker Pearson 1982,
Sørensen (1992) has criticized Randsborg’s (1986) 1999, Tainter 1978). Is it only ritual behaviour we see
study of ‘Women in prehistory’ for taking for or do the burial practices reflect the deceased per-
granted control over economic resources (in this son’s life? I would argue that in most cases we can
case men taking control of work done by women), interpret things about the living society from the
which ought to be a matter of investigation. She burials, gaining insights into everyday life, and not
points out that his research has fundamental lim- just a belief system.
itations and is only “superficially based on analy- Many archaeologists argue that mortuary stud-
sis of the Bronze Age material and more generally ies are important within the archaeological field.
they rest on androcentric assumptions or ethnog- Some contend that it is mainly important for stud-
raphy” (Sørensen 1992:37). To avoid a skewed pic- ying and understanding ritual aspects of the socie-
ture, one needs to study the different contributions ty. Morris (1992), who puts an emphasis on the con-
of the genders to society and their control over oth- cept ‘rite de passage’, is an example of this. Thedéen
er groups/genders more thoroughly before one (2004) has, for example, conducted a study where
reaches final conclusions about fundamental pow- this concept is used on Bronze Age material from
er relations in the different societies. the Mälar Valley. This concept has also been used to
Most of the models presented above have noth- interpret other types of Bronze Age remains, for ex-
ing inherently androcentric about them. However, ample rock art (Hautptman Wahlgren 2002). Ritu-
the underlying concepts, such as the private – pub- al and religious meaning is of course a part of most
lic dichotomy, may have serious consequences for burials, and studies on this topic are important to
gender. In my opinion, from a gendered viewpoint, archaeology. In this study, however, the focus is on
we can use many of the existing theories/models, other aspects of society and my standpoint is that
as long as we use ‘gendered glasses’, and are critical one can glean more information from the burial
of old androcentric ideas. A rich grave does not au- record than mere ritual and religious knowledge.
tomatically become the grave of a ‘housewife’ be- It has been pointed out that burials are cultural
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 17
creations that can be used either to mask or to en- (1995) interprets female elite graves in the early La
hance social structures. In some periods it has been Téne culture as powerful women in their own right
claimed that analyses of graves and grave goods rather than ‘honorary males’. The reason that they
can be very rewarding and in other they are not could reach this status was because the elite men
as rewarding (Parker Pearson 1982). In my opinion were busy expanding the territory; this created a
the Middle Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia vacancy that the females could fill, even if tempo-
and in northern Germany is a period were mortu- rarily. So the ‘lack’ of men gave women a chance
ary analysis is very rewarding, for we have a well to achieve power. Shepard (1999) interprets the so-
preserved burial material where different levels - called Anglo-Saxon warrior maiden graves in simi-
even if not all levels - of the society are represent- lar terms. These are women who take on male roles
ed (see chapter 6). The burial practice of inhuma- when the family lacks a suitable son who can keep
tion with, in some cases, related artefacts, gives us its traditions and honour alive.
a good foundation for different types of mortuary
studies, from social to religious. Outline of a less gender biased framework
It has been claimed that “funeral practices serve Randsborg (1982) writes: “we cannot discuss chief-
to create an idealized representation – a ‘re-present- doms without considering the resources of the chief
ing’ of the individual by others rather than by the and, for that matter, of the whole elite”. In my opin-
man himself” (Parker Pearson 1999:4). This is prob- ion the author is right on this point, but we must
ably in many cases true, i.e. while the idealised pic- make our language and our analysis less androcen-
ture might not be an accurate reflection of the de- tric. It is not my aim to claim that we have powerful
ceased individual, it provides insights into the soci- women in every prehistoric society, but we cannot
ety in general. My view on interpreting the Middle rule out the possibility of authoritative female elites
Bronze Age burial material rests on the assumption before we even start our analysis. Controls of eco-
that the “individual’s treatment in death bears some nomic resources, especially food, are often seen as
predictable relationship of the individual’s state in very important in the making and maintenance of
life and to the organization of the society to which power (e.g. Gamble 1982, Halstead & O’Shea 1982).
the individual belonged” (O’Shea 1982:3). The discussion that follows will focus on some
Although there may also be religious, cosmologi- well-known ‘classic’ literature that also contributes
cal, mythical and ritual reasons for many aspects of to my arguments and perspective.
the burial tradition in the Bronze Age, the focus of Hodder (1982) has argued for a need to incor-
this study is on the social aspects that can be read porate a broader perspective than social systems
from the graves. This study therefore concentrates when discussing ranking in prehistoric societies.
on other aspects of Bronze Age society, in partic- He argues that we need to study more than just
ular information about the relationships between functional relationships, and bring in the struc-
male and female, various age groups and the dif- tures of ideas, legitimisation, beliefs and ideologies.
ferent geographical areas that were chosen for this In my opinion this works well with the idea of in-
study. More specifically, the focus is on body-relat- corporating gender into the elite debate. Indeed, it
ed artefacts and clothing. It can be shown that both might give us other ways into the elite:commoners
the clothing and the artefacts display a certain de- and male:female relationships. One gender/group
gree of wear (Broholm & Hald 1940, Kristiansen might have an economic power base whereas an-
1975 unpublished). Therefore one can argue that other gender/group might have a symbolic or rit-
it is clothing and objects used by the deceased in ual power base.
life that accompanied him/her to the grave. This Mann (1986:6) argues that power in itself is not a
means that the clothing and the objects can tell us resource. He argues that resources are the media
something about the deceased person’s life before through which social power is exercised. He iden-
they died, where they originated, with whom they tifies four different sources of social power: ideo-
had contact, and who they were. logical, economic, political and military. Timothy
How do we measure wealth in prehistoric graves? Earle (1997), in a study of the Danish Early Bronze
Can one ever find an ‘elite’? Few archaeological Age, used three of Mann’s sources of social pow-
gender mortuary researchers have focused on the er to find out how chiefs came to prominence. He
possibility of female power structures. The few ex- used economic, military and ideology as the fun-
amples that exist normally deal with female pow- damental categories in his study to determine up-
er/elites from a male position, i.e. weaponry. Were on what the chiefs based their leadership. Despite
weapons the only prehistoric source of domination, very promising politically correct formulations in
or were there other spheres where power and high the first chapter, the actual analysis concerns main-
status could be obtained? Gender archaeologists ly male power and somehow presupposes a male
who have dealt with questions of female ‘elitehood’, leadership. Without examining the possibility of a
have done it in relation to the male sphere. Arnold female power base we will never be able to fully ex-
18 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
amine the power base of the elite. nothing with which to negotiate on a structural lev-
The abovementioned need to study elite pow- el. No society is born out of nothing, and all socie-
er bases together with Harrison’s (1998:14) opin- ties have some form of history where different gen-
ion that the individuals themselves should never ders and social groups occupy different positions.
be overlooked – i.e. we need to study their experi- Sometimes change happens drastically and some-
ence, their tactics and their strategies to understand times it is slower. The reasons for the change and
their politics - form the foundation for the study of the different power balance at this time will be re-
power relations in this work. Harrison argues that flected in the relative positions of the different gen-
gender, age, class etc., limit our choices and possi- der/groups. In some societies a few people or one
bilities. The different gendered possibilities of the gender/sex category will have such overwhelming
Middle Scandinavian Bronze Age people buried in power that other groups in the society only have
mounds will be studied in this thesis. According to the possibility to adjust. ‘Negotiation’ implies that
Elias (1991:192f) a competitive relationship always all people have the ability to influence their posi-
occurs when many individuals are vying for the tion in life and yet there have been times in histo-
same possibilities, when the number of people out- ry when certain social and/or gender groups have
number the possibilities. He argues that in less spe- had no control over their situation whatsoever. Even
cialised societies, without centralised monopolies though individuals might have had possibilities to
on power, or ones that have a fairly even economic negotiate and change their positions on the house-
base, success in warfare and military strength is al- hold level, they may not have had any influence
ways the foundation for a strong central power in on the broader structural level in society generally.
a larger area. He goes on to say that the intentions Therefore an aspect of research should involve de-
and actions of each individual continuously mix termining how rigid a society is and if there is actu-
with their emotions and reason, and this dynamic ally any room for negotiation before employing the
can have a determining function in a person’s suc- term ‘negotiation’ in an analysis or explanation.
cess or failure. Different peoples’ actions can lead Work has been done on elite female strategies,
to situations and changes that no one planned or with one of the best examples being Gilchrist’s book,
intended (Elias 1991:286). One needs to remember “Gender and Material Culture: The archaeology of
that even if individuals act rationally their actions religious women”. She has shown that the status of
might not produce the intended result. Therefore the benefactor (and the background of the nuns)
we need to remember that the outcome we find in was fundamental to location and architecture of a
the archaeological record is not necessarily the one nunnery, i.e. the structural design of the nunnery
that was intended by the prehistoric people. reflected the status of its inhabitants. Here one can
Renfrew (1982) has pointed out that there are clearly see how different ideas and strategies creat-
normally three different ways to explore rank- ed differences in the living space of the nuns, not
ing (i.e. possibilities of elitism in a society): 1) set- only in comparison with male monasteries but also
tlement ranking and political structure, 2) monu- within the nunneries. The nunnery of Fontevraul-
ments (hierarchy), mobilisation and organisation, tine, which was founded by the Plantagenet royal
and 3) ranking of individuals in terms of a) his/her family, worked as a model for many other nunner-
(my addition) handiwork and b) mortal remains. ies for aristocratic women (Gilchrist 1994:51ff). Gil-
In order to get an as complete as possible picture christ interprets the mainly richer nunneries with
one needs to bring in all these factors; in this the- a north cloister as a deliberate attempt to invoke as-
sis, however, just a few of these structures will be sociation with the royal Saxon lineage as well as as
discussed. a religious symbol (i.e. women on the right side of
A central premise in some gender archaeolo- Jesus). This can be seen as a specific strategy of fe-
gy studies is that gender is negotiated (e.g. Damm male power relations, as the richer nunneries were
1991, Sørensen 2000:60ff). For example, Sørensen’s often associated with the elite (Gilchrist 1994:128ff).
view that “negotiation refers to social life being af- It can be interpreted as a way the nuns separated
fected by competing interests, which express them- themselves from lower class nuns and maintained
selves as rights, obligations and needs” (Sørensen their aristocratic alliances. Gilchrist’s study focuses
2000:61). Sørensen also argues that the negotiation on nunneries even if she makes comparisons with
concerning resources is not purely about econom- monasteries. However, in order to achieve a full in-
ic redistribution, but is also about articulating and terpretation of the society one needs to have both
reinforcing socially constructed differences be- the sexes in the analysis from the outset. Gilchrist’s
tween people. Gender is seen as a negotiated dif- later work addressed both male and female monas-
ference between the sexes. In many cases this is a ticism, as seen in her publication Contemplation and
useful term, but one can also argue that there are Action: The Other Monasticism (1995). One may al-
situations where the balance between the gender/ so say that the middle and upper class medieval
groups is so uneven that one part has very little or women had an option to avoid patriarchal domi-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 19
nance (i.e. by becoming a nun), which created the es instead on wealth in the form of metal objects,
possibility for negotiation, and this is an opportu- and this will then be used as a base for further in-
nity that some societies did not have. vestigations about gender and wealth in the Bronze
Randsborg (1974) argues for a stratified society Age, where other factors for wealth will also will be
based on the weight of the artefacts found in the analysed and considered.
graves. Larsson (1986) instead uses the number
of artefacts in the graves to determine wealth.
Jensen (1982) also adds symbols of power as a sign Concluding remarks
of wealth, for example, folding stools. Following In this study gender is seen as the social variation
Renfrew (1986a, and above), one can argue that of the biological male and female, and there can be
one has to take into account all three factors. The more than one male or female variation of gender.
weight for the prime value and the number of arte- As there is no positive evidence for a ‘third’ gender
facts in connection to labour value, and, if it is pos- (or more) that crosses the biological boundaries, due
sible, one should also take into account the possi- to lack of preserved skeletal material, this possibil-
bility of use value (maybe as symbols of power). ity is not discussed here.
Koch (2001:23ff) has pointed out that Randsborg in In this dissertation the burial material is used to
his study takes no account of the state of preserva- interpret social structures in the Bronze Age. The
tion of artefacts. She argues for a consideration of presence or absence of metal objects in the burials
the ‘original’ weight of objects. She also points out is used as evidence for determining whether or not,
that many of the full-hilted swords contain an in- or to what extent, the society was stratified.
ner clay core (in the handle or pommel), so that the
weight is not the amount of bronze that went in-
to the object, i.e. it is less. However, in her analy-
sis of objects and weight she does not take into ac-
count object size. Swords and daggers have a varie-
ty of lengths, and belt plates and tutuli a variety of
diameters. If possible this should also be taken in-
to account. This might be a crude way of compar-
ing different artefact categories, but in my opinion
it is better than using the exact measurements of
the fragmented remains of the objects, as they will
only tell us about the state of preservation. There
are undergraduate and Masters dissertations deal-
ing with measuring the weights of Middle Bronze
Age objects in Schlewig-Holstein and Scania; how-
ever, it was not possible to include this aspect in
the present dissertation. The quantity of artefacts
should also be taken into consideration as it might
give us an appreciation of labour value. A smaller
object might need more work than a larger object,
even if it demands less prime value, i.e. bronze or
other material. The number of artefact types that
accompanied the deceased into the grave will al-
so be considered, as this can give us knowledge
about which rights the individual had in life. Koch
(1992), in her catalogue for the number of artefacts,
i.e. wealth, also counted artefacts of organic mate-
rial; this, however, is a matter of preservation and
can give a very misleading comparison. As many
burials probably originally contained wooden con-
tainers as can be seen in, for example, Store Konge-
høj, Vamdrup, Ribe, it is misleading to add ceram-
ic vessels in a wealth comparison. In this study no
attempt will be made to make detailed measure-
ments or tallies of artefacts, which will instead be
presented in a more general manner. It was not pos-
sible in this study to take into account all aspects
of rank, elite and wealth. This dissertation focus-
20 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
When one discusses objects and movements of in the Bronze Age with special reference to Scan-
people in prehistory it is essential to be able to dinavia), in 1885, Müller acknowledged that Mon-
compare and place the objects and graves in the telius was right. This inspired Müller to create his
correct time horizon in order to correlate the in- own even more detailed chronology relating to the
termarriage pattern or the objects correctly, an ex- south Scandinavian Bronze Age (Klindt-Jensen
ercise that without chronological knowledge can 1975:87f).
be very difficult. The different phases of the chro- Müller’s chronological sequence for the older
nologies have been created with the help of the bronze objects was published in 1909, where he di-
typological method and find combinations, al- vided the early Bronze Age into six time groups in
though other methods, such as dendrochronolo- contrast to Montelius’ three periods. Müller’s time
gy and radiocarbon dating, have also assisted in groups can more or less be fitted into Montelius’
fine-tuning the phases. When one compares so- scheme (Broholm 1943II:10, Lomborg 1969:91f).
cial structures over a large area it is important to Müller’s time groups were slightly modified and
know what is contemporary, and therefore chro- used in the beginning of the twentieth century (cf
nology is an essential tool. In this chapter the Kersten 1936). Now, however, most researchers use
south Scandinavian Bronze Age chronology will Montelius’ periods even if their precise content or
first be discussed in general, followed by Periods I definition has been modified over time.
and II specifically. Subsequently, the Nordic peri- Broholm published a chronology in 1943, which
od system will be compared with the main south he viewed as necessary since many new finds had
and Central European systems. This section will been unearthed. He created a chronology that re-
conclude with an outline of the chronological di- lated to both the Montelius and the Müller sys-
vision of the Lüneburg Heath and an attempt to tems. In his chronology he re-named Montelius’
clarify and explain how the current scheme re- and Müller’s first Bronze Age period to “Vor første
lates to both the Nordic and Central European pe- Metalkultur” (English: Our first metal culture). He
riodic systems. argued that the objects belonging to this group
should be placed in the last phase of the Late Neo-
lithic (Broholm 1943II:212-225). To place this group
Scandinavian chronology in a period before the start of the Scandinavian
The term ‘Bronze Age’ became widely known and Bronze Age is mainly correct; many of these ob-
was adopted into general usage following the pub- jects are Early European Bronze Age imports and
lication of Thomsen’s idea of a three period system therefore belong to the south Scandinavian Late
(Stone, Bronze and Iron Age) in 1836 (Klindt-Jensen Neolithic phase. Broholm’s chronological division
1975:55ff, Gräslund 1974:101ff). In the mid nine- correlates rather well with Monetlius’ scheme, ex-
teenth century Bruzelius and Worsaae argued for a cept for his interpretation of Period I. Müller’s sec-
division of the Bronze Age into two phases, an ear- ond phase and the first part of Montelius’ Period II
lier and a later phase. They based their argument are by Broholm seen as the real Bronze Age Period
on differences in burial traditions (inhumation/cre- I (Broholm 1943II:214).
mation) and the tendency for each to hold a differ- No one has tried to re-create a full Bronze Age
ent stratigraphical position in the mounds. Inhuma- chronology since Broholm, even though research-
tions were found only in the lower parts of burial ers have worked on various periods within it and
mounds, they argued, and therefore belong to the their transition to the next (e.g. Lomborg 1960, 1969,
earlier Bronze Age phase (Gräslund 1974:119-127). Randsborg 1969, 1972, Vandkilde 1996).
In 1876 a debate erupted between Müller and
Montelius when Müller published an article claim- The Sögel – Wohlde debate
ing that the differences observed in the Bronze Period I and its relative and absolute dating, and
Age material were due to regional variations rath- which artefacts belong to it, has long been debated
er than chronological differences. Montelius then in archaeology, and there has been a particular fo-
sharpened his arguments and after he published cus on the so-called ‘Sögel-Wohlde debate’. The dis-
his book, Om tidsbestämning inom bronsåldern med cussion started long ago with Montelius and Müller
särskildt afseende på Scandinavien (English: Dating (Broholm 1943II:10), and continues today. More re-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 21
To the Left:
Figure 5: Sögel
dagger from
Glüsing, Dith-
marschen,
Ke9121B (from
Aner & Kersten
1991: Tafel 26).
To the Right:
Figure 6: Wohl-
de dagger from
Schafstedt,
Dithmarschen,
Ke9226A (from
Aner & Kersten
1991: Tafel 47).
ing artefacts were found: a dagger blade of Wohl- lished one more important article that dealt with Figure 9:
de type, a bronze pin, 17 flint arrowheads and two the chronology of Period I, with a focus on the re- Fårdrup axe
flint strike-a-lights. A dagger blade of Sögel type lationship between Periods I and II. In this article from the Fårdrup
hoard, Fårdrup,
was also found in the mound. Hachmann argues he focuses on the artefact assemblages thought to Vester-Flakke-
that the Sögel blade is stratigraphically older than belong to the ‘real’ Nordic Bronze Age culture, i.e. bjerg, Sorø,
the grave containing the Wohlde blade (Hachmann the Fårdrup and Valsømagle assemblages. Based Ke1178 (from
1957:36f). He concludes that the Sögel blade is old- on the fact that the two different assemblages are Aner & Kersten
er than the Wohlde (Hachmann 1957:37ff, 81-89). not found together and that they have complete- 1976: Tafel 96).
In his book he also studied the northern border of ly different decoration styles, he argued that the
what he calls the Sögeler Beigabensitte (the Sögel bur- Fårdrup assemblage belongs to the early Period I
ial tradition) and concludes that it is at the Limfjord and the Valsømagle assemblage belongs to the late
(Hachmann 1957:35). Period I. The Sögel-Wohlde phase is seen to be long-
Ebbe Lomborg has conducted many impor- er than both Fårdrup and Valsømagle, and there-
tant studies about the Late Neolithic and the Mid- fore is regarded as contemporary with both artefact
dle Bronze Age chronology (Lomborg 1960, 1969 assemblages (Lomborg 1969:96-108). The so-called
& 1973). In his study from 1960 he argues that the Løve horizon is considered to belong to the early
Sögel and Wohlde blades are contemporary, and part of Period II (Lomborg 1969:109-199). Later, in
are found together with imports from the Tumu- his chronological work on flint daggers from 1973,
lus culture. Lomborg argues that the Valsømagle Lomborg separated the Sögel and Wohlde phases
objects are contemporary with the latest Wohlde (Lomborg 1973:154).
blades (Lomborg 1960:137ff). In 1969 Lomborg pub- In 1967 Jacob-Friesen, following the German tra-
24 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
borg and some of the other earlier researchers’ hy- The early Middle Bronze Age
pothesis that Wohlde blades are later than the Sögel chronology
blades. He claims that such innovations do not nec- The relations between the Sögel and Wohlde blades
essarily need to be simultaneous in different areas. and Valsømagle chronology in association with the
Ethelberg’s point is that the closer one is to the cen- Sögel-Wohlde burial tradition will be discussed be-
tre of an innovation, the earlier the novelty will be low. This discussion forms the background for the
incorporated. As Schleswig (and Lower Saxony) is material which is examined in chapter 3. The focus
connected to the Continent he argues that the Con- will be on the last 20 years of research, i.e. from Zim-
tinental news can be seen here earlier than in oth- mermann to Randsborg.
er Scandinavian regions. Ethelberg argues that the It is difficult to understand Zimmermann’s reli-
Sögel-Wohlde culture is both earlier and contem- ance on the Rastorf mound and its stratigraphy and
porary with the Valsømagle (the Nordic Bronze radiocarbon dates as his only argument for a time
Age culture), and that the Sögel-Wohlde started by distinction between the Sögel and Wohlde blades.
c. 1800 BC in Schleswig. He bases this mainly on Even though the grave containing the full-metal
four radiocarbon dates, one each from Rastorf and hilted sword is stratigraphically older than the grave
Luttum, county Verden, Lower Saxony, and from with the Wohlde blade (Bokelmann 1977: abb 1 & 3),
Flensburg and Sörup, county Schleswig-Flens- the radiocarbon dates cannot help in this question.
burg, Schleswig-Holstein.8 Ethelberg also objects They concern graves 4 and 6 in the mound, where-
to Vandkilde’s interpretation of the Baven mound, as the blades in question belong to graves 5 and 6
arguing that the Sögel dagger was found in a sec- (Bokelmann 1977). Grave 4 is a Late Neolithic grave
ondary position and is therefore not relevant for as shown both by the absolute date and the small
this discussion. He also concludes that the Lisbjerg triangular dagger blade that is similar to the blades
hoard is an accumulated hoard and consequently from the Pile hoard (Bokelmann 1977:93ff, Vandkil-
is not relevant. de 1996:373). It is therefore no indication whatsoev-
Vogt (2004) bases her analysis on dagger blades er of how much time passed between the burial of
from a large part of Europe, from the Carpathians the two individuals and the creation of the graves;
to Scandinavia. She has divided the area into nine there could as easily be one day or many years be-
different geographical zones and uses the chron- tween them. The metal-hilted sword, which is sim-
ological levels created by Lichardus/Vladár for ilar to the sword found in Roum, Fjelsø, Rinds, Vi-
the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Carpathi- borg (Vandkilde 1996:241), cannot be directly par-
an Basin (levels 6-14) as a base for her chronologi- alleled with the Sögel type blade as Zimmermann
cal discussions. The sword and dagger blades are argues. It is therefore my opinion that these graves
divided into two strata: the genus and the series. cannot help us to understand the relationship be-
Then, the genus and the series are followed from tween the Sögel and Wohlde blades.
the Carpathian Basin and north. The focus for Vogt The radiocarbon dates brought into the debate
is always the blade and its different classifications. by Ethelberg (2000:145) are all early examples of
She argues that both the Sögel and Wohlde blades radiocarbon dating and none are AMS samples. I
derive from the Carpathian Basin. In contrast to have not been able to find out what kind of materi-
Vandkilde she argues that the Sögel blade is old- al was used in the sample, its position in the grave,
er than the Wohlde blade, but that there is a short type of tree etc., only that one sample might come
transition phase (Vogt 2000:11ff). from bone (Flensburg) and provides a calibrated
Randsborg claims that “Vandkilde’s chronologi- date of 1690-1520 (68.2% probability). This is a grave
cal merging of the traditional artefact and stylistic with a type VI flint dagger and a rollheaded pin
milieus of Fårdrup and Valsømagle (…) is a remark- (Ke2188E), i.e. without objects directly relevant to
able suggestion. It aspires to violate the classical this question. This is the only sample that can be
principle of main typological difference within the said to possibly date the burial, as the lack of infor-
same geographical area as being chronological in mation makes the rest of the samples impossible to
nature, in particular if supported by find combina- evaluate, and its date fits in very well with Vandkil-
tions” (Randsborg 2006:16). Instead he creates a very de’s chronology for the Sögel-Wohlde culture.
8
detailed chronology scheme for the Middle Bronze The Baven mound and the grave that might con- Rastorf GrN-10755,
wood? 3340 ±80 BP
Age with eight different phases. Period I is divided tain both a Sögel and a Wohlde blade are difficult to 1780-1450 BC, Luttum
into an Early Period I (Virring-Torsted horizon), Pe- determine. Vandkilde (1996:152) sees the find in the KN-I.2082 3480 ±80 BP
1950-1630 BC, Flensburg
riod I (Fårdrup and Sögel-Wohlde), Closing Period mound as a closed find whereas other authors, such GrN-10757 charcoal or
bone 3320 ±70 BP 1770-
I (Valsømagle horizon). Randsborg moves some of as Ethelberg (2000:144), argue that the Sögel dagger 1430 BC, Sörup Kn-I.185
the burials classified as Period IB by Vandkilde to blade was in a secondary position in the mound. 3370 ±55 BP 1780-1510
BC (Ethelberg 2000:265,
a phase called Initial Period II (Løve horizon etc.), This should possibly mean that the Wohlde blade Vandkilde 1996:374f).
as he interprets these artefacts as Løve type rather is older than the Sögel blade, as the mound seems Calibrated with the help
of Oxcal 3.10.
than Valsømagle type (Randsborg 2006:15-22). to be built over the mortuary house containing the
26 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Wohlde blade and therefore the Sögel blade should jects that are regarded as belonging to the peri-
be later than the main grave. Vogt (2000:12) points od are small point-bossed belt plates, some ribbed
out that the mound was not excavated by a pro- neck collars, wheel-headed and disc-headed pins,
fessional archaeologist, and it lacks detailed strati- as well as some amber and glass beads. Broholm
graphical information. Therefore this grave cannot (1943II:51ff) gave no clear case for why these objects
be used as an argument either for or against a time are dated to Period I.
distinction between the two dagger types. Subsequently, Hachmann discussed the possibil-
In my opinion, Vandkilde’s find combination ity of female graves belonging to the Sögel-Wohl-
analysis (Vandkilde 1996:147-160) shows that the de phase. Important in his argument is the mound
Sögel and Wohlde blades, as well as the Valsø- from Schülp, Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-
magle and the Fårdrup assemblages, all belong Holstein (Ke9707) containing four graves dated
to the same phase. The association of the Lochhal- to Period IB. The artefacts found in grave A com-
snadel with all three assemblages gives a clear Br B1 prised: a Rollennadel (rollheaded pin), a flint dag-
date, i.e. the Lochham phase, when compared with ger, seven amber beads, two spiral rings (proba-
the Central European chronology. This means that ble Locken- or ear-rings), an awl, and a ceramic ves-
they can be securely placed in the Scandinavian Pe- sel. Hachmann argues that this grave, along with
riod IB. Randborg (2006:15-22) does not even men- some other graves, is female because the assem-
tion the presence of the Lochhalsnadel in his criticism blage is different from the standard male Sögel-
of Vandkilde’s chronology, and the omission of this Wohlde assemblage. Part of the argument for a
artefact type in his chronological discussion is en- Sögel-Wohlde date for these female graves is the
igmatic. Furthermore, he claims that some graves presence of boat-shaped amber beads, which are
including fibulae and belt hooks, such as Divershøj, regarded as female objects by Hachmann. Howev-
Homå, Djurs Sønder, Randers, belong to his Initial er, they are also found in some male graves from
Period II rather than to the Valsømalge phase. In the period; Høghøj, Skødegård, Bække, Anst, Ribe
my opinion Randsborg is probably right that the (Ke3789B); Troelstrup, Tønning, Tyrsting, Skander-
fibulae are a late creation, however, based on find borg (Va814); and Schoolbek, Rendsburg-Eckern-
combinations one can argue that they should still förde, Schleswig-Holstein (Ke2520A). He also ar-
be placed in Period IB, albeit late in the phase; sure- gues that the dagger in the female graves is small
ly change was a gradual process. and modest. One point he makes is that these fe-
Another one of Ethelsberg’s (2000:144) arguments male graves are restricted to a limited area, where
against Vandkilde’s chronology is that Vandkil- most of them can be found between the rivers Elbe
de’s distribution map of Period IA bronze artefacts and Eider (Hachmann 1957:54ff).
mainly shows finds in the “Valsømagle area”. I dis- Jacob Friesen (1967:36), while discussing the chro-
agree with this view. There are definitely Period IA nology for the Bagterp type spearhead, brings in
objects in the “Sögel-Wohlde area” (see Vandkil- three hoards from the area between the river War-
de 1996 fig 236 page 221) and as the material from now to east of the river Oder; Mistorf, Güstrow,
Schleswig-Holstein is not part of her dissertation it Rostock; Heinrichwalde, Neubrandenburg; and
does not appear on the distribution maps. The lack Babbin in Pyritz, modern Poland (Jacob-Friesen
of information about the existence of Period IA 1967:361f, 368). All of these hoards contain both
finds in Schleswig-Holstein makes it tricky to fol- spearheads and female jewellery, and all three of
low Ethelberg’s argument. However, the Aner and them include a neck collar. The Babbin hoard con-
Kersten volumes for Schleswig-Holstein incontro- tains five Bagterp spearheads, two axes, one arm-
vertibly demonstrate that Period IA objects exist in spiral, and one ribbed neck collar (Jacob-Friesen
this area as well. 1967:368). The arm spiral is of a broad ribbon-like
type that can be seen in, for example, the hoards
The female objects in Retzow, Lübz and Schwasdorf, Teterow, both in
The focus on the chronology of the early phases of Mecklenburg. These hoards have been dated to the
the Scandinavian Bronze Age has been on male re- full Period II (Schubart 1972:66, 144 & 152). The Mis-
lated objects, and only a few researchers such as torf hoard includes, for example, so-called Brillen-
Hachmann (1957) and Lomborg (1969) have dis- spiralen, which have been dated by Schubart to the
cussed the chronology of female-related objects. transitional phase between Periods I and II (Schu-
They are rarely as thoroughly discussed as the male bart 1972:14) The hoard from Heinrichwalde in-
ones. A short summary of the ‘later’ debate in the fe- cludes a disc-headed pin that probably originates
male chronology is provided below. from the Lüneburg Heath. These are dated by Laux
Seventeen graves containing metal objects or to his phase late II and III, i.e. the developed Mid-
amber beads are attributed by Broholm to Period dle Bronze Age. These combinations should indi-
I female graves. The biological sex has been deter- cate that the hoards were accumulated over a long-
mined by the artefact(s) found in the graves. Ob- er period of time and therefore cannot be used to
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 27
9
In Vandkilde’s ter-
argue for the early use of neck collars in northern chronological analyses for the later parts of the Mid- minology it is the ear-
Europe. dle Bronze Age: one study dealing with the transi- ly Older Danish Bronze
Age.
Lomborg has also discussed the female-relat- tion from Period II to III, and the other focusing on
ed artefacts and their chronology in relation to the transition between Period III and IV (Randsborg
the male objects. He points out that this is difficult 1969, 1972). According to Randsborg and Thrane,
due to the lack of finds that can relate the female late Period II correlates with Central European Br C
artefacts with the male. He argues that to date Pe- and the first half of period III with Br D (the Urnfield
riod I Nordic female artefacts had been placed in culture) and the latter half of Period III with Ha A
this phase on stylistic grounds, mainly because (Randsborg 1968:131-138, 1972:75f, Thrane 1963:161).
they differ from the ordinary Period II Nordic fe- Southern Scandinavian Period IA can be said
male artefacts. He shows that many of the artefacts to be contemporary with Central European Br A2
placed in this period by Müller are imported ob- (the Langquaid phase), whereas Period IB clearly
jects. In his discussion he draws on the evidence of archaeologically overlaps with Br B1 (the Lochham
the Mellemholm mound, Nørholm, Hornum, Ål- phase). Period II early phase has imports of Central
borg, which is claimed to have contained a grave European Br B2 objects, whereas the later phase has
with early Nordic female artefacts, and a male bur- imports of Br C type (Vandkilde, Rahbek & Ras-
ial with Løve type artefacts. Lomborg argues that mussen 1996:189ff). This means that the southern
these artefacts found in the female burial belong to Scandinavian time period studied here correlates
early Period II. He concludes that there seems to be more or less completely with the Central European
no locally made Nordic female artefacts during Pe- Middle Bronze Age, i.e. Br B – C.
riod I (Lomborg 1969:119-132). In retrospect one can say that both Montelius and
Zimmermann divided the Middle Bronze Age Müller were right. Montelius’ general typology is
burials into weapon and jewellery graves. For Pe- still widely used with only slight changes. Howev-
riod I he is in doubt as to whether or not jewellery er, Müller’s idea that there were regional differenc-
graves, i.e. female burials, exist. The only regions in es was partially right. The discussion about the lat-
his study that have clear Period I graves are north- er Period I and its division shows that in this case
ern Germany and southernmost Jutland, and ac- there exists both regional use of bronze objects in
cording to the author these only have secure weap- graves (Valsømagle and Sögel-Wohlde artefacts)
ons graves and possible jewellery graves (Zimmer- and the Fårdrup type artefacts deposited in, for ex-
mann 1988:161ff). ample, hoards in both geographical areas.
It is very hard to discern any female graves in Pe- For Period I, I have chosen to follow Vandkil-
riod IB, and the ones so far identified are based on de’s (1996:15ff) division of the early Middle Nordic
negative evidence, i.e. the lack of weapons, as point- Bronze Age9 into IA and IB, since, as shown above,
ed out by Hjørungdal (1994) or when smaller dag- I find her result to be the most convincing. During
gers are found in combination with jewellery this Period IB a regional division of metalwork appears.
combination seem to be the main argument for The partition is distinct in regard to burial depo-
designating a grave as female. This problem is due sitions, and Vandkilde suggests a line between
to the fact that we do not know any locally made ex- Aarhus and Lemvig as an approximate border be-
clusively female artefacts. The few positive female tween Zone I and II (Vandkilde 1996:250). Accord-
graves we have from the period contain foreign ob- ing to Vandkilde Period I occupies the time span
jects that in their region of origin can be securely 1700 to 1500 BC, with Period IA and IB spanning c.
identified as female based on osteological and find 100 years each (Vandkilde 1996:312).
combination evidence. Hachmann’s attempt to see
certain pin types as female (Hachmann 1957:57)
is not a reliable way of locating female Period IB Central European chronology
graves containing metal, since these pins are also In order to understand how Laux’s chronology (see
found in combination with male-related artefacts. chapter 1 and below) of the Lüneburg culture and
However, as pointed out by Hachmann, it seems the south Scandinavian area relate one needs to un-
likely that some of these graves are the remains derstand the Central European chronology, which
of deceased women based on fundamental differ- provides a bridge between the two chronologies.
ences in character of some of the graves dated to The foundation for the Central European chro-
the Sögel-Wohlde time; for further discussion see nology was created by Paul Reinecke (Kristiansen
chapter 3. 1998:18, Reinecke 1902, 1965), whose work was
based on closed finds, graves and hoards in Bavar-
Conclusions ia. He divided the Bronze Age into four phases and
Vandkilde points out that few of the Period IB met- the Hallstatt Age (Hallstattzeit, Ha) into four phas-
al objects survive into the succeeding period (Vand- es. Further studies showed that the Bronze Age (Br)
kilde1996:243). Randsborg has conducted two major included the phases Br A, B, C and D as well as Ha
28 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
A and B. Whereas Br A is the Early Bronze Age, porary with the Scandinavian Period IB, and is dat-
Br B and C correlate with the Middle Bronze Age ed c. 1600-1500 BC. The following Middle Bronze
and Br D, Ha A and B are seen as the Later Bronze Age phases range between: Br B2 c. 1500-1400 BC
Age (Harding 2000:10f, Kristiansen 1998:10). The and Br C c. 1400-1300 BC. The last two phases are
fundamentals of the system were published by contemporary with the South Scandinavian Period
Reinecke between the years 1906-09 (Kristiansen II (Kristiansen 1998:32, Vandkilde 1996:171f).
1998:18, Reinecke 1965) and it is still in use, even The chronology for the Carpathian Basin is much
if certain changes have been made over the years more complex than that of Central and northern
by various researchers (Coles & Harding 1979:24). Europe. At the beginning, Reinecke’s system was
Reinecke divided the Tumulus period into phases used for this area as well. Subsequently, many re-
with the help of groups of closed finds from Loch- searchers created their own typology based on pot-
ham, Göggenhofen, Asenkofen and Riegsee (Coles tery from tells or finds from hoards, and the names
& Harding 1979:31); of these named phases Loch- of the prehistoric cultures are often confined to
ham is still in use. This south German phase has modern states (Coles & Harding 1979:69ff, Hän-
been central to chronological discussions in this re- sel 1968:8-23, Harding 2000:12ff, Makkay 1996:221).
search, and for dating the first phases of the Scan- This can make them very hard to use. In this work
dinavian Bronze Age. the period system created by Hänsel (1968) for the
The transition from Early Bronze Age to Middle bronze objects will be used. He divided the area in-
Figure 12: Axe Bronze Age in Central and southeastern Europe to three main stages: Early, Middle and Late Bronze
of East-Hanno- has been discussed on numerous occasions. Mod- Age, with three phases each; FD I-III, MD I-III, SD I-
ver type, vari- ern research shows that the transition between Ear- III (Frühe/ Mittlere/ Späte Danubische Bronzezeit). His
ant Wohlde, from
Wohlde, Celle, ly and Middle Bronze Age occurred about 1600 BC periods are more closely related to the Central Eu-
Ha343 (from (Krause 1996:80ff, Vandkilde, Rahbek & Rasmus- ropean system. It is suitable to use his system as it
Hachmann 1957: sen 1996:190). is a chronology based on metal objects in closed
Tafel 41). The Scandinavian Period IA can be related to Cen- finds, and therefore comparable with the chronol-
tral European Early Bronze Age Br A2 (phase Lang- ogies created by Reinecke, Montelius and Laux.
quaid). Br A2 is dated to c. 1700-1600 BC. The Cen- It is also a logical basis since it is mainly the met-
tral European Br B1, the Lochham phase, is contem- al objects that we find in areas outside their place
of origin. Although it is possible that other items
were exchanged between different geographi-
cal areas, non-metal artefacts, such as ceramic, are
rarely found outside their original area. The Car-
pathian periods of interest for this dissertation are
mainly FD III, c. 1950-1600 BC and MD I & II c. 1600-
1500 BC and III c. 1500-1400 BC (Genz & Schwarz
2004:14-15).
Phase II
The objects suitable for relating this phase to
the other chronological schemes are the North
German flanged axe of Bleckmar type (Laux
2000:105ff, see figure 13) and the Bavarian disc-
headed pin (see figure 14).
Laux argues that the Bavarian disc-headed
pins are of two types, one imported belong-
ing to this phase and one locally-made copy
belonging to the next phase. The difference
between them is that the imported pins are
made in the Überfangguß technique, i.e. the pin
is cast separately and then the disc-head cast
around the pin, whereas the local copies are
made in one piece (Laux 1971:55f). Innerhofer
dated the Bavarian disc-headed pins in parts
of Central Europe to the late Tumulus and ear-
ly Urnfield period (Innerhofer 2000:193ff). In
Scandinavian typology terms this is equiva-
lent to Periods II and III.
The North German flanged axes of Bleck- Figure 15:
mar type are found in male graves from this Frame-grip knife
phase in Lower Saxony, and also in Schleswig- from Grave D,
Estrup, Allinde-
Holstein, for example in the hoard from Os- magle, Ringsted,
tenfeld, Oldenhütten, Rendsburg-Eckernflöde Sorø, Ke1092D
(Ke9691), which included a large number (from Aner &
of north German flanged axes and a dagger Kersten 1976:
blade as well as sickles. This hoard dates this Tafel 76).
axe type to period II. Therefore, we may as-
sume that this phase belongs to late Period II
in Scandinavian typology and Br C in Central
European typology.
As Laux’s phase II includes Scandinavian
Period II objects, as well as objects that date
to both Reinecke’s Br C and Br D, then the two
Figure 14: Bavarian disc-headed pin from grave II
mound 4, Wittenberg, Bleckmar (from Piesker 1958:
Tafel 12).
Phase I
Even in the Lüneburg culture’s first phase one can
see artefacts that make up the special Lüneburg cos-
tume (see chapter 4). Many of the objects are clearly
influenced by the foreign woman buried in Falling-
bostel during the Sögel-Wohlde period (see chap-
ters 3 and 7).
Laux’s chronology dates the Stollenarmbänder (see
figure 16) with five or seven ribs to his first phase
(Laux 1971:59f). Piesker, however, dates the seven
ribbed arm-ring to late Montelius Period II and ear-
ly Period III (Piesker 1954:111ff). It seems difficult
to find a good chronology for the Stollenarmbänder
Figure 17: Spoke scheme for wheel-headed pin (from Kubach 1977:130). as few of the other chronological schemes bring in
the number of ribs in their chronological discus-
sion and some of the other arm-ring types with
more ribs obviously have a longer life span (Hänsel
1968:101f, Laux 1971:59f). Therefore, we have to turn
to other artefacts for relating this time sphere.
The locally made wheel-headed pins10 of ‘spoke
scheme’ (German: Speichenschema) E (see figure 17
for the spoke schemes) are dated by Laux to his
phase I (Laux 1971:51f). The burial in Søviggårde,
Ovtrup, Vester-Horne, Ribe (Ke4170) contains a
Lüneburg wheel-headed pin of spoke scheme E, a
ribbed neck collar and a small unornamented belt
plate/tutulus. This grave has been used in the dis-
cussion of early South Scandinavian female typol-
ogy. This grave is discussed by Müller who plac-
es it in his second period (Lomborg 1969:119). Bro-
holm (1942II:52) places it in his first Bronze Age pe-
riod (which is more or less Müller’s second period).
Lomborg, however, pointed out that this grave con-
Figure 18: last phases (III and IV) must belong to the Scandi- tains imported artefacts and therefore could not be
Halsbergen navian Period III. His phase IV includes the Scan- placed in Period I on stylistic grounds alone. He ar-
from grave 3 in dinavian Rahmengriffmesser (frame-grip knife, see gues for a late Period II date for this grave (Lom-
mound 9, Wit-
tenberg, Bleck- figure 15), which is securely dated to Scandinavi- borg 1969:119f). One might argue for an early Peri-
mar (from Piesk- an period III, except for a few that date to Period od II date for the Søviggård burial, based on Laux’s
er 1958: Tafel II (Prüssing 1982:19-27). The only definite Period II claim of this pin type having an early date in the
19). Rahmengriffmesser in Lower Saxony that dates to Lüneburg culture, that ribbed neck collars seems
Period II is found in a female burial in Kolkhagen, to appear from the start of Period II, and the lack
Lüneburg (Prüssing 1982:19-27); all the others are of ornamentation of the beltplate/tutulus. Howev-
dated to Period III or are indicated as dating to Pe- er, this date cannot place Laux’s first phase with-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 31
Phase IIa
The only artefact type that is exclusive to phase IIa
is the neck-ring with end spirals (German: Halsber-
gen, see figure 18, Laux 1971). This type of neck-ring
has its main distribution in Lower Saxony; howev-
er, examples of it are found in southwest Germany
as well. Wels-Weyrauch has dated this artefact type
to the Traisbach phase, which is mainly part of the
later Central European Middle Bronze Age, c. Br C
(Wels-Weyrauch 1978:153ff). This would place this
type in the latter half of the Scandinavian period II.
Phase III
The Scandinavian cross-headed pins (German:
Kreuzkopffibel, see figure 20) found in, for exam-
ple, graves of Laux’s phase III are securely dated in
Scandinavia to Period III, even though there are a
few examples that belong to Period II (Randsborg
1969:70-86, 101f). Based on the Kreuzkopffibel one can
claim that Laux’s phase III correlates with the Scan-
dinavian period III.
Figure 21: Chronological schema for the Middle Bronze Age (selected periods mentioned in the text).
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 33
place the Valsømagle type artefacts. For a detailed that contain dateable metal objects have been in-
discussion about the chronology and relationships cluded in this investigation. There also exist graves
between these artefact assemblages see chapter 2. without metal objects which date to the Sögel-Wohl-
There are only a few graves containing bronze de period, for example Kammerbusch, Stade, Low-
objects which are dateable to Period IA. In Den- er Saxony (Bergmann 1970 part A:65), but these are
mark there are 14 (see Vandkilde 1996:220). This not as systematically collected and recorded as the
sample is too small, and the distribution too wide, ones containing metal objects in the areas relevant
for an analysis with reliable results that would be to this study. The focus here is therefore exclusively
relevant to this dissertation topic. However, it is in- on the graves with metal objects in order to obtain
teresting to note that most of the graves fall with- the most easily comparable material.
in the area that becomes the Valsømagle region The majority of the graves are connected to the
(Vandkilde 1996 fig 236). However, there are Peri- male sphere by artefact correlations. I am aware
od IA graves in Schleswig-Holstein (i.e. the Sögel- that this is based on old ideas about sex and gen-
Wohlde area) as well as, for example, at Wacken, der, but if we look at contemporary graves in mid-
Steinburg, Schleswig-Holstein (Ke9512) and Han- dle and central Europe with remaining and ana-
erau-Hademarschen, Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Sch- lysed skeletal material, then we can see that cer-
leswig-Hostein (Ke9645). tain artefact categories such as daggers and ax-
In Denmark, Vandkilde has shown that a signif- es are only found in male burials (Rega 1997:233ff,
icant increase in the number of burials containing Wels-Weyrauch et al. 1986:149), while artefacts such
metal objects occurred between Period IA and IB. heart-shaped pendants are only found in female
During the latter phase burials account for 22% of graves (Blischke 2000). Therefore, the possible Pe-
the localities (burials, hoards, stray finds) with met- riod IB female graves will be treated and discussed
al objects (Vandkilde 1996:243). first. These graves will be included in the discus-
The Danish and Northern German material has sion to determine what implications they have on
previously been divided into different zones (see the interpretations for the period in general. The fo-
for example: Kersten 1936:97ff, Vandkilde 1996:16f). cus will then turn to the male burial assemblages
A line can be drawn between two Danish zones, (i.e. Valsømagle and Sögel-Wohlde), as these are the
running approximately between Aarhus – Lem- ones that have given their names to the two differ-
vig in Jutland. Vandkilde has shown that there is a ent burial traditions.
difference during period IB of the south Scandina- In total, 247 graves dating to Period IB have been
vian Bronze Age in both depositional practices of collected from a large part of northern Europe. Bur-
bronze objects and, mainly, in artefact groups, i.e. ials from Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Hol-
the Valsømagle and the Sögel-Wohlde types (Vand- land are included in appendix 1. These graves are
kilde 1996:190ff). In this study Vandkilde’s Danish clearly identified as Sögel-Wohlde or Valsømagle,
zone II together with the North German and Low- or comprise other types of graves within the Sögel-
er Saxony material, i.e. the Sögel-Wohlde group Wohlde or Valsømagle area. In the Valsømagle
is seen and analysed as one large entity. It seems geographical area there are 69 burials and in the
more rewarding to look at one big unit with smaller Sögel-Wohlde region there are 172. Six of the buri-
regional sub-groups than to separate them into dif- als in the appendix fall outside these geographical
ferent culture groups/zones, particularly since, de- boundaries, but contain objects that can be related
spite minor local differences, the groups have fairly to one of the two cultures.
similar burial traditions within this region. In this
study the two larger areas, drawing on the two tra- Are there any females buried with
ditional burial assemblages (Lomborg 1969:94ff), metal during Period IB?
will be considered: the Valsømagle (= Vandkilde’s The presence of possible female graves from Peri-
zone I and southernmost Sweden) and the Sögel- od IB has seldom been discussed. Only a few au-
Wohlde (= Vandkilde’s zone II and the German ma- thors have discussed the earliest Bronze Age fe-
terial). male chronology (for example: Broholm 1942II:51ff,
A glance backwards in time shows that the Late Hachmann 1957:54ff, Lomborg 1969:119-132).
Neolithic on Jutland, Schleswig-Holstein and Low- Hachmann (1957:54ff) discussed the presence of fe-
er Saxony was part of the Single Grave Culture male burials during Period I most extensively, so I
(Coles & Harding 1979:295, Hübner 2005:756ff, Will- have primarily adopted his definitions and inter-
roth 1996:18ff). One can therefore see a continuation pretations, despite disagreeing with some of his
of older traditions and contact relations within the conclusions (see below). Hachmann focuses on the
area. However, a regional division in metalwork Sögel-Wohlde area and compares it with the ‘Dan-
types cannot be seen in Denmark until Period IB ish Islands’, where he traced only two possible fe-
(Vandkilde 1996:250). male burials (each containing only a pin).
Due to practical reasons only the Period IB graves Hachmann determines 22 graves that belong to
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 35
the Sögel-Wohlde phase as female burials (see fig- Hachmann’s main argument for this is based on
ure 22). He bases this interpretation on the fact that the boat-shaped amber bead with V-shaped drill-
he identifies some graves as distinctive and differ- ing found in the burial, which he compares with the
ent from the ones with traditional Sögel-Wohlde as- amber beads in the Period IB burials in: Skodegård,
semblages. He argues that the burial in Schoolbek, Bække, Anst, Ribe (Ke3789B) and Troelstrup, Tøn-
Kosel, Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-Holstein ninge, Trysting, Skanderborg (Va815). On the evi-
(Ke2520A, see figure 23), which among other things dence of these beads he concludes that the burial
contains an amber bead, belongs to this phase. belonged to the Sögel-Wohlde phase (Hachmann
36 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 23: Ar- sign of non-male burials is proven wrong when one
tefacts found in takes a closer look at the material. This can be seen,
grave A, School- for example, at Hüsby, Hüsby, Schleswig-Flens-
bek, Kosel par-
ish, Rendsburg- burg, Schleswig-Holstein (Ke2362G), which con-
Eckernförde, tained a high-flanged axe of Hüsby type, a Bagterp
Ke2520A (from spearhead, a slate pendant, a rollheaded pin and a
Aner & Kersten ceramic vessel. The burial in Baven, Celle, Lower
1978: Tafel 71). Saxony also contains weapons, including a Wohl-
de blade and 17 flint arrowheads and a pin (L13B),
and a grave in Bargloy, Wildhausen, Oldenburg,
Lower Saxony contains a Sögel dagger blade, a pin,
nine flint arrowheads and an arm-ring (BL1:22).
These are just a few of the graves with traditional
Sögel-Wohlde burial equipment and a pin of some
kind. Therefore the presence of a pin is not suitable
for determining biological sex or gender. The same
is true of the small dagger blades which also are
found in graves containing other weapons, for ex-
ample Årup, Snedsted, Hassing, Thisted, Denmark
(Ke5012A). Awls are also visible in burials contain-
ing artefacts that are traditionally interpreted as
male, as seen, for example, at Nebel, Nebel, Am-
rum, Schleswig-Holstein (Ke2579A). Hachmann is
also rather generous in his chronological determi-
nations of both the small dagger blades, which Ha-
chamnn himself pointed out are difficult to pin-
point in time, and awls. Both of these artefact cat-
1957:54). The burial in Schoolbek contained: a small egories are impossible to date closer than to the
dagger, a rollheaded pin, an amber bead and an am- Bronze Age generally if found alone. Therefore, al-
ber pendant. Hachmann writes “Ein solches Grab- most all of the female burials Hachmann regards
inventar wäre zwar für Sögeler Männergräber nich as belonging to the Sögel-Wohlde period have to be
völlig unmöglich” [my translation: ‘such a burial dismissed for various reasons, either chronological
equipment for a male Sögel burial is not impossi- or due to the way they were determined as female.
ble’] (Hachmann 1957:52). He argues, however, that Can one see any female burials at all during Pe-
the rollheaded pin is never found in male burials riod IB? Yes, there are two graves that can be de-
and based on that statement he contends that the termined fairly securely as female burials for this
burial in Hohenlockstedt, Hohenlockstedt, Stein- time. One grave which Hachmann mentions is the
burg, Schleswig-Holstein, which includes a roll- one found in Fahrenkrug, Segeberg, Schleswig-
headed pin, a small dagger blade, an awl, two Lock- Holstein, Ha174 (see figure 24). The burial contains:
enring, two arm-rings and a ceramic pot, is also a a rollheaded pin, two Lockenringen, two arm-spi-
female grave (Hachmann 1957:54). Based on these rals, 19 amber beads and two heart-shaped pen-
two graves, as well as some other ones, he argues dants. Heart-shaped pendants when found in their
that small daggers, awls, and rollheaded pins are original area (Central Europe and the Carpathian
artefacts that should be connected with the female Basin) are generally found in female burials (Blis-
sphere. He claims that the female burials from the chke 2000, Wels-Weyrauch 1991:34f). Another clear
Sögel-Wohlde phase are restricted within a limited female Period IB probable burial is from Falling-
area, with most occurring between the rivers Elbe bostel, Lower Saxony, where the finds include: 32
and Eider (Hachmann 1957:55). Hachmann points tutuli, 44 bronze tubes, four Lockenring, 13 amber
out that the dating of all the small dagger blades to beads, seven heart-shaped pendants, eight neck-
the Sögel period is not entirely secure, as small dag- rings, one wheel-headed pin, two spiral arm-rings
gers are also found in later burials. and three finger-rings (Laux 1972:43ff, Leben –
There are many problems with Hachmann’s de- Glauben –Sterben mus.catalogue 1996:285, see fig-
termination of female burials. His observation that ure 99). This is the remains of a woman who proba-
the female grave inventory is different from the bly originated in the Austria-Hungary area, which
male is difficult to see upon closer examination of can be seen by the presence of the double-sided
the data. None of the objects that Hachmann uses profiled wheel-headed pin and the heart-shaped
for identifying female burials stands up to testing. pendants (Bergerbrant 2005a:166f, Laux 1972:42f,
That rollheaded pins (or pins in general) should be a 1996a:100). These two graves with foreign artefact
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 37
categories, that in their area of origin have a clear Figure 24: Ar-
female association, are the only burials that we can tefacts found in
with some confidence determine as remains of de- Fahrenkrug, Seg-
eberg, Ha174
ceased females. (from Hachmann
The burial from Schoolbek, which was inter- 1957: Tafel 15).
preted by Hachmann as female, included an am-
ber pendant. Of the 14 graves with a slate pendant
twelve include a weapon or weapons of some kind
(dagger/sword blade, spearheads, axes or flint ar-
rowheads). The other two graves include artefacts
that in later periods have been connected to the
male sphere: belt hooks and tweezers (Ke4008B)
and a strike-a-light and pyrite (Ke9595B). There-
fore, it seems certain that slate pendants ought to
be seen as male-related objects, and this is also like-
ly to be true of the amber pendant from Schoolbek, pin, two arm-rings, one ankle-ring, five beads, one
as it is of the same general type as the slate pen- tutulus and one ceramic vessel. The combination in
dants (see figure 25). this burial indicates that it is a late Period IB grave,
Beads are a category that seems to be unisex dur- or possibly very early Period II. Arm-rings are uni-
ing this period. For the Germanic Iron Age the sex objects during the Bronze Age, while ankle-
number of beads has been seen as indication of bio- rings are generally found in female graves (Ku-
logical sex, i.e. more than three beads indicates a fe- bach-Richter 1994:58, Laux 1971:58, Wels-Weyrauch
male (Petré 1993:151). The number of beads in this 1989a:120, 1994:63), even though they are occasion-
material cannot be used to determine biological sex. ally found in male burials such as in the Period III
This is true even though both of the secure female grave in mound 2 am Wittenberg, Bleckmar, Celle,
burials from the period include a larger number of Lower Saxony (Laux 1971:64ff, catalogue 21A). The
amber beads (12 and 19), since clear male burials burial in Norddorf is probably a late Period IB bur-
such as that at Nebel, Nebel, Amrum, Schleswig- ial. Due to its size it has been interpreted as a possi-
Holstein (Ke2579A), a burial with both a short met- ble child burial by Aner and Kersten. However, as
al-hilted sword and a dagger blade as well as a pin, discussed in chapter 6, it is difficult to determine
a high-flanged axe of Hüsby type, flint dagger and graves as those of children by size alone.
pyrite, and an awl, also contained 10 amber beads. Graves such as Ridders, Hohenlockstedt, Stein-
According to Thrane (1962:92f) Middle Bronze Age burg, Schleswig-Holstein (Ke9398D), which include
amber beads in Denmark are present in both male a rollheaded pin and five amber beads, or Fredst-
and female burials and the norm is 1-2 amber beads edt, Fredstedt, Dithmarschen, Schleswig-Holstein
in the graves. (Ke9101), in which a Kugelkopfnadel and an awl
Are there any graves other than the ones with were found, are impossible to sex/gender as pins,
clear foreign artefacts that can be interpreted as fe- amber beads and awls exist in both known male
male burials? Some graves can be interpreted as and female burials. In total there are twelve11 buri-
probably female. The interpretation of these graves als that cannot be securely determined to either bi-
as possible female burials is based on a correla- ological sex, including two from the Valsømagle ar-
tion between the two fairly secure female burials, ea. These contain smaller objects such as pins, awls
Fahrenkrug and Fallingbostel, and artefact combi- and rings, objects that in Period II are unisex and
nations in Continental European graves. can be found with either biological sex in the Loch-
Steffgen (1998:134f) claims that in ‘the south’ two ham phase in Europe.
arm spirals are a secure indicator of a female bur- As shown here only a few burials during the peri-
ial. According to Steffgen, this is also valid in ‘the od can be regarded as female. The only secure buri-
north’ and therefore she interprets the burials in als are the two foreign women (for further discus-
Fallingbostel, Fahrenkrug, Hohenlockstedt and sion about foreign women see chapter 7).12 There
Bosau as Period I female graves. As Steffgen has no are a maximum of 14 female burials, i.e. 6% of the 11
Ke688F, Ke793A,
references to help justify these claims, and there are total burials from the period. In the Sögel-Wohlde Ke9614B, Ke2617A, Ke
9101, Ke9398D, Ke2716B,
male burials in later periods that contain two arm- area there is a higher presence of secure and pos- Ke2756, Ha 167a, Ha228,
rings, this appears to be a hazardously simplistic sible female burials with metal objects (maximum Ha232, NNU 42:238f.
method for determining a burial as female. 7%), while in the Valsømagle area there is a maxi- 12
Foreign woman, i.e.
One grave that should probably be interpreted as mum of 3% of female burials of all the burials that a woman buried in one
area wearing the cos-
a female burial by analogy with middle and cen- contain metal objects. The increase of locally made tume from another geo-
tral Europe is that in Norddorf, Norddorf, Amrum, artefact types, as observed for the males in this pe- graphical area
Schleswig-Holstein (2617A). It contains a rollheaded riod, are totally lacking on the female side. The fe-
38 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Valsømagle region
In the Valsømagle region of the burial tradition,
i.e. Blekinge, Scania (Sweden) the Danish Isles and
Northern Jutland, there are 69 graves containing
metal objects dated to Period IB.
According to Vandkilde this zone “is charac-
terised by burials with metal-hilted daggers and
swords of Valsømagle type (or daggers and swords
related to this type), and the closely associated
spearheads of Valsømagle type and flanged axes
of Märklingen-Valsømagle type; these main weap-
ons may be accompanied by one or more luxury
goods, of which ferrules, pointed weapons and y-
palstaves apparently occur solely in Zone I” (Vand-
kilde 1996:252, see figure 26).
As previously shown by Vandkilde (1996:291f)
the grave material shows a marked differentiation
in the amount of bronze deposited in the burials.
The burial in Over Vindinge, Sværdborg, Hammer,
Præstø (Ke1292I) is counted as a grave that con-
Figure 25: Slate male innovation of locally made artefacts has to tained metal objects, but the metal is in this case
pendants from: wait until the next period, when an explosion of dif- not a part of the burial assemblage, but the cause of
grave B sb 7, ferent female artefacts (similar to that of the males death (see chapter 5), and therefore this burial will
Sørslev, Skib-
binge district, in the preceding period) occurs at the beginning of not be counted in the discussion about differentia-
Holbæk Coun- Period II. In many other parts of Europe this up- tion in wealth. One can see (table 3.1) that the large
ty, Ke1008B surge of locally made artefacts, both on the female majority of burials only contain one metal object13
(from Aner & and male side, occurs much earlier, i.e. at the begin- and that there is a gradual decrease in the num-
Kersten 1976: ning of the Early Bronze Age, as can be seen, for ex- bers for many objects. Nevertheless, it is clear that
Tafel 61); two
from grave C sb
ample, in the Franzhausen I cemetery (Neugebau- a few individuals were buried with a large number
43, Limensgård, er & Neugebauer 1997). Why the expansion of lo- of metal objects. There seems to be some kind of hi-
Åkirkeby parish, cally made objects differs from area to area is diffi- erarchical structure in the society reflected by the
Bornholm Coun- cult to say. However, it appears that the strong in- metal objects found in the graves.
ty, Ke1492C fluence of one specific foreign woman can change The most common object that accompanied the
(from Aner &
a local picture. This can be seen in the Lüneburg deceased into the grave is the dagger/sword, with
Kersten 1977:
Tafel 21); and Heath in the burial from Fallingbostel, where the 36 of the 68 graves containing a dagger/sword, fol-
Hohenlockst- woman buried there had a direct impact on access lowed by axes and spearheads. One can say that
edt, Steinburg, to bronze and the appearance of subsequent gener- most of the men followed the warrior ethos that
Ke9397 (from ations of women. Vandkilde (1996:294) sees as developing during the
Aner & Kersten
1993: Tafel 14).
3-5 metal objects
nr of graves with
nr of graves with
nr of graves with
nr of graves with
6 or more metal
2 metal objects
1 metal object
total number
of graves
objects
%
Valsømagle 48 71 9 13 8 12 3 4 68
Tabel 3.1 Relationship be-
tween the number of metal Sögel-Wohlde 107 62 38 22 22 13 5 3 172
objects in the graves between
the two different zones
Total number 155 64 47 20 30 13 8 3 240
of graves
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 39
period. One could argue that some of the wealth- Figure 26: Val-
iest men seem to have already accepted a warri- sømagle sword
or ideal similar to the one suggested by Treherne from the Val-
sømagle hoard,
(1995, see chapter 5). Examples of this are the bur- Haraldsted,
ial in Dyssegård, Grundsømagle, Sømme, Køben- Ringsted, Sorø,
havn (Ke451I) or Strandved, Bovense, Vindinge, Sv- Ke1098 (from
endborg (Ke2144C). However, there is also anoth- Aner & Kersten
er male ideal shown, one where no weapons were 1976: Tafel 80).
deposited in the burial, only clothing-related and
body-changing artefacts, such as belt hooks and
tweezers. Belt hooks are found in 20 burials (see
figure 27) from the Mälar Valley to Lower Saxony.
The majority of these (13), however, are found with-
in the Valsømagle region. The example in Lower
Saxony is found together with a Valsømagle spear-
head, so it can probably be related to a man who
originated in the Danish Isles. Twelve are found to-
gether with weapons, one with a flint dagger and
the remaining seven are found either alone or with
other clothing/appearance-related objects. This in-
dicates that at least two different male categories
existed, even though the warrior ideal is clearly the
dominant one.
We can see that there are no clear sets of rules
in the burial assemblage combinations. The graves
that only contain one metal object can have, for ex-
ample, a dagger/sword, an axe, a spearhead or a
pin. In the nine burials with two objects the combi-
nation of a dagger and belt hook is the most com-
mon one. However, beyond this it is hard to see a
general pattern in the material.
The distribution of the burials is over a wide ar-
ea. Only four parishes have more than one Period
IB burial with metal objects, and one of these is on
the boundary between the two different burial tra-
ditions. Only in Bovense parish on Funen do we
find two burials with three or more metal objects
in the burials. This is the only area where we can
see that wealth in metal objects may possibly have
been maintained over two generations. Vandkilde
argues that the social elite we see in the burials in
this area have an individual base and are fairly ex-
clusive (Vandkilde 1996:290ff). Otherwise in this
area individuals seem to be able to acquire metal
objects, and possibly status from them, while the
subsequent generation appears not to have kept the
same pace in acquiring bronze and its associated
status. Therefore it seems most likely that the bur-
ial record here is showing one-off achievements of
individuals. Vandkilde (1996:291f) argues that here
we see a new group manifesting itself against an
old elite/ideal. This may very well be true, but it
appears that single individuals could temporar-
ily overcome this system. However, the old sys-
tem survives these individual attempts to change
the social structure. Therefore one can argue that it
13
took longer, up to Period II, for this new structure to A dagger/sword
with a metal pommel is
finally become more or less accepted in this region, counted as one object.
40 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
similar background.
Materials that can be related to the Valsømagle
region are found in graves both in Säby, Söder-
manland and Ehestorf, Niedersachsen. The belt
hook found in Säby has been dated to Period II
(Feldt 2005:62, Thedéen 2004:90). It is, however,
of a clear Period IB type and should probably be
related to the Valsømagle region. In Söderman-
land most Middle Bronze Age objects found in
cairns have been found together with cremated
bones (Thedéen 2004:90). It seems clear that the
burial traditions in southern and middle Scan-
dinavia are fairly different during the Middle
Bronze Age (for the Mälar Valley see Feldt 2005,
Thedéen 2004). How and why one grave in the
Mälar Valley holds a Valsømagle object is dif-
ficult to understand, although perhaps it may
represent a Late Neolithic attempt to introduce
a more southern way of living, an introduction
that did not work. It might be compared with
the suggested transition from a Funnel Beak-
er Culture way of life to the more hunter-gath-
erer type lifestyle of the Pitted Ware Culture
as described in Närke by Graner and Karlenby
(2007). Or, perhaps it should be seen as an ob-
ject that moved within the old flint exchange
networks.14 The belt hook found in Barva is
of a type similar to the ones found in Erdrup,
Sorø (Ke1130); Særlev, Holbæk (Ke1008B); and
Sigerslevester, Fredriksborg (Ke187), although
the one found in Barva is simpler than the ones
found on Zealand.
Figure 27: Dis- perhaps even later in some areas. This new ideal, Conclusion
tribution map which was probably inspired by Continental Euro- Vandkilde (1996:291f) has argued that there is a
of Period IB belt pean cultures, included the use of bronze objects marked differentiation of wealth and rank appar-
hooks.
as status symbols. It was most likely actively op- ent in the burials from the Valsømagle area; she ar-
posed by the ‘old guard’ elite who had their power gues that there existed a group of people who man-
base in flint production (Apel 2001 chapter 10). The ifested a social separation from traditional society.
Valsømagle region and the Limfjord area (which She maintains that these new groups of individu-
is a border area between the two burial traditions) al male elites manifested their new ideal in the Val-
were the main areas of flint production, as noted by sømagle objects, partly as the style is not conven-
Apel (2001:272f). Therefore there would have been tional, but rather innovative. This new style, she
particularly strong resistance to the new emphasis contends, seems to have been important in order to
on bronze as the main material for enhancing sta- proclaim the social distance from the old socially
tus in these areas. dominant group. As shown above this group did
As seen in figure 28 there are clear differences not achieve this separation particularly quickly, and
in the distribution of Valsømagle and Sögel and it seems to have happened on an individual basis
Wohlde daggers/swords in the burial material. It is rather than on a family or kin level. The main male
only in the border zone that we can find daggers of ideal seems to have been a warrior ideal, as dem-
different types in burials in close vicinity. This in- onstrated by the presence of weapons in the bur-
dicates that the group of people who used the met- ials. The other graves with bronze objects such as
14 al objects to enhance their status and tried to intro- belt hooks and tweezers, or just pins, may be a male
Apel argues that
distribution of flint duce the new ideology saw themselves as part of ideal that was more closely related to the old soci-
to the Mälar Valley
went from Zealand via
a unified group despite discontinuity in the geo- ety, or a third movement within the society. If this
Scania up to the Mälar graphical area and time. They tried to reform the new warrior ideal was created on individual actions
Valley (Apel 2001:fig-
ure 9:17).
society in which they lived without trying to sepa- rather than on kinship and old traditions this might
rate themselves from the surrounding areas with a explain the ‘lack’ of female burials with metal ob-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 41
Sögel-Wohlde region
According to Vandkilde, “Zone II is
characterised by burials with organ-
ic-hilted daggers or swords of Sögel
and Wohlde type, secondarily nick-
flanged axes of Fritzlar type, flang-
ed axes of Hüsby type, and more oc-
casionally a spearhead of Bagterp
type” (Vandkilde 1996:252). Buri-
als with Sögel or Wohlde dagger/
sword can be found over a large ar-
ea in northern Europe (see figure
28). South western Schleswig-Hol-
stein (Dithmarschen) should be seen
as the centre of the group based on
the distribution of burials with ei-
ther a Sögel or a Wohlde dagger/
blade. It has previously been argued
that Lower Saxony is the main area
for the Sögel-Wohlde group and its
swords/daggers. Sprockhoff argues
for this based on grave contents in
Lower Saxony, which are more com-
plex than the ones in Schleswig-Hol-
stein. He acknowledges that there are
more swords/daggers found in Schleswig-Holstein blades, whereas areas such as Bohnert, Sörup and Figure 28: Dis-
than in Lower Saxony, but does not see this as a rea- Wünnenberg show a continuity through the peri- tribution of bur-
son for reconsidering the place of origin of the Sögel od and might rather be centres of power, or at least ials with Valsø-
magle, Sögel and
blades (Sprockhoff 1927:133). I disagree with this places where dominance over some people was in- Wohlde blades
conclusion. It seems that the origin of the Sögel and herited over a few generations. There are 23 graves with provenance
Wohlde blades is somewhere in Schleswig-Holstein, dating to Period IB found in Dithmarschen, 17 of known to par-
or alternatively in southernmost Jutland. If one takes these contain only one metal object each, four con- ish. q = Valsø-
into consideration the distribution of the grave ma- tain two objects and two burials have three metal magle blades;
s = Wohlde
terial, one will find that areas within the abovemen- artefacts. Even though there are graves from other blades (small =
tioned regions show a larger concentration of Period areas with more metal objects, the concentration of one grave with
IB graves. In Lower Saxony, however, there are few so many graves containing metal objects from Peri- a blade; medi-
places with more than one grave from the period od IB must be important. um = two graves
(see below). Also relevant to this is the hypothesis In this area we have a slightly different relation- with a blade);
l = Sögel blades
that Schleswig-Holstein and southernmost Jutland ship between the numbers of metal objects in the
(small = one
were centres for sword manufacturing for the Nor- burials (see table 3.1). There are more graves with grave with a
dic region during later Bronze Age periods. It is as- 2-5 objects than in the Valsømagle region. Here we blade, medium =
sumed the swords were made by highly specialized also find combinations of sets, e.g. a dagger/sword two graves with
bronze smiths in, for example, south-eastern Sønder- combined with an axe is the most common combi- a blade, large =
three graves with
jylland, Denmark, whereas bronze-working spe- nation. The type of axe depends on where in the re-
a blade).
cialists in the local area made other weapons, tools gion one is buried. The Fritzlar type is most com-
and jewellery (Rønne 1993:77ff). Dithmarschen and mon in Lower Saxony, whereas the Hüsby type axe
Steinburg have the largest concentrations of dagger is found in Schleswig-Holstein, except for one ex-
42 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
ample found in Åbenrå County. from the period are Sörup, Flensburg, Schülp and
One can also see other regional differences, for with four burials Neben and Wünneberg. For the
example the bow and arrow are commonly seen in Bronze Age an average life expectancy has been
Lower Saxony. Bergmann (1970:27) shows that dif- suggested of about 30 years, up to 45 if one survived
ferent weapon combinations can be seen in the bur- to adulthood (Harding 2000:378). If we accept this
ial material in Lower Saxony. The main difference as true then 3 x 30 gives 90 years (or 3 x 45 = 135
is in the occurrence of long distance weapons. In years), this more or less covers the full length of Pe-
North Hannover, the South Heath, and Weser-Ems riod IB, i.e. we have a family/kinship group that has
area the bow and arrow are preferred, whereas in been able to maintain its social position for about c.
the Ilmenau area spears are chosen. Slate pendants 100 year. The large number of places with two met-
exist, for example, only in Denmark and Schleswig- al-bearing burials such as Tudegård, Glüsing, Sögel
Holstein, while no slate pendant has been found to- and Tinnum might have been developed just one
gether with metal objects in Lower Saxony. generation after the other places, or were not able to
The graves with the highest number of metal ar- keep the position for three generations.
tefacts are the two foreign females, the burial in One could argue that the presence of sets of ob-
Fallingbostel with 107 objects made out of bronze, jects, even thought there are slight regional varia-
and Fahrenkrug with its seven metal objects. This tions, indicates institutionalised hierarchical struc-
is closely followed by the possible female burial in tures/principles. The long-lived centres of power
Hohenlockstedt (Ke9393A). The man with a possi- where these hierarchical centres could act might
ble background in the Valsømagle (Ehestorf) and help to explain the presence of the two bronze-rich
a burial in Delbrück, Westfalen each have six ob- foreign women. This higher level of stability proba-
jects. bly facilitated the creation of networks and contacts
Some of the richest metal Sögel-Wohlde burials with high status families/kin in other European ar-
are found outside the traditional core area. For ex- eas. If this hierarchical structure is based on kin-
ample, the burial in Schneiderwald, Ober-Mörlen, ship/inheritance it might also help to explain why
Wetterau, Hessen contains one Sögel dagger, one the first possible/probable female graves are found
Fritzlar axe, one Lochhalsnadel, five tutuli and a gold in this area. If exchange networks and power are
wire (Kubach 1973:403) and the burial in Drouwen, centred on a few families in the area then they may
Borger, Drenthe, Holland contains a Sögel dagger, a have started displaying their status to other fami-
Fritzlar axe, nine flint arrowheads, one flint strike- ly members not in positions of power, for example
a-light, two gold spirals and one whetstone (But- their wives or daughters. It is this need or poten-
ler 1986:149f). Maybe these are the remains of suc- tial to show their status to more family members
cessful men from the Sögel-Wohlde area, especially that led to this. The women in stable social situa-
the Lüneburg Heath, who for some reason or other tions also had a greater possibility to create and use
moved outside their area of origin. These are not, their own network systems than women in less sta-
however, the only Sögel-Wohlde men found out- ble areas or situations. One might be able to associ-
side their area of origin. In Thierschneck, Eisen- ate the beginning of visualising and displaying sta-
berg, Thüringen (Kubach 1973:403); Zeijen, Fries, tus to all family members to the start of the devel-
Drenthe, Holland (Hachmann 1957: catalogue nr opment of locally-made female-associated objects
638); and Kullabro, Gudhem, Västergötland, Swe- during Period II.
den (Sarauw & Alin 1923:234) are objects that can
be related to the Sögel-Wohlde burial tradition, and Ending and starting an era
these graves indicate an active culture. The social The Sögel-Wohlde culture seems to have had a
ranking system in the region may have been fairly more expansive cultural ideology than the Valsø-
strict and the display of status metal objects outside magle region. This can, for example, be seen in the
the norm may have only been permitted in new or graves from Schneiderwald and Thierschneck (Ku-
foreign areas, or for foreign women who brought bach 1973), where simpler or more complex Sögel-
the objects with them. Wohlde burials have taken place far from the orig-
inal area. Jockenhövel’s study of foreign wom-
Conclusion en in Central Europe is interesting in this respect,
The region seems to have a number of long-lived where he shows the average movement of women
centres, and in some smaller areas we see two to was between 50-200 km, and only a few moved be-
four Period IB burials with metal objects. These yond 200 km from their original area (Jockenhöv-
might not be the ones with the most bronze objects, el 1991:60). According to Vogt (2004:82) the daggers
but some show a standardised combination. Each from Bierde, Minden-Lübbecke, Nordrehien-West-
of the three burials in Bohnert, Schleswig-Holstein falen and the one from Schneiderwald come from
contains a Sögel dagger. This indicates some kind the same series. The grave from Schneiderwald is
of structural stability. Other areas with three graves comparatively rich with its many bronze objects as
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 43
well as one gold object (Kubach 1973:403f). The axe mentation with form and shape in the Valsømagle
here indicates connections to the Lüneburg Heath area led to the new style of bronze objects that is so
area. The reason for the few artefacts in the grave in characteristic for southern Scandinavia.
Bierde might be due to the fact that it was found in It is hard to fully understand why the borders be-
a ploughed out layer (Günter 1974), and that there tween the different areas move from the Århus-
might have been other smaller objects with it that Lemvig line to the River Elbe. As indicated above
were not recovered. The distance between Bierde the Lüneburg area was probably a smaller unit
and Schneiderwald is c. 220 km. The dagger blades within the larger Sögel-Wohlde group. This can be
from Thierschneck, Bockel, Bokeloh, Garstorf and seen in artefact combinations in the graves (for de-
Helmste are another important series (Vogt 2004:82), tailed discussion about the weaponry and costume
and the distances between Thierschneck and Bock- see Laux 1996a&b) that seem similar. It has been
el, Garstorf, Helmste are all over 270 km (only c. 230 shown here that the combination of Sögel dagger/
km between Thierschneck and Bokeloh). The Sögel sword and Fritzlar axe is most common, while the
blade in Kullabro is found well over 400 km from its presence of a bow and arrow also separate the ar-
probable area of origin. This indicates contacts be- ea from its neighbours. Maybe this local unit had
tween different areas of over 270 km, well over Jock- some kind of crises during the latter phases of Pe-
enhövel’s suggested distances. The female burials in riod IB. The woman buried in Fallingbostel proba-
Fallingbostel, and probably also the one in Fahrenk- bly in one way or another influenced this change.
rug, demonstrate relations over very long distanc- She must have played an important role in the so-
es. The former burial involved movement across a ciety, as her costume came to be the inspiration for
distance of over 800 km (Daum 2000:233). It seems the clothing of subsequent generations of women
that Period IB was a time for real long distance trav- in the area (see chapter 4).
el and exploration, as indicated by the Schnieder-
wald and Fallingbostel burials.
The lack of visible females seems to be a com-
mon north European phenomenon for the period
1700-1600 BC. Kubach (1977:22) writes, for exam-
ple, that in Hessen and Rheinhessen few certain fe-
male graves are known from the Lochham phase.
This differs widely from the Central European area
where many female burials are present in the ma-
terial (Hundt 1958:18-29, Krause 1988:105, 114). This
pattern might help to explain later similarities in fe-
male costume (see chapter 4).
As shown above we can see that in the Sögel-
Wohlde region there are fairly regulated sets of
burial assemblages, something which is lacking in
the Valsømagle region. In the latter area we can see
an experimental mentality emerging concerning
different artefact combinations and object types.
Razors, tweezers, belt hooks etc. are tested out and
combined in different ways in different graves, and
there seem to be no right or single way to do things.
The lack of institutionalised hierarchical structures
might have allowed for this wide exploration of
ways to show and introduce the new European in-
fluences into the Valsømagle area. The formalised
system that might go back further in time in the
Sögel-Wohlde area might have hindered or delayed
the acceptance of the new ways of showing status
and identity that were created in Europe.
It is possible that it is a merge between these two
cultures, the non-fixed, exploring Valsømagle ar-
ea with the organised, regulated and institutional-
ised Sögel-Wohlde culture, that led to what became
the so-called Nordic Bronze Age Culture. The in-
stitutions of the Sögel-Wohlde region were slowly
accepted in the Valsømagle region and the experi-
44 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
number of separate genders. There might be a dif- burials in connection with knifes, tweezers, razors
ference in costume and responsibility for an un- and awls. The stone can be pulverised and used to
married woman and a married woman, for exam- make red powder that can be used as ‘make up’. It
ple. However, they are both females and can proba- is found both in male and female burials (Ström-
bly be seen as inhabiting different stages in the hu- berg 1975b:37, Thrane 1962:87, 1981:32). This indi-
man life course (see chapter 6). It has been point- cates that some form of body ‘make-up’ was worn
ed out that even though variations in expressions at least occasionally. Movements can also be rath-
of sex exist, these are distributed primarily within er challenging to understand from the archaeolog-
15
A woven fabric con- two categories rather than evenly among the spec- ical record. When we are given clues about prehis-
sists of two sets of tra (Sofaer 2006:94ff). In this study gender is seen toric movements of different people we must take
threads – warp and
weft – woven together through different social roles that are related to bi- the opportunity to analyse them; we can explore
at right angles to each ological sex. In addition, gender is not viewed as prehistoric movement through, for example, the
other. Tabby is the sim-
plest technique, where static, but as something that might shift and change central European Bronze Age pair of ankle rings
the weft only pass-
es over and under one
through an individual’s life course. united by a chain (Sørensen 1997, Wels-Weyrauch
warp thread at a time. The focus of this investigation into dress from the 1989a). Sofaer (2006:84) writes “as archaeologists we
In twill-weaving, the
weft will pass over
Bronze Age has mainly been on overall appearance. are familiar with the idea that objects are created
and under two or more In order to understand the medium within which by people… we are perhaps less routinely aware
warp-threads, thus cre-
ating patterns of diago- appearance acts, Sørensen has divided the total ap- of the ways that people are literally created by ob-
nal lines in the fabric. pearance into separate parts: cloth - the textile itself; jects and the material world, although the implica-
16
Whether a yarn is s- clothing - garments created from the cloth; and cos- tions of this are profound”. With this in mind, and
or z-spun depends on tume - the assemblage of clothing, ornaments, and by studying the artefacts connected to the body,
the direction the spin-
dle was rotating in – dress fittings (Sørensen 1991, 1997). Sørensen’s cat- one can also say something about the body and the
clockwise or anticlock-
wise – when spinning
egories for appearance analysis are a very useful society it lived within, even when the actual body
the wool (Broholm & tool, and will be applied in the study below. It is al- and physical remains are missing.
Hald 1935:298).
so important to remember to view the body as three
17
It has been claimed dimensional and physical. If we keep this in mind
that remains of mate-
rial made of silk have
it will prevent us from only focusing on the visual Textiles, dress ornaments, and
been found in a Pe-
riod III burial from
impact, mainly from the front, which the individu- cultural belonging
al would have had. It is also important to remem-
Mecklenburg (Rands-
History of textiles and clothing
borg 2006:25f, Scher- ber that there is more to appearance than the visual
ping 2004:55, Schmidt
2004:130f). If true, this and that we need to conduct separate analyses on The art of weaving appeared in the Near East around
would be a spectacular the impact of touch and sound. Hands-on analysis the beginning of the Neolithic. All the earliest fab-
and otherwise unpar-
alleled find, but unfor- of cloth for example, will determine if it is soft or ric is made out of flax; it is therefore likely that the
tunately the identifica-
tion cannot be verified
stiff; and, as a part of an analysis concerning touch, technique for making flax into textiles was also in-
at present based on the one should not forget that the feel of the cloth is just vented in the Near East. The innovation can be seen
available published in-
formation.
a part of the sensation of touch. In modern times in the Neolithic in Central Europe. It does not, how-
18
sound is an important way of signalling informa- ever, reach northern Europe. Here leather and fur
However, on her
map on page 17 and tion; it is not always what you say but how you say seem to have prevailed as the most important cloth-
in her catalogue there it, i.e. in the case of dialects, which matters. Obvi- ing material. Bender Jørgensen has argued that this
are two s/s-spun tex-
tiles from the “Valsø- ously, we can never reach this level of interpreta- might relate to the properties of linen rather than
magle” region (Bend- tion in archaeology, but there are other sounds that agricultural difficulties, i.e. in cultivating flax. Wool-
er Jørgensen cata-
logue number BD 21E are related to the appearance of the individual that len textiles can be found in the archaeological record
&DB 36).
signal different messages. A modern day example from the Chalcolithic. This innovation also seems to
19
The authors have would be the use of stiletto shoes versus trainers: a occur in the Near East, but this time knowledge of
chosen to write the
combinations differ-
person walking in stiletto shoes gives a very differ- it soon reached Northern Europe. Bender Jørgensen
ently z/s and s/z when ent impression from one walking in trainers, even if argues that wool, leather and fur are good for the
they speak of the type
in general. Some of the
the rest of his/her outfit is the same. In the Scandi- same purpose, i.e. to keep cold and humidity away,
textiles have z-spun navian Bronze Age bronze tubes were fastened on and therefore would have appealed more to the
yarn in the warp and s-
spun yarn in the weft some corded skirts as seen, for example, in the Ølby people living in Northern Europe. She argues that
and others have the op- grave, and these probably made a distinctive sound. wool is a warm, soft, insulating and water repellent
posite. I have chosen to
write s/z in the text. Some of the headdresses from the Lüneburg area, material, whereas linen is a cool, stiff and smooth
the ones with added bronze tubes, could probably fabric (Bender Jørgensen 1992:116).
also be viewed as having created a distinct sound. Harding (2000:255) argues that there are extraor-
Odour and taste are more difficult to access within dinarily few finds of textiles from the Bronze Age
the archaeological record, but artefacts associated in comparison to the Neolithic finds. This, he ex-
with cleanliness might give us ideas about the im- plains, is because of changes in textile manufacture
portance of odour in prehistoric times. Red hem- from plant fibres to wool. According to Harding,
atite has been found in some Middle Bronze Age the difference in preservation condition between
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 47
the two different fabric types (see chapter 1) is the Bender Jørgensen (1986:16f, 289f) has identified a
reason for the difference in preserved material be- change in the spin direction of the threads used in
tween the two periods. Leading textile researchers, woven textiles, from a majority of the combination
however, seem to have a different opinion. Bend- of z-spun and s-spun threads, to a predominance of
er Jørgensen (1992:116f) has, for example, divided only s-spun wool. She draws attention to the distri-
Bronze Age Europe into different textile tradition bution pattern of the s/s-spun textiles during Peri-
areas. The big difference is that northern Europe od II. She shows that all the Period II s/s-spun piec-
tended to use woollen fabric while southern and es come from Jutland south of the Limfjord, apart
Central Europe used textiles made out of flax. This from one, which was found on the island of Born-
could be a result of the differences in preservation holm (Bender Jørgensen 1986:16).18 There are two
environment in various European areas. However, s/s fragments dating to Period II in the old Valsø-
it is hardly likely that linen was used in significant magle region: one from Billegravsgård, Pedersker,
quantities in south Scandinavia, as the mounds in Bornholm Søndre, Bornholm and one from Dalhu-
the eastern parts of the area are more likely to have set, Skivum, Års, Ålborg. Hägg (1995:140), on the
preserved linen, and there are no known linen re- other hand, argues that the different spin direc-
mains there. There is, however, at least one case of tions were used for different types of clothing. The
a textile fragment that was probably made of linen, s/s-spun cloth, according to Hägg, can be found in
a Period II grave from Vaale in Schleswig-Holstein textiles used for three different items: the cloak, the
(Ehlers 1998:468). An urn and some artefacts were blanket and the footcloth. She suggests that if cre-
wrapped in linen cloth in the Late Bronze Age bur- mated bones were wrapped in a coat or a blanket,
ial (Period V) from Lusehøj (Thrane 1984b:16). Wool the apparent change in spin direction over time
might have been a more commonly used material may actually be related to the change in the burial
in southern and Central Europe than the archae- custom from inhumation to cremation. According
ological remains show since, for example, tooth to Ehlers, the s/z19 was the only combination that
analysis of sheep from Hungary (Szazhalombatta) was used in what she calls the ‘core area’ during
show that they had been kept up to old age, indi- Period I (1700-1500 BC); it was the most common-
cating that they had been used for their wool (Pers. ly used combination during Period II, but lost its
comm. Sabine Sten 2005-06-15). One can also see a dominance as the main spin combination in favour
difference in weaving technique: in Scandinavia of only using s-spun wool during Period III (Ehlers
and the North European lowland coarse wool tab- 1998:145, 178f). I have demonstrated that differences
bies15 (see figure 29) were produced; while in Cen- in the spin direction used in the textiles in southern
tral Europe it was mainly linen tabbies in 2-ply Scandinavia are due to cultural differences, and it
yarn; in Britain and Ireland woollen fabric was z/z- is only during Period III that different traditions be-
spun, which was different from the Continental z/ gin to merge (Bergerbrant manuscript).
s- or s/s-spun fabric,16 (see figure 30) but their veg- Bender Jørgensen (1992:118f) points out the lack
etable fibres match the Continental material; while of remains of the early Nordic loom, but she argues
on the Iberian peninsula linen tabbies of Zs- or Sz- that it may have developed from the warp-weight-
plied yarn were the norm; and on Cyprus the lin- ed loom. The Stone Age mixed wool and vegeta-
en tabbies were mainly made with s-spin. Bender ble fibres and the loom weight might have been the
Jørgensen also shows that it is likely that the wool- first steps in the development of the new technolo-
len and linen fabrics were made with quite differ- gy. According to Bender Jørgensen, it is likely that
ent techniques, from the spindle to the loom. It has the Bronze Age loom was an intermediate type of
been hypothesised that a new loom and spindle wool loom between the earlier warp-weighted flax
were developed with the new technique of wool loom and the tubular loom of the Iron Age in Scan-
textiles. This might have developed from the Ne- dinavia. It has been argued that several of the well-
olithic method for making large two-dimension- preserved cloths are so long that they must have
al items in twined technique as sug- been woven on a loom with a mova-
gested by Rast-Eicher (2005:123). Dur- ble beam (Broholm & Hald 1940:120).
ing the Middle Bronze Age the weav- Harding (2000:256ff) claims that an up-
ing techniques seems to have been right loom could not have been used
quite stable within the different re- for the Danish textiles, but rather some
gions, until the Urnfield culture took kind of tubular arrangement must have
a further step in the craft of weaving, been used instead. The shawl found in
with the development of twill (Bender the Trindhøj mound is woven in a way
Jørgensen 1992:116ff). Fabric of a mix that indicates that it was made on a tu-
of wool and linen exists in Central Figure 30: S- and Z- bular loom. There are also other frag-
Germany (Bender Jørgensen 1992:52, spun thread drawn by ments from the Middle Bronze Age that
Harding 2000:255).17 Ida Demant indicate that both a tubular loom and a
48 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
warp-weighted loom were used (Stærmose Nielsen The Skrydstrup outfit contains ten different yarns,
1999:121-127). The width of the textiles led Harding but the weaving technique is the same (Bender Jør-
to suggest that the loom must have needed more gensen, Munksgaard & Stærmose Nielsen 1984:39,
than one person to operate it (Harding 2000:256ff). 43, Nielsen 1980:12). The oldest example of a blouse
This was previously suggested by Broholm and with embroidery from the Nordic Bronze Age is,
Hald (1940:120ff), who based their interpretation however, from the Period II grave at Flintbek (Eh-
on the original width of the textiles seen by the lers 1998:162ff, 222ff). This is a grave of a young
natural selvadges and the fact that many textile re- woman aged 15-16, who, based on her full cos-
mains show that two or more threads were used tume and the metal objects that accompanied her,
in each shed. Many of the textiles have a width of is likely to have come from the Ilmenau area of the
more than two metres. One piece of cloth can, how- Lüneburg Heath (Ke9593A. Bergerbrant 2005a:165f,
ever, show a different amount of weft thread work- Zich 1992a&b:186). If this is so, the earliest evidence
ing at different parts; according to Broholm and of embroidery found in the Nordic Bronze Age be-
Hald this could indicate that the number of peo- longs to the Lüneburg culture. The embroidery
ple working at the loom could vary. If this is true, it technique was widespread in large areas of north-
means that the task of weaving may not have fallen ern Europe by Period III. This is indicated in the
on just one person, but rather was a communal job fragments found in both Scandinavia (Bender Jør-
that could have been shared by two or more people. gensen, Munksgaard & Stærmose Nielsen 1984:39,
This may have been a common way of creating tex- 43) and in Holland at Emmer-Erfscheidenveen
tiles during the Bronze Age. If one looks at the pic- (Comis 2003:193ff). In some cases the cloth had
tures of weaving from the Bronze Age, from rock piled stitches added, making it resemble fur. The
art to Greek vase paintings, one can see that many pile technique is mainly found on caps and on the
depictions show two people working at the loom cloak from Trindhøj, and on the textile fragments
(Barber 1991, chapter 3). from the Melhøj grave (Broholm & Hald 1948:70,
The colour of the cloth has been debated. Accord- Nielsen 1988:21, Stærmose Nielsen 1989:36). All
ing to some, the now brown textiles could have be- Middle Bronze Age cloth from southern Scandina-
come that way from spending millennia in a wet via must be classed as coarse fabrics, but according
environment (Hedeager Madsen 1988:249). How- to Broholm and Hald (1940:110) they are not prod-
ever, microscopic examinations have shown that ucts of beginners, i.e. the technology during Period
the wool was brown from the beginning. There are II must have had some history.
a few exceptions where white wool was used in Hägg (1996a) claims that textile and clothing are
the Middle Bronze Age, for example the white belt important markers for cultural identity. She points
from the Skrydstrup grave and a very light textile out that the making of costume is a differentiat-
(probably either a blanket, a coat or a shawl) from ing and time consuming task, a craft that is hand-
the Trindhøj grave (Ryder 1990:137ff, Stærmose ed down from generation to generation. Maybe the
Nielsen 1989:57). To my knowledge there are no ar- learning process can be seen in detailed cloth stud-
chaeological traces from the Scandinavian Middle ies, as there seems to have sometimes been more
Bronze Age that indicate that one might have col- than one weaver at a time and maybe the learn-
oured the yarn. The earliest known example of col- ing process can be seen in the different textile piec-
oured yarn in Scandinavia dates to the first centu- es. The way that the textile craft is perceived can
ry AD, and before that only natural pigment was change within a few years (Greenfield 2000) and
used to create patterning (Bender Jørgensen & Wal- studying the cloth itself might give us vital infor-
ton 1986:186). Bronze Age people probably created mation about how this was done. Sørensen has
patterns in their material by using different shades pointed out that the limited variability in cloth ap-
of yarn that produced nuances in the textile. This pearance in the Bronze Age restricted its poten-
can be seen in the use of a lighter belt in the Skryd- tial for visual communication (Sørensen 1991:124).
strup grave and the possibly darker yarn used for However, from an archaeological viewpoint this is
the embroidery on the textiles from Emmer-Erfsc- helpful. That is, as we can assume that most Bronze
heidenveen (Comis 2003:193ff). Age cloth was naturally pigmented (Ryder 1990),
It has been shown that the Bronze Age textiles giving limited variations of colour, we do not need
have different qualities, like the Borum Eshøj tex- to give much thought to symbolic differences in
tiles, which are woven with less refinement than fabric colour, but can instead concentrate on the
the Trindhøj textiles (Kristiansen 1979:189). The clothing itself.
treatment of the textiles might have become more No calculations have been conducted to estimate
sophisticated through time and, for instance, both how long it would take to make a typical item of
the Skrydstrup grave and the Melhøj burial (both Bronze Age clothing, but Andersson (1996:8) has
dating to around the twelfth century BC by radi- pointed out that a considerable amount of time was
ocarbon analysis) have embroidery on the blouse. invested in the prehistoric craft of textile produc-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 49
tion. Magnusson (1986:283) shows that in parts of to the change in spin combinations, but she points
northern Sweden during the eighteenth century out that it is not possible to formulate an unambig-
AD women spent September to April doing textile uous conclusion. The change in spin direction can
work, in addition to their other duties, and it was be connected to other social phenomena, not just
only in the summer months that other occupations weaving technique (Bergerbrant manuscript). It is
were emphasised. This more recent example might possible that the tubular method was used in the
indicate that cloth could be seen as a valuable thing Sögel-Wohlde region earlier than Period III, as we
in itself, partly due to the skill and work that went have basically no traces of weaving from this area.
into creating it. The loom weights we have are from the old Valsø-
Remains of textile production in Scandinavia from magle region, where the change in spin combina-
the Middle Bronze Age are few. However, there is an tion first takes place during Period III (despite oc-
important example at Egehøj, East Jutland, where a curring earlier elsewhere). Further investigation
weaving area has been identified along the north may show whether the two regions used different
wall and the westernmost roof support based on types of loom before Period III.
small postholes and loom weights that were found Homeric references to weaving suggest a close
in the pit (1 m diameter and 0.4 m deep). A similar connection between highborn women and work at
pit was found in house II, where we have another the loom. “The blessings of culture, the spindle and
possible weaving pit. Both houses are dated to Pe- the loom, are as everywhere in the Homeric poems
riod I (Boas 1983:92f, 100). Unless there was a ma- a source of delight” (Broholm & Hald 1940:188f).
jor change in textile production, which is untrace-
able in the small textile remains, the distance be- Clothing
tween the posts is too small to weave much of the There are seven well preserved outfits from the
cloth that has survived. It therefore seems unlike- Middle Bronze Age; these are assumed to be the
ly that these pits were utilized for weaving the full clothing that was used while the person was alive,
outfits as seen in the oak log coffin graves. Maybe i.e. not special clothing for the burial. This assump-
they were used for creating smaller pieces of cloth, tion is based on the fact that
or were just places where the loom was stored away the clothes have traces of
when it was not in use. In the settlement at Lindeb- wear and signs that previ-
jerg on Funen, loom weights have also been found ously used long skirts had
(Jæger & Laursen 1983:102ff). In other parts of Eu- been remade into different
rope there are remains of loom weights which were pieces of clothing (Ekildsen
sometimes grouped along house walls. From the & Lomborg 1977). The argu-
Late Bronze Age in Wallwitz, Kr. Burg in Low- ment that the clothing has
er Saxony a weaving hollow has been excavated. been used is mainly based
There seems to be the suggestion that the loom was on the traces of wear marks
c. 1 m wide, indicated by the post-holes relating seen on the long piece of tex-
to the loom weights (Audouze & Büchsenschültz tile found in the Skrydstrup
1992:135f). The alleged lack of weaving traces in the burial (Eskildsen & Lom-
households (Bender Jørgensen 1986:139) might not borg 1976:21), as the pieces
be because of a real uniqueness of prehistoric weav- of garments recovered ear-
ing skills, but rather may have more to do with the lier have been displayed in
way we excavate our settlement sites. Many of our a manner that created ‘new’
Bronze Age settlement sites are excavated by a tech- wear marks (Jensen, Meyer
nique that entails stripping off the subsoil and fo- & Skals 1995:133), and a reliable assessment is there- Figure 31: A)
cusing on the underlying structures, such as post- fore difficult to conduct. The different reconstruc- The Muldbjerg
holes and hearths. Activities related to the settle- tions of the clothing and their reliability will be dis- costume placed
on the Skryd-
ment seen through the artefacts are almost always cussed below. Of the seven outfits, three are seen strup long skirt;
lost by this excavation technique (Artursson 2005a). as women’s clothing based on osteological analysis B) the oval cloak
If the wooden tubular loom was the most common and/or the artefacts found in the coffin. Based on from Borum Es-
form of loom during the Middle Bronze Age, this these three outfits the clothing from the Ølby buri- høj placed on
may explain the apparent lack of artefactual evi- al will be reconstructed. One of these graves (Skryd- the long skirt
from Borum Es-
dence of weaving, as it leaves very few archaeolog- strup) is a Period III grave and is therefore techni- høj (from Eskild-
ical traces. cally outside the scope of this dissertation. Howev- esen & Lomberg
Bender Jørgensen (1986:139) was tempted to in- er, it will still be presented here as it makes an im- 1977:5. Published
terpret that the warp-weighted loom had been in portant contribution to the discussion about cloth- with permission
use during the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Pe- ing and textiles. from SKALK).
riod I and II, and that the tubular loom came into
use in Period III. She associates the possible shift
50 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 32: The piece of cloth from Hvidegård man material by Croom (2000) as a coherent defi-
(photo Niels Erik Jehrbo, National Muse- nition makes it easier for us to study change in the
um Copenhagen, published with permission costume over time. A kilt is defined as a male item
from the National Museum Copenhagen).
No known scale.
of clothing that is a wrap-around garment that cov-
ers all or a part of the lower half of the body, i.e.
a skirt when worn by a woman, and it is formed
from a basic length of cloth. A loincloth, by con-
trast, is triangular in shape and “is a simple gar-
ment, part of which is wrapped around the waist,
while the rest is drawn between the legs” (Vogel-
sang-Eastwood 1993:10ff, 53ff). Based on this defi-
nition the garment called a ‘loincloth’ by Broholm
& Hald (1940:55f, 63f) is here regarded as a kilt. A
wrap-around is defined as “a single rectangle of
cloth” that is worn with the top corner of the mate-
rial draped over the left shoulder and then the cloth
was wrapped around the body one or more times,
while a belt or a strap could be used to keep the gar-
ment in place (Vogelsang-Eastwood 1993:88f). Even
though this is not a perfect description of the gar-
ment found in Muldbjerg and Trindhøj, it seems
to me to be a better term than ‘gown’, which was
used by Broholm and Hald (1940:19f, 33f). Accord-
ing to Croom a mantle is “a large rectangle of cloth,
draped over the left shoulder, rounded at the back,
under the left arm and back over the left arm and
shoulder”; “at its most basic, a cloak was simply a
rectangle of cloth fastened by a separate brooch, al-
most always on the right shoulder”; and the cape
that “was sewn up the front … usually had a hood”
(Croom 2000:50ff). From these definitions the best
term for the South Scandinavian Middle Bronze
Age ‘outer wear’ is cloak.
Borum Eshøj grave A, has been dendrochrono-
logically dated to c. 1351 BC from a sample with part
of the sapwood preserved (Christensen 1998:113).
The grave contained skeletal parts, which were
The man’s outfit held together by fleshy parts and muscle. The oste-
The graves from Borum Eshøj (A & B), Muldbjerg, ological analysis determined that it was a man be-
and Trindhøj, are the burials that contain male tween 50 and 60 years of age. On his head he wore
clothing (Broholm & Hald 1948). They were all ex- a round cap with pile stitches. He was dressed in
cavated during the nineteenth century. From these a kilt, which covered him from the lowest rib to
excavations we have very good information about the knees; the kilt was fastened with a simple cord.
how the clothes were placed in the graves. The Bo- There were no traces of shoes, but in the area of the
rum Eshøj burials are some of the few graves from feet there were two small oblong pieces of cloth,
the period with skeletal remains. and these have been interpreted as some kind of
Broholm and Hald (1940, 1948) used a different ter- socks or stockings. The man was covered by a wide
minology for the male garments than is used here. oval-shaped cloth, which has been interpreted as a
I have chosen to follow a more modern and stand- cloak and is assumed to have been a garment worn
ardised research terminology based on Croom by the man while he was alive (Broholm & Hald
20
The lack of sapwood (2000) and Vogelsang-Eastwood (1993), which al- 1948:46-48, see figure 33).
makes the date approx-
imate, but its proposed so makes comparisons with garments from other Grave B from Borum Eshøj is dendrochrono-
felling year is regard- cultures and over time much easier. The Egyptian logically dated to c. 1345 BC from a sample with
ed as fairly accurate.
For the Trindhøj buri- garments studied by Vogelsang-Eastwood (1993) only heartwood preserved (Christensen 1998:113,
al the date given is the
earliest possible felling
are partly contemporary with the garments stud- Jensen, J. 1993:189).20 According to the osteological
year, as the distance ied below even though they are widely divided in analysis the deceased was a man aged around 20
to the sapwood is un-
certain (Christensen
terms of geography. It is important to use the defi- years old. He was dressed in a kilt, which was held
1998:113). nitions of cloak, capes and mantles used for the Ro- together by a leather strap with a wooden double
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 51
button. There are remains of leather shoes on his cloak (Broholm & Hald 1948:56-59, see figure 35).
feet. He was also covered with oval cloth, perhaps The Trindhøj burial, grave A, is dendrochrono-
representing a coat (Broholm & Hald 1948:51, see logically dated (only heartwood preserved) to c.
figure 34). 1356 BC (Christensen 1998:113, Jensen, J. 1993:189).
The dendrochronological date of the Muldbjerg No bones are preserved. The deceased was wear-
grave (with bark ring preserved) is 1365 BC (Chris- ing a round cap, with pile stitches, on his head.
tensen 1998:113). Only a few bones were preserved; The cap has been viewed as a technological mas-
no aging of the bones has been conducted. The de- terpiece. In a chip-box there was also a simpler
ceased was wearing a hemispherical cap with pile cap. The departed wore a wrap-around, similar to
stitches. He was dressed in a wrap-around that the one in Muldbjerg, which was held together by
reached from the upper chest down to the knees, a woven belt that ended with a tassel. On his feet
and it was tied at the waist with a broad leather belt, he was wearing leather shoes, and he too was cov-
which was fastened with a horn double button at ered with a cloak. The cloak had a similar shape
the back. Two oblong strips of cloth were found in to the Muldbjerg cloak, but it was covered by pile
the foot region, which are presumed to have been stitches on the side that is presumed to be the out-
socks of some kind. The deceased was covered with side, and this made the cloak heavy; the estimated
a kidney-shaped cloth that was probably used as a weight of the cloak is around four kilos (Broholm &
52 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 35:
Muldbjerg burial
(reconstruction
by Sigyn Sten-
qvist, (©)Berger-
brant & Sten-
qvist 2007).
Figure 36:
Trindhøj buri-
al (reconstruc-
tion by Sig-
yn Stenqvist,
(©)Bergerbrant
& Stenqvist
2007).
Hald 1948:43-46, Stærmose Nielen 1989:46, see fig- wrap-arounds (Muldbjerg and Trindhøj) and two
ure 36). are dressed in kilts (the two Borum Eshøj burials).
The male clothing seems to have some shared This gives us three different outfits. The clothing
traits. They all wore a cloak of some kind, oval or of the Muldbjerg and Trindhøj individuals is very
kidney-shaped, and probably leather shoes. All men similar, i.e. a cap, a wrap-around, a cloak and shoes.
have remains of cloth or leather in the area of their Grave A from Borum Eshøj is also similar, but dif-
feet, which indicates that they were wearing shoes fers somewhat by the fact that a kilt was worn in-
of some kind. The cap seems to be a common fea- stead of a wrap-around. The deceased in grave B
ture for male attire, with only Borum Eshøj grave B from Borum Eshøj varies the most in that he did
lacking a cap. There are slight individual differenc- not wear a cap. The difference in appearance be-
es between the caps, both in shape (round or hemi- tween wearing an oval coat or kidney shaped
21
The Skrydstrup spherical) and in terms of ornamentation, ranging cloak and one wrap-around has been interpreted
woman was about 170
cm in height, where-
from more elaborate, e.g. covered with pile stitch- by Eskildsen and Lomborg as depending on which
as the Borum Eshøj es, to a plain and simple version. If a grave contains woman they married (Ekildsen & Lomborg 1977).
woman was 157 cm tall
(Glob 1970:33 & 53).
two caps, the most elaborate cap was worn for the The kidney-shaped cloak and the wrap-around are
This has been interpret- funeral and the other one was placed by the side of cut from the same piece of big cloth, as seen in the
ed as the reason for dif-
ferences in the meas-
the deceased. Based on Near Eastern symbols and Trindhøj grave (Nielsen 1971). Eskildsen and Lom-
urement of the long the golden caps from Western Europe, Kristiansen borg point out that the cloak and the pieces used
cloths/skirts (Eskildsen
& Lomborg 1977:4). The and Larsson (2005:271) interpret the rounded cap for the wrap-around give about the same measure-
calibration of the date as a symbol for profane rulers whereas the point- ments as the Skrydstrup grave’s long skirt (see be-
of the textile fragment
seems to be slight- ed hats are seen as symbols for the gods. Accord- low). The smaller cloth from the Borum Eshøj, grave
ly older then the oth- ing to Kristiansen and Larsson (2005:271ff) the caps C (see below)21, does not allow for the creation of
er remains, which sug-
gests that older tex- in the oak-log coffins are symbols indicating that this outfit, but out of it an oval shape cloak could be
tiles might have been
remade into different
the deceased had been a chieftain. The main dif- made, like the one worn by the man buried in Bo-
pieces of clothing. ference between the men is that two are wearing rum Eshøj grave A. Eskildsen and Lomborg there-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 53
22
GrN-15459 (wood) tween 1500-1110 BC22, i.e. Period II-III from a Scan- whether or not the so-called ‘cloak carvings’ are
2980±35 BP, GrA19531
(textile) 3110 ±50, GrA- dinavian perspective. The man who ended up in actually depictions of cloaks has been a subject
19532 (hair) 2995 ±45, the Emmer-Erfscheidenveen bog is thought possi- for debate (Almgren 1960, Coles 2000:69ff, Malmer
GRA-19533 (skin) 3020
±40 (Van der Sanden bly to have been strangled to death (van der Plicht 1989a:18, 1989b:94f), but it has been shown that they
1996:191,van der Plicht
et al 2004:482).
2004:487, van der Sanden 1996:156). correspond well with the shape of known cloaks,
23
There are indications of some common traits in kilts, and wrap-arounds from oak log graves (Pers.
If calibrated in Ox-
cal 3.10 then we have a
the male clothing (the wrap-around and the cloak) comm. Annika Larsson 2006-11-23, Almgren 1960).
93.9% probability with- in northern Europe, suggested both by the frag- If they are dated to the Middle Bronze Age they
in 1320-890 and with
65.3% probability be-
ments from Emmer-Erfscheidenveen and by de- could probably be compared with the carvings of
tween 1220-970 BC. I pictions of cloaks in rock art. There are depictions axes, swords and spears which have been described
have chosen to bring
this grave into the dis- of cloaks and wrap-arounds in the rock art from by Hauptman Wahlgren (2002:80) as the only fair-
cussion despite the fact a geographically extensive area (Pers. comm. An- ly accurately depicted artefacts. It seems that the
that it belongs to Period
III, as it helps us to un- nika Larsson 2006-11-23), from Scania to Upp- cloak carvings have been overlooked in this cate-
derstand the Borum Es- land in Sweden (Goldhahn 2005:78f). One can find gory, although one might reasonably regard them
høj grave.
them in, for example, Uppland (Almgren 1960:31- as part of the warrior’s gear. This may be because
37, Coles 2000:69ff), Himmelstadlund, Östergöt- they are textile products and are therefore seen by
land (Hauptman Wahlgren 2002:86f), and Scania many as belonging to the female sphere, despite
(Almgren 1960:19f) in Sweden. In Uppland there being found in male graves. Rock art research has
are also examples of rock art depicting kilts (Pers. often tended to focus on the male sphere even if
comm. Annika Larsson 2006-11-23). However, there are some exceptions to this rule; for example,
Goldhahn (2005:66-136) has studied the cloak carv-
ings and interpreted them as having cosmological
connotations rather than being mere depictions of
cloaks.
Based on the artefacts we can indirectly deduce
where leather objects may have existed. For exam-
ple, the existence of a double button indicates the
presence of a leather belt or strap. This is justified
since all cases of double buttons in the above graves
are related to leather belts or straps (see figure 54).
This goes as well for other examples of well pre-
served material such as Hvidegård, Lyngby-Tår-
bæk (Ke 399), and Jægersborg, Gentofte (Ke 369),
both in Sokkelund, Københavns. In regions where
some of the weapons were worn differently, e.g.
tied to the leg, there are few or no belt hooks or dou-
ble buttons (see below).
Figure 41: Grave portion to the height of the two women” (Broholm
II in mound & Hald 1948:41). However, the cloth, which has
1, Schafstall- been interpreted as a long skirt, was folded twice
berg, Wardböh-
men, Celle (re- around her body, and placed so that the top of the
construction by cloth reached the lower edge of the blouse. The belt
Sigyn Stenqvist, was placed c. 20 cm lower than the waist25 (on the
(©)Bergerbrant hips) with an 89 cm in circumference (Broholm &
& Stenqvist Hald 1939:56, 99, Harald Hansen 1978:140).
2007).
Hägg argues that the peplos-dress26 was in use
during the Middle Bronze Age in Central Europe.
Here one can find two shoulder pins in many fe-
male graves. She has earlier argued that the long
skirt in the Scandinavian graves of Borum Eshøj
and Skrydstrup should be seen as peplos-style gar-
ments (Hägg 1968, 1996a). Kristiansen (1974:29-34,
1975 unpublished manuscript) has also argued for
the use of a peplos-type dress in Scandinavia. He
bases this interpretation on the textile finds from Bo-
rum Eshøj, Skrydstrup and Egtved, use wear anal-
ysis of well-preserved bronze jewellery, and Cen-
tral European material. His analysis of the bronzes
shows that the artefacts bear traces of wear on the
upper part of the bronzes. This, according to the
author, is an indication that textiles have covered
them. He argues that there was only one Bronze
Age dress, and this was an Egtved dress, i.e. a cord-
ed skirt and a blouse with, depending on their so-
cial status, a number of pieces of bronze jewellery.
This was then covered by the long piece of cloth ar-
ranged in a peplos-dress with a hood. The peplos
should have been fastened with shoulder pins that
were either made out of bone or did not accompa-
ny the deceased into the grave. According to Kris-
tiansen, this dress would have been used through-
out the Later Bronze Age as well (Kristiansen 1974,
1975:27-35 unpublished manuscript). I do not, how-
ever, agree with the above authors since there are
few clues supporting the idea of the use of a long
skirt as a peplos-type dress. First and foremost, the
placement in the Skrydstrup grave does not indi-
cate that the cloth was used as a peplos. A peplos-
type dress is fastened with one pin or fibula at each
25 shoulder. This can be seen in many Central Euro-
The measurement
given in the original re- pean Middle Bronze Age female graves, i.e. one pin
port is 20 to 25 cm (Bro-
holm & Hald 1939:22),
placed on each shoulder (Wels-Weyrauch 1989a,
but on the drawings of 1991). In the Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age,
the grave the belt only
appears to be c. 15 cm
now generally seen as having been worn hanging however, this pattern does not exist. Secondly, there
lower than the waist from the hips (Alexandersen et al 1981:35, Harald is not just one Middle Bronze Age dress. The cord-
(for original draw-
ings and photograph Hansen 1978:139, Hvass 1981:30). The Skrydstrup ed skirts do not exist in the Skrydstrup grave nor is
see Broholm & Hald and Borum Eshøj long skirts are more difficult to there one in the burial of the woman from Borum
1939:24 & plate 1).
reconstruct though, and the interpretations are Eshøj. Thirdly, Harald Hansen has pointed out that
26
The European pep- mainly built on the Skrydstrup find as the wom- a Greek peplos has different measurements (2x3 m)
los-type clothing may
be compared with that an from Borum Eshøj is found out of context (see and this is in contrast to the large textiles from the
from Classical Greece,
i.e. “folded down from
above). Broholm and Hald doubt that the long cloth oak coffins. According to her the large cloth is not
the neck and belted. Se- was used as skirts because of “the way in which the long enough to function as a Greek peplos (Harald
cured at the shoulder
with pins, it was sleeve-
pieces are sewn together and the lack of a hand or Hansen 1978:143). Furthermore, the peplos explana-
less and sometimes belt at the top, but also their great width and more tion does not provide a reason for the belts found in
worn over a chiton”
(Pedley 1998:173).
particularly their length which is cut out of all pro- the grave. Why should the Skrydstrup grave, which
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 57
did not contain a belt plate, need a belt or why are Figure 42: Grave
there two belts found in Borum Eshøj grave C? The I in mound 1,
most reasonable explanation for these belts is that Schafstallberg,
Wardböhmen,
they were used to hold up a skirt on the hip with Celle (recon-
a belt plate at the waist. It does not, however, mean struction by Sig-
that Kristiansen’s use-wear analysis should be dis- yn Stenqvist,
missed. The presence, at least for certain occasions, (©)Bergerbrant
of a cloak/cover for the female dress must be fur- & Stenqvist
2007).
ther investigated. Specifically, there are indications
of a special cloak/covering for the dress in Lower
Saxony, where the mode of dress is generally seen
to be similar to that in Scandinavia (see below).
Eskildsen and Lomborg have tried to reconstruct
the Skrydstrup skirt on a ‘live’ model, and they view
it as a skirt that was folded twice around the body,
so that it reached just from under the armpits to the
feet. The skirt would have been wrapped round the
upper part of the body twice and one of the ends
would have secured the skirt by being tucked in
between the breasts. According to the authors, the
belt was used as an extra security to lock the skirt in
place. This way the skirt would have reached to the
feet (Eskildesen & Lomborg 1976:20). The main crit-
icism against this model has been that having first a
wool blouse and then two rounds of woollen cloth
around your torso would have made this clothing
unbearably warm during certain times of the year
(Alexandersen 1981:41f, Harald Hansen 1978:143).
Additionally, it does not fit with the description of
the long cloth’s position from the Skrydstrup grave.
Broholm and Hald (1939:99) argue that the place-
ment of the long skirt in the Skrydstrup burial pro-
vides no clues of how it was worn. However, one
may wonder why the skirt might have been placed
in the grave differently from how it was used in
life, when all other types of clothing are assumed
to have been placed as they were worn?
Another reconstruction of the skirts has been
proposed by Harald Hansen. Her suggestion is
that the skirts were worn like the women’s skirt on
Sir Lanka. That is, the large cloth would have been reconstruct a ‘practical dress’ (for example, Eskild-
tied with a belt round the hips, with the cloth gath- sen & Lomborg 1976). However, the women in the
ered under the belt. This should create a skirt that higher social strata of the Bronze Age did not seem
has two layers, where the upper layer hangs down to worry too much about practicality, as is appar-
from the belt. Harald Hansen bases this interpre- ent from their jewellery and coiffure. The jewel-
tation on the low placing of the Skrydstrup belt, as lery they used tended to be large belt plates, neck
well as on the fact that there are two belts found in collars and neck-rings and on the Continent there
the grave from Borum Eshøj (Harald Hansen 1978). are examples of very big pins and pairs of leg-rings
This interpretation is interesting, but it has been dis- united by a chain (Wels-Weyrauch 1989a). It is im-
missed by Stærmose Nielsen on the grounds that portant that our reconstructions of Bronze Age
the women in Sir Lanka live in a different kind of dress should concentrate on the actual archaeolog-
climate and use different fabric (Alexandersen et al ical material. One must therefore dismiss Harald
1981:45). However, one should not dismiss Harald Hansen’s interpretation, for there simply was not
Hansen’s reconstruction so easily, although there enough material above the belt in the Skrydstrup
are some problems with her interpretation. For ex- grave to create Harald Hansen’s suggested layered
ample, Harald Hansen argues that this is a practical and ‘practical’ skirt. Recently Randsborg (2006:249)
dress for different tasks (Harald Hansen 1978:146). has suggested that the long skirt could have been
Many of the authors are occupied with trying to worn in many different ways, depending on, for
58 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 45:
The Lüneburg
winged bon-
net drawn by
Ulrike Wels-
Weyrauch (from
Wels-Weyrauch
1994:62).
the Egtved outfit) and the clothing for the married minable textile fragments were tabby and were s/
woman (i.e. the Skrydstrup dress). The relation be- s-spun. The textile and other organic remains indi-
tween the belt plate and the sun cult as well as the cated that the departed person had been placed on a
different limitations in physical movement implied cowhide. She had worn a short-sleeved blouse with
by the two different outfits is stressed by the au- a decorative end at the neck opening and probably
thors. However, the belt plate is present in the Bo- a belt and/or a skirt with jewellery attached and
rum Eshøj burial as well and the only unique ar- socks of some kind. The textile fragments above
tefact type associated with the corded skirts is the the ankle-ring, arm-ring and neck-ring are seen
bronze tubes. Their hypothesis is similar to Thom- by Ehlers as a possible cloak that was placed above
sen’s rejected idea of a temple dancer, and one can the deceased to cover the body (Ehlers 1998:166ff).
think of many other reasons for the difference in
dress. Arguments relating to context, for example,
must be brought into the debate before any clear
conclusions can be made.
coastal area had a shared clothing background in objects were a permanent part of the clothing. This 30
Plaited hair has been
the Bronze Age, as they belonged to the same cul- larger number of sewn on objects also indirect- found in bogs, some-
times deposited with
tural sphere in the Late Neolithic, the Single Grave ly creates a more elaborate textile treatment than ards from the Bronze
Age (Gibbs 1987:85, Es-
Culture. Therefore, one might reasonably assume found on the south Scandinavian ones, based on kildesen & Lomborg
that the basic pieces of male clothing, such as the the objects found in the graves. 1976:23).
62 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
well preserved burials that have been associated impact. The costume of the
with men have combs in the grave, but not, as in the men should not have made
case of females, physically attached to their cloth- any particular sounds dur-
ing. No beard remains have been found in the oak- ing movement in their en-
log coffins despite the fact that fragile hair, such as vironment, except for the
pubic hair and the hair from eyebrows, has been possible sound the cape
found. This should indicate that the men shaved. might have created when
The importance of shaving can be read from all the the man moved around.
razors found in the graves from this period (Boye
1986, Glob 1970, Treherne 1995). There may have The women’s costume
been other body modifications, such as tattoos as The women have a wider variety of accessories as- Figure 49:
observed on the man found in the Ötzaler Alps sociated with their costume than the men. They Plan of grave
(Spindler 1994:167-173), but if that is the case, all have large, heavy bronze ornaments like belt plates K from Glad-
sakse sb nr 11,
traces have disappeared. and neck-collars. The Skrydstrup woman has the Ke382K (from
The importance placed on combs and razors smallest number artefacts added to her outfit, with Aner & Kersten
could indicate a concern with cleanliness and there- just two gold earrings and one comb. All the women 1973:127 figure
fore odour. Later, the comb also seems to have had had combs fastened to the belt, under the belt plates 84). 1 razor, 2
symbolic value, as seen for example among Viking in the cases of Egtved and Borum Eshøj grave C, ex- tweezers, 3 flint
strike-a-light, 4
Age men. Despite the apparent emphasis on hair- cept the Ølby grave, and this is probably due to dif- dagger blade.
grooming, a travelling Arab, Ibn Fadlan, who en- ferent preservation conditions. Most combs seem to
countered the Rus somewhere along the Volga Riv- have been made of horn or bone, but combs made of
34
er, describes the Rus as being horribly dirty (Sten- bronze have also been found in, for example, Bud- The neck-ring from
Borum Eshøj is a full
berger 1964:655f). Therefore we should perhaps not dinge, Gladakse, Sokkelund, Københavns (Ke379) circle and has a lock.
put too much importance on the existence of combs and Diernæs, Hoptrup, Haderslev (Ke 3622A). Sø- If the neck-ring has
been used as a perma-
and razors, as notions of cleanliness are culturally rensen has pointed out that many of the European nent or removable arte-
fact it will be evident in
and religiously specific. They might just indicate an Bronze Age female-associated artefacts are perma- the use-wear pattern,
interest on the outward appearance, and the Late nently attached, which can be read from the diam- but to my knowledge no
use-wear analyses have
Bronze Age bronze combs with horse ornamenta- eter of neck-rings and arm-rings, for example (Sø- been published. This
tion (Kaul 2004:301ff, Jensen, J. 2002:392f) or the pic- rensen 1997:101ff); the neck-rings and arm-rings in neck-ring may have
been used as perma-
tures of combs on urns (Jensen, J. 2002:392f) may be my examples were all removable.34 The only gar- nent jewellery.
an indication of the symbolic or ritual value of bod- ment that seems to have artefacts as a permanent 35
The amber beads and
ily treatment. part of the clothing is the Ølby burial. The 125 the glass pearls have
The only effect of touch, except for the wooden bronze tubes appear to have been an integral part traditionally been in-
terpreted as parts of
sheath of the sword, is the wool in the clothing, and of her corded skirt, while the amber beads and glass an arm-ring; however,
wool is a warm soft material (Bender Jørgensen pearls were either sewn onto the blouse or were a they could equally well
have been sewn onto
1992:117). The rest of the bronze, wooden or bone part of an arm-ring.35 As with the men, most of the the blouse. To be able to
see which is the most
objects are too small to make any more significant women’s artefacts are removable. Due to the small likely, one needs to con-
duct use-wear analy-
sis, or have a very de-
tailed excavation re-
port. This demands a
detailed analysis and
therefore the tradition-
al view that regards the
beads as part of an arm-
ring is followed in this
dissertation.
Figure 53: Plan of grave in Jægersborg, Gentofe parish sb nr 11, Ke369 (from Aner & Kersten 1973:128 figure 73).
1 sword blade, 2 leather bag with pin, knife, razor, bow to fibula, tweezers, and flint strike-a-light, a double button, 3
gold arm-ring.
66 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
had been closed and positioned on the dress with mains of a possible hide and some wool threads; all
the pin. The deceased had been placed on an oxhide these were placed in the waist region, and close to
in a cist partly made out of a hollowed-out oak log these objects was a dagger blade. The deceased per-
and partly of wooden boards (Ke336B, Brøndested son was placed on his side instead of in the normal
1930, see figure 47 & 48). supine position. This man differs from the norm,
From a partly destroyed grave from Gladsakse, both by the body position and the placement of the
(sb nr 11) grave K (Ke382K, see figure 49) we have dagger.
a tweezers, a razor, a flint strike-a-light, and re- Grave B (sb nr 17) Klampenborg, Gentofte parish
Figure 58: Plan (Ke372B) is a probable male grave with some infor- approximately the same place as the chisel on the
of mound sb nr mation about the position of the objects found in other side, an awl and an axe had been positioned,
69, Hesselag- the grave. Close to remains of the teeth were a dag- probably partly placed on the torso, while a ceram-
er, Hesselager
parish, Ke2010, ger blade and a pommel, while a fibula was placed ic vessel had been placed at the feet. This grave con-
drawn by A.P. on the torso, and further down a knife had been in- tains a large amount of male-related artefacts that
Madsen (from cluded. It is likely that this man was buried with his were, except for the sword, placed in a ‘normal’ po-
Sehested 1884: dagger on his left shoulder blade, a fibula placed on sition. However, the placement of the sword in the
Tafel VIII). his chest and a knife, which was probably placed in middle of the torso, and the act of covering it with
a pouch by his waist. a round disc, seem more typical of what one might
A very special male grave has been found in expect from a female burial, where the placement
Jægersborg Hegn, Søllerød parish (sb nr 19, Ke417, of the dagger relates to the belt plate. However, the
see figure 50). This grave contains something unu- parallel is not exact, since the disc is of a very differ-
sual: a gold disc that had been placed on the waist. ent kind than the belt plates. Nevertheless, it seems
Below the disc there was a sword blade, four tu- to be at the top of the burial covering the body, not
tuli and a belt hook, and a socket chisel had been part of the costume, as a symbol for something.
placed next to the body on the left side, in the vi- One can imagine, then, that it might have had the
cinity of the head. On the right side of the body, at same or similar symbolic meaning or significance
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 69
and tutulus; it was equally male artefacts in this region are: neck collars, belt
common to wear spiral arm- plates, and arm-rings.
rings as a dagger. The female For Period III there are both cremation and inhu-
costume at the time seems to mation burials. Below, only the inhumation burials
be fairly similar, a belt plate will be discussed.
combined with a neck collar, The burial of a Period III male in Jægersborg,
tutuli, arm-rings and a dag- Gentofte parish (sb nr 11, Ke369, see figure 53) is
ger. This indicates that there a clear example of how in Scandinavia the pin is
was one overruling female used in relation to a pouch, i.e. it is not part of the
gender that was combined other pieces of clothing. Here we have a well pre-
in different ways, probably served grave of a male that had been buried with
depending on different so- his sword laying on his left shoulder and pointing
cial roles and/or age. Due downwards, and on the left arm he wore a gold
to the lack of skeletal mate- arm-ring. Placed on his left upper arm was a leath-
rial it is hard to study these er pouch containing the bow from a fibula, a knife,
variations more closely. The a razor, a tweezers and a flint strike-a-light. The bag
focus on the female body is had been closed with the pin, and found in relation
on the waist and upper tor- to this there was also a double button still in situ in
so, and there are no objects a leather strap (see figure 54).
that relate to the lower half Another grave, this time with gold inlay in the
of the body. The only object handle of the sword, is that at Vedbæk (sb nr 59),
that relates to physical ma- Søllerød parish grave A. According to the writ-
nipulation of the body is the ten information it seems that the sword had been
comb, and we know from placed on the left shoulder, and the fibula and belt
the oak-log coffins that some hook were on the torso. In this region it is typical for
of the women had elaborate the sword or dagger in a male grave to be placed on
hairstyles, and that combs the left shoulder. With the exception of the above-
of more perishable material mentioned example, this can be seen in Period II
were common in the graves. and this burial tradition continues into Period III
It is possible, then, that all as seen in: sb nr 11, Gladsaske grave F (Ke382F) and
the women had combs bur- the possible double burial at Lyngby, Lyngby-Tår-
ied with them. None of the bæk parish (Ke404).
artefacts were permanent- Nine of the burials in this phase have a sword,
ly attached to the body and or ten if you count the one with two swords in the
no gold objects were found double grave from Lyngby. Four of the graves have
in the graves. some toilet equipment, i.e. tweezers and/or razors,
The finds that cannot be objects that indicate body-changing practises, such
associated with either sex as shaving. Belt hooks and double buttons, when
are: the mixed mound find found with gender related artefacts, are only found
from Sorgenfri (Ke406); and with male equipment. Therefore, it seems that these
the three graves each con- objects are uniquely male artefacts in this region.
taining a dagger: Jægers- The most common male assemblages are those
borg (Ke370); Vedbæk with a sword in combination with a belt hook or
(Ke436); and Jægersborg He- double button or a tutulus. The main focus in the
gn (Ke419). The latter also male graves is still on the weapon, but it typically
included an awl. In general occurs with an object that probably could be relat-
Figure 60: Plan terms the sword/dagger seems to be an important ed to a belt, i.e. a belt hook, a double button, or a tu-
of burial B in sb artefact for both male and female, as there are on- tulus. Even though fire-lighting equipment exists
nr 70, Hesselager, ly two graves that are attributed to Period II that in the graves, the importance of it seems to have di-
Hesselager parish,
Ke2011B drawn lack a dagger/sword (Ke379 & 382G). Both men and minished since period II. Two graves contain gold
by A.P. Madsen women have dress accessories, while tutuli seem to objects.
(from Sehested be unisex, and belt hooks, fibulae, pins, and awls There are two possible female graves from Peri-
1884: Tafel IV). are only found in male graves. The exclusively fe- od III: Holte (Ke415) and Jægersborg Hegn (Ke426),
both from Søllerød parish. The first one was found
36
Ke 2007 (Sehested 43) is an example of a ploughed grave where a dagger was found just outside the by a farmer in a mound that also contained a peri-
grave, and it seems likely that the dagger belonged to the grave and had been removed by the plough. How-
ever, if this is not so then there are 15 empty graves (Aner & Kersten 1977:154-164, Sehested 1884:60). od III sword, and the information given indicates
37
The blade is only c. 27 cm so it seems more likely to be a dagger or possibly a short sword. However, the that the sword and the possible female burial were
placement on the left shoulder is typical of a male grave, whereas daggers in female graves are generally
placed in the waist region (often in association with a belt plate). found at different levels of the mound. The deceased
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 71
woman was buried in a corded skirt, as signified by ons seem to be important in all
the bronze tubes, and with her she had a tutulus three periods, and in both Peri-
and a knife. The second possible female grave was od IB and II there is more than
found in a mound that has female objects related one weapon category, daggers/
to both Period II and III, and there seem to be the swords, spearhead, and axe; in
remains of two female burials in the mound. The Period III, however, only dag-
grave dating to this phase included a neck ring, a ger/sword are present.
spiral-ring, a fibula and a knife (Ke426). The grave
found in Jægersborg Hegn seems to mark a con- Case study south-
tinuity with the female ideal of the previous pe- eastern Funen
riod, while the grave from Holte is slightly differ- This case study deals with a
ent. The latter not only has its bronze objects that smaller area where many of
relate to the lower part of the body, but it also has a the mounds were excavated be-
more everyday object, a knife, whereas none of the tween the years 1878-1881 by
other female graves contain objects that might have N.F.B. Sehested (1884). The ex-
been used in practical everyday life. cavations were very well doc-
Despite the increased number of graves that umented with both text and
can be dated to Period III there is a decrease in the drawings. Therefore we have
number of visible female graves, and none of these an area with detailed informa-
contain a belt plate, the standard female object in tion about the placement of ar-
period II. The female status objects seem to have be- tefacts, and this relates not on-
come much more uncommon, at least in the graves. ly to their position in the grave,
From this it is tempting to hypothesise that the fe- but also detailed information
male status diminished from Period II or shifted to such as the direction the dec-
another arena, for example, to hoards. oration on an object faced. In-
The nine graves with Period III artefacts that deed, Sehested’s methods were
cannot be determined to either sex generally have far ahead of his time and, for
only one object such as a dagger, tutulus, knife or example, he excavated entire
fibula. mounds instead of only inves-
Of the graves that can only be determined loosely tigating sample trenches. It was
to the Middle Bronze Age, there are eight inhuma- only after World War II that the
tions and two cremations without any remaining excavation of whole mounds
artefacts. Eleven graves have artefacts with a long became the norm in Denmark
lifespan or which are too fragmented to determine (Thrane 1984a:115).
to a period, and all these graves have just one arte- The material analysed here
fact each, from a flint spearhead to a sword blade. comes from the parish Hesse-
Two people were buried together with their heads lager, Gudme, Svendborg (see
at opposite ends of the grave in Gladsakse, grave J appendix 3). Almost half of
(sb nr 11, Ke382J). One of the deceased had a flint ar- the graves (1436) contained no
rowhead placed close to his left shoulder. preserved artefacts. It is like-
There are two double graves in the region, one ly that these people were bur-
probably dated to the Middle Bronze Age, where ied in their clothing with possi-
the two bodies were placed with their heads at the bly added bone or horn objects,
opposite ends, and one Period III grave with the like the older man from Borum
buried men placed shoulder to shoulder. There are Eshøj. As there is no preserved
only a small number of ‘empty’ graves, which could skeletal material it is pointless
be due to the fact that many of the mounds were ex- to sex these individuals.
cavated during the nineteenth century and not eve- The only secure male grave dating to Period II is Figure 61: Plan
ryone recorded or recognised ‘empty’ burials then. a grave (Ke2006D, Sehested 1998:30D, see figure 57) of burial A in sb
This seems to indicate a stratified society where not with a sword blade.37 The sword in the grave was nr 81, Hesselag-
er, Hesselager
everyone had the right to be buried in a mound. For placed on the left shoulder. The two secure male parish, Ke2014A,
example, there are no signs of children buried in graves (Ke2010E & 2010F, Sehested 1884:40E&F, see drawn by A.P.
the area. The females are invisible during Period IB, figure 58) from Period III both had a sword blade Madsen (from
while later a few women become very visible dur- on their left shoulder, as well as other objects. Grave Sehested 1884:
ing Period II, but female visibility diminishes again 38B (Sehested 1884:55f, Ke 2013B, see figure 59) is Tafel VI).
during Period III. In the area there is gold present a probable inhumation grave with a dagger blade
in the graves during the full Middle Bronze Age, placed on the left shoulder. This placement indi-
but it is found exclusively in the male graves. Weap- cates that this is a male grave. There is another al-
72 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 66:
Plan of grave A
mound 8, Dan-
newerk, Ke2340
(from An-
er & Kersten
1978:109 fig-
ure 109). 1 flint
strike-a-light, 2
pin, 3-4 amber
beads, 5 tweez-
ers.
40
Johanna Mestorf
(1829-1909) was a Ger-
man archaeologist who
was an important per-
son for the contacts be-
Haarknotenfibel that the author relates the fibula Dannewek, Fahrdorf, Hüsby, Jagel, Neuberend, tween the Scandinavi-
an and German archae-
from Skrydstrup to are generally found behind the Nübel, Schaalby, Schleswig, Schuby and Selk. A ology. She was respon-
sible for the translation
back of the head, and they are mainly dated to Pe- large number of ‘empty’ graves have been excavat- of many Scandinavi-
riod III (Bergmann 1970:B56, Laux 1971:32f). ed, and some of these graves could equally well be- an texts into German.
She was also an impor-
long to the Late Neolithic. As this type of burial on- tant archaeologist in
Case study southern Schleswig ly tends to be noted in passing in the profession- her own right and was
mainly active in Sch-
For this study material from Aner and Kersten’s vol- ally excavated reports, they are all included in the leswig-Holstein. She
ume 4 and Willroth’s study of Angel and Schwansen discussion, while it should also be appreciated that became the director
of Museum of Nation-
have been used for interpreting the region (Aner & many ‘empty’ graves have probably gone missing al Antiquities in Kiel in
Kersten 1978, Willroth 1992). The material can be through the years of less detailed reports. There are 1891 and was appoint-
ed professor in Kiel in
seen in appendix 4. Willroth (1992:45ff) has includ- also a number of bronze artefacts that have been 1899 (Días-Andreu &
Sørensen 11ff).
ed a number of graves with flint daggers of type V found in mounds that have been ploughed out
in his Sögel-Wohlde period. As these are given an or destroyed in some other way (Aner & Kersten
earlier date by Lomborg (1976:69), these are not in- 1978). Seven of the graves contained artefacts, often
cluded in this analysis. A large number of graves a sword, which has gone missing. These graves can
that Aner and Kersten (1978) have designated to the only be broadly dated to the Middle Bronze Age.
broad phase Middle Bronze Age have been dated There are only a few graves which were adequate-
to a specific period, i.e. Period I, II or III by Willroth ly excavated and give information about the plac-
(1992:488-497). In most cases Aner and Kersten’s de- ing of the objects, and which probably have most Figure 67:
terminations are followed here since Willroth’s dat- of the bronze objects recorded. Many of the nine- Plan of grave B
ing does not seem fully reliable, and he sometimes teenth century (or earlier, but in modern times) mound 38, Schu-
by, Ke2410B
determines graves to a period without adequate jus- plundered or excavated mounds only contained (from An-
tification. sword/dagger blades and gold rings, for example, er & Kersten
The prehistory of the region has been studied Ke2417 (near Schuby), Ke2343 (Dannewerk), Ke2400 1978:151 figure
for a long time, with the first publications on the and Ke2399 (both in Klappschau, Schleswig). These 155). 1 sword
subject dating to 1719/20. In the latter half of the finds are unlikely to be good representatives for the blade and pom-
mel, 2 sword
nineteenth century large numbers of Bronze Age Middle Bronze Age burials as the finds are more blade and pom-
mounds were excavated in Schleswig-Holstein. Af- likely to be the result of what the plunderer/exca- mel. Scale un-
ter Mestorf’s40 death in 1909 there was a decline in vator was purposely looking for. Thrane (2006:491) known.
excavations being undertaken. It was not until the
mid twentieth century that they started to increase
again (Willroth 1992:34f, 45ff). In order to take into
account all the known material, my study includes
professionally excavated graves as well as materi-
al that was found while ploughing or robbing the
graves.
In this case study Schleswig and its surround-
ings are investigated, including the former parishes
76 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 68: Plan ciation with a leather belt, that the individual was
of the buri- wearing a kilt or a wrap-around as well as a cloak.
al in mound There were three layers of textiles, all of which were
54, Schuby,
Ke2413 (from probably tabbies and made of brown wool. Two of
Aner & Kersten them were s/z –spun and one was s/s-spun tabby
1978:155 fig- (Ehlers 1998:443). This indicates that they probably
ure 159[SB1]). wore clothing resembling that found in the Dan-
1 sword blade, ish oak log coffins. There are indications that the
2 spearhead,
3 two tutu-
weapons (axe and dagger) were worn tied to the
ti, 4 tweezers lower part of one of the legs or placed in a sock. This
and flint strike- is suggested since it is documented that two of the
a-light. Scale graves have their weapons placed there, while in
1:10. the third grave, Schuby grave H, the axe was found
in a leather case and a leather belt. Even though we
do not know the exact placement of the axe, the two
other Sögel-Wohlde graves and the relation of the
weapons to the layered textile fragments indicate
that it had been placed along the lower part of the
legs. Another mound that contains two Period IB
graves was excavated by the same excavator as the
Schuby mound (Wilhelm Splieth). It is mound 12 in
points out that “swords, spearheads and axes (pal- Berend, parish Neuberend, where grave C and D
staves) were prominent among the early finds that both hold Period IB objects (Ke2385C&D). Grave C
filled the showcases of Thomsen’s museum because contains a small dagger blade that may have been
they were big and solid and therefore observed and placed on the hip and grave D contained three am-
noted when farmers (or archaeologists) broke into ber beads in association with the head and a dag-
the burial mound”. Bronze Age plundering would ger blade placed in relation to the belt (K.M. Archiv
probably give the opposite result as it seems likely 121/1894).
that they removed the larger and status objects and There seems to be a fairly standard level of male
only left smaller objects (Randsborg 1998:116f). For wealth in the burials during the Sögel-Wohlde pe-
more discussion about Bronze Age plundering see riod in this region. There is some variation in the
chapter 5. number of objects placed in the graves, but they
In the region there are five graves that belong seem to follow the same general pattern. All three
to Period IB41 and a possible sixth grave, but the axes are of the same type, the axe or the dagger is
find circumstances are not good enough to be cer- placed in a similar position, and two graves con-
tain. Only one of them has a plan. The male bur- tain ceramic vessels. The main difference that one
ied in grave G in mound 27 Hüsby, Hüsby parish can detect is that the slate pendant is placed differ-
(Ke2362G, see figure 65) had a spearhead placed ently on the body; the man buried in Hüsby has it
next to him on his right side near the head, while in the waist region and the male from Schuby had it
in the waist area were a Rollennadel and a pendant on his torso. The daggers had been placed either on
made of slate, and in the knee region a high-flang- the legs or tied to the belt, and none had the more
ed axe of Hüsby type. The placement of the pin in- typical Middle Bronze Age placement on the shoul-
dicates that it was used to hold some kind of bag der. All determinable Period IB graves are male
41
Willroth dates together. Two graves with metal objects that can graves. The possible grave contains a high-flanged
twelve of the graves
to Period I, but in my be designated to this phase are: Schuby, mound 34 axe of Hüsby type, and therefore fits very well in-
view his determination
is based on artefacts
graves H and K (Ke2408H&K). Of these two bur- to the general picture; if it is the remains of a grave,
that cannot be dated so ials grave H is stratigraphically older. It contains it strengthens the idea of a ‘standard’ local appear-
precisely, or on wrong-
ly identified artefact
a high-flanged axe of Hüsby type and a ceram- ance. There is a find of a belt hook that belongs to
types. ic vessel, placed close to each other, but unfortu- Period IB (Ke 2403) found in the region, but due to
42
Willroth (1992:492f)
nately there is no information on their position in lack of information about its find circumstances it
counted 18 Period II relation to the body. Grave K, however, has infor- cannot be discussed in any detail. Belt hooks are
graves. However, in
this total he includes mation that the slate pendant was placed on the uncommon in the Sögel-Wohlde burial tradition,
Period II artefacts that torso near the shoulder blade and that the Sögel but occur more frequently in the Valsømagle buri-
come from mixed as-
semblages, i.e. from one dagger blade was in a leather sheath placed be- al tradition (see chapter 3). This may then be the re-
mound that included tween the lower parts of the legs in the knee re- mains of a burial of a person from the Valsømagle
material from many pe-
riods. I have in general gion (K.M. Archiv K.S. 6990-97). Textile fragments region, or may be read as an indication of another
followed Aner and Ker-
sten, as I find their con-
found in grave H, Schuby indicate, as it was found form of contact between the areas.
clusions more reliable. above the leather that covered the axe and in asso- There are six graves in the region that can be pos-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 77
Figure 71: Arte- dated more closely than to the Middle Bronze Age.
facts from grave The other burial, however, contained rich burial
II mound 5, finds dating to the early Period II (1500-1400 BC):
Schafstallberg,
Wardböhmen a short sword, a spearhead, an axe, a tweezers, a
(from Piesker razor, a flint strike-a-light, a belt hook, a fibula, a
1958: Tafel 54). pin and a gold arm-ring or gold clothing decoration
Pin is not drawn (Freudenberg 2007). This is a well equipped male
to the same scale burial that can be seen as following the PIB burial
as the other ob-
jects.
from Hüsby in part, but with the new emphasis on
grooming added to it, i.e. the toilet equipment.
None of the possible Period II graves contain any
clear evidence of female graves. No belt plates or
neck collars exist that can be dated to Period II in the
region. Three graves have only unisex objects pre-
served, an awl (Ke2349), a tutulus (mixed find from
a mound) (Ke2404I) and a fibula, fragments of wool
textiles and remains of a wooden box (Ke2361). All
of the other probable Period II graves contain weap-
ons. Many of them have more than one weapon in
the grave, e.g. the mixed assemblage from Fahrdorf
(Ke2348) contains one full-metal hilted sword, one
sword blade, one axe and one chisel (Tüllenmeißel). It
is obviously hard to determine if these objects come
from one or more graves. From a mound in Mold-
nit, parish Schaalby, Period II objects were found: a
flanged hilted sword, fragments of another sword/
dagger and a spearhead (Ke2395). The last possi-
ble grave belonging to this phase is a sword blade
found in a mound in Schaalby (Ke2395). One can
conclude that four of the graves, possibly six if one
includes the mixed assemblages, contain more than
one weapon. Some of them even hold both a sword
and a dagger or two swords, with no indication of
it being a double burial. Most of the artefacts related
to the body are placed on the mid and lower half of
the body; this also goes for the smaller objects such
as pins and amber beads. There is, then, a clear em-
phasis on the lower half of the body.
From Period III there are 17 possible graves43 with
bronze objects.
The female grave with a plan is a cremation grave
from mound 35 (grave E) in Schuby (Ke2409E). The
artefacts include two fibulae, one tutulus, one awl,
two arm-rings, one arm- or ankle-ring, five spiral
bronze tubes, five amber beads, one knife and one
fragmented pendant. These items were placed in
a small heap in the western end of the grave, and
therefore this grave does not provide any detailed
information of how the artefacts related to the body.
The other female grave is also a cremation grave
dicating that it had been placed on the lower part from Schuby (grave H, mound 55) (Ke2414H). The
of the legs. This seems to follow the tradition from objects were placed together in the middle of the
Period IB, where the weapon was carried by being grave and comprised: one fibula, one neck ring, one
strapped to one of the legs, or possibly placed in- tutulus and a knife. These graves indicate that the
side a sock. Period III women in the area wore different types
A recently excavated mound in Hüsby contained of rings (neck-, arm-, and ankle-rings) and that
two burials, one burial that contained two gold they used fibulae, probably for closing some kind
Lockenringe and one dagger; this grave cannot be of cloak, and a tutulus was probably either sewn or
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 79
drawn onto the belt or some other part of the cloth- arm-rings is similar to a common pattern on male
ing. Some of the artefacts appear to be a permanent arm-rings in the Lüneburg culture, which is seen
part of a piece of clothing, such as glass and am- by Laux as belonging to his 3rd phase, i.e. our Peri-
ber beads, and the tutulus were possibly sewn onto od III (Laux 1971:123). I would claim that this is the
the dress. None of the objects can be said to hinder remains of a man who moved from the Lüneburg
movements, although the clothing itself might have Heath to Schleswig area, wearing head gear includ-
been constraining if it is at all similar to the piec- ing two golden Lockenringen, a pin to hold his cloak,
es of clothing found in the well-preserved Danish on his left arm he wore one arm-ring, on his right
oak-log coffins. arm he had two arm-rings, and in the waist region
Grave A in mound 3 Dannewerk (Ke2338A, see one dagger, and near his right knee another dagger.
figures 69, 70) has been interpreted as a Period II fe- It is possible that the second dagger and its position
male grave by both Aner and Kersten (1978:102ff, on the lower leg represents an influence of the re-
Kersten 1954:280ff) and Willroth (1992:48, 492). In gion he moved into, i.e. the area where he was bur-
my view, however, this is actually the remains of ied (see below for discussion about the Lüneburg
a male from the Lüneburg Heath, and it should in- male appearance).
stead be dated to Period III. The grave shares many One Scandinavian male burial with a plan to as-
traits with some male graves from the Lüneburg sist in its interpretation is grave C in mound 38 at
Heath, such as grave I and II from mound 5 in Fahrdorf (Ke2347C, see figure 72). This is the re-
Schaftsallberg, Wardböhmen (see figure 71). One mains of an inhumation where the sword has been
reason for the interpretation as a female grave is placed on the left shoulder following the left arm. At
probably the Lockenspiralen, but it is not uncom- the end of the vanished sheath was a chape. A gold
mon to have Lockenspiralen in male graves on the finger-ring indicates that one of the hands was rest-
Lüneburg Heath (Laux 1971:39). All three men- ing on the sword. The last grave with a published
tioned graves contain two golden Lockenspiralen. plan is the grave from mound 64 in Altmühl, parish
Two of the graves contain one Nagel und Plattenkop- Selk (Ke2421). Assuming the head had been at the 43
Willroth (1992:495f)
fnadel as well as a small dagger with two rivets each west end of the grave, a fibula had been placed on has determined 18 Pe-
riod III graves, and
(the grave in Dannewerk and grave II in Schaftsall- the torso of the deceased individual. The tweezers has with Ke2386 made
berg). It is not uncommon to find arm-rings in male found in the grave seem to be situated outside the Ke2396 into two graves.
Based on the evidence
graves in the Lüneburg Heath, e.g. grave I in Schaft- presumed area of the vanished coffin. In contrast to of graves in which more
than one dagger/sword
stallberg included one arm-ring. The main differ- Period II, none of the graves contain more than one are present, I do not
ence between the Dannewerk grave and the male weapon, except perhaps the two chapes from the think that one can sep-
arate the two chapes in-
Lüneburg Heath burial is that it contains two dag- mound in Schaaby (Ke 2396), although this example to two different graves.
gers. The remains of the second dagger in the Dan- might represent the remains from two graves rath- Ke2386 is a stray find
without any find cir-
newerk grave are very fragmented, but there are er than one. Two of the graves from Period III con- cumstances and there-
indications of a thin round bronze sheet that had tain gold objects. fore is not included in
my study. I have, how-
been used as a part of the handle, and this could There are 49 graves without any traceable artefacts ever, included Ke2338
indicate that this dagger blade belonged to a Scan- that can probably be dated to the Middle Bronze from Dannewerk,
which Willroth placed
dinavian type of dagger. The pattern on one of the Age, although at least some of these are likely to be- in Period II.
80 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
long to the Late Neolithic. In addition, there are 25 amber beads, awls or tweezers), and graves with
probable graves with artefacts that are dated gener- a few small artefacts (pins, fibulae, tweezers, and
ally to the Middle Bronze Age, and must be classed or razors) to wealthy graves with spearheads, ax-
as ‘probable’ since the artefacts are now missing, es, daggers and swords as well as smaller objects.
or because the artefacts cross period boundaries, Different levels of the society seem therefore to be
or because they are too fragmented to determine. represented in the burials, with only a few visible
Grave B in mound 4 Dannewerk (Ke2339B) holds a women and children and a much larger number
person who was buried with a flint dagger on each of males. This demonstrates that it is unlikely that
arm; the one on the left arm was placed slightly the complete society in this region was buried in a
higher than the one on the right arm (Aner & Ker- way that we can detect. There seems to be a focus
sten 1978:107, Kersten 1954:283). Other graves with a on male warriors during Period I and II, but this
weapon placed along one of the legs is grave J from focus changed during Period III, when there was
mound 27 in Hüsby (flint dagger) (Ke 2362J, see fig- less emphasis on weaponry and more on appear-
ure 73), and the late Neolithic grave A mound 55 ance-changing artefacts, such as tweezers and ra-
in Schuby (flint dagger) (Ke2414A, see figure 74). zors. The focus seems to have gone from real war-
The first mentioned grave is from the same mound riors who needed to prove themselves through the
as the two Period IB graves from Hüsby. The de- presence of large weapons and equipment, to more
ceased individuals here had two amber beads and “show warriors”, where physical appearance be-
an awl in relation to the right shoulder/arm. It is came more important.
possible that the two amber beads found in the Willroth (1989:90ff) claims that in Kersten’s zone
male graves in this region were used as terminal II (Schleswig, Holstein, southernmost Jutland, Ribe
beads on a leather/textile strap of a pouch; another and Vejle County) the most important male weap-
example of this in this area is Ke2340. Grave D from on during Period II is the sword/dagger. That can
mound 35 in Schuby has a ceramic vessel placed be seen in my analysis as well, even though the
next to the head and a pin placed on the chest. The axe and the spearhead are also important. He al-
only grave with a possible belt plate is grave A from so argues that spearheads are common in graves
mound 41 in Schuby (Ke2412A, see figure 75). In in the western part of Holstein, whereas they are
the burial there was also a flint blade, but unfortu- less common in other regions during Period II. De-
nately the position of the artefacts in the grave were spite this, three out of nine male graves in the re-
not recorded. However, the flint dagger in grave B gion have a spearhead included amongst their
(Ke2412B) in the same mound was placed in rela- grave equipment, as well as one Period IB grave
tion to the upper torso, and there was also an arm- (Ke 2362G Hüsby).
ring that might be related to burial B, but this is un-
clear. Skeleton B might have had its head placed be- Case study : Lüneburg Culture
low the feet. The person who has worked most in recent times
The region has very few female graves that can be with the material from the Lüneburg Heath is Frie-
designated to the Middle Bronze Age, and it is on- drich Laux (for example 1971, 1976, 2000). Laux has
ly with Period III that we have any safely dated fe- divided the area into different geographical areas.
male burials. Only one grave includes a belt plate. For the males these are: the Ilmenau-Tal and the
The belt plate ought to have been more common- North and South Heath; for the women, it is the
ly used, however, as there are three belt plates in a South Heath, the North Heath and the lower Il-
Period II hoard from Schleswig (Ke2402). During menau valley, and the upper Ilmenau valley. Berg-
the Late Neolithic, Period I and II axes and daggers mann (1970) in his book “Die Ältere Bronzezeit Nord-
seem to have been tied to one of the legs, but this westdeutschland” put forward a different geographi-
tradition appears to have been abandoned in Peri- cal division from Laux. He studies a larger regional
od III, when a more ‘standard’ south Scandinavian area than just the Lüneburg Heath and divides his
placement of daggers and swords on the left shoul- studied area into six regions: North Hannover, The
der was adopted. The area has a larger amount Ilmenau area, the south Heath, Middle and south
of weaponry in the graves than the other studied Hannover, Weser and Ems area, and Westphalia
regions during Period IB and Period II. Gold ob- (the last two are for some periods combined into
jects are present in few graves from both Period II one region).
and III. Three graves are interpreted as children’s Here the material from Bleckmar and Wardböh-
graves, one a cremation grave (Ke2346E) and, due men, county Celle, which among other mounds in the
to the size of the inner room of the stone coffin, region was excavated by Hans Piesker between 1936
two burials are thought to be the remains of chil- and 1944, will be discussed (Piesker 1958:7f, see ap-
dren (Ke2347B & 2364B); none of these holds any pendix 5). These mounds belong to the South Heath
objects. There are graves without any preserved region according to both Laux and Bergmann.
grave goods, graves with small objects (such as There is no available drawing of any of the male
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 81
44
graves from either Bleckmar or Wardböhmen, and tefacts in the graves from Bleckmar and Wardböh- Kahlberg, Bleck-
mar mound 6; Witten-
only a few have descriptions of the placement of men we cannot be certain of their position on the berg, Bleckmar mound
artefacts in the graves. Often the publications just body. However, the grave from Bockel can prob- 9 grave II; Hengstberg,
Wardböhmen mound 4
record that it was found on the body, or it may re- ably be seen as the most likely prototype for the grave II; Schaftsallberg,
veal on which arm a ring had been placed (Piesk- graves studied here; this however, will have to be Wardböhmen mound 3
grave I; and Schaftsall-
er 1958 catalogue). My reconstruction of the male demonstrated when Laux’s forthcoming work on berg mound 16 grave II.
47
1996a:95ff). A string of bronze spirals seems to have on the left forearm she also wore another arm-ring. Wittenberg mound
8A; Hengstberg mound
been sewn on to the head gear and this hung down On both ankles she also had two ankle-rings and 7 grave I; and Schaf-
on the chest, or could possibly have been used as a near both legs a bronze spiral was found. It is pos- stallberg mound 16 I.
necklace. A neck-ring with spiral ends was placed sible that the spiral had been sewn to the skirt, just 48
Wittenberg mound
around the neck and on each forearm there was like the thin bronze sheet in grave I mound 4 from 15; Hengstberg mound
4 grave I; Hengst-
a spiral arm-ring. Five of the eight female burials Hengstberg (Piesker 1958:32). berg mound 10 grave
from this phase have indications of head gear that The two graves from Hengstberg mound 5 also I and II; Schaftstall-
berg mound 1 grave I;
included bronze, and there might be two different have published plans (see figure 77). Grave II con- schaftstallberg mound
8 grave I; worbsloh
types of headdress: the ‘winged bonnet’ and an- tained the remains of a woman who had worn a mound 4 grave IV; and
other one where a bronze ‘diadem’ (German: Stirn- headdress including a possible pin/fibula. The neck Worbsloh mound 7
grave I.
band) was sewn on the headdress (Worbsloh grave region was heavily ornamented, with both a neck-
49
I mound 7). Two of the graves seem to have had lace made of bronze spirals and a round bronze disc Wittenberg mound 4
grave V, mound 9 grave
cloaks that were decorated with sewn on bronz- as well as another necklace put together with bronze III, mound 11, grave I,
es (grave I in mound 1 in Schafstallberg; Worbsloh spirals and six bronze pendants. A disc-headed pin and mound 12 grave III;
Hengstberg mound 5
grave I mound 7). The emphasis on the body was was found near the neck, and it had probably been grave II and V; Schaft-
on the head, torso and arms. In six of the graves used to hold a cloak together. On each forearm a stallberg mound 1
grave II, and mound
arm-ring/s were used and in five burials ankle- spiral arm-ring had been worn, and on both hands 13 grave I and II; and
Worbsloh mound 4
ring/s were worn. There are small objects such as were two finger-rings. On both ankles an ankle- grave I.
buttons and hooks found in the graves, and these ring had been placed. The second burial from the 50
Kahlberg mound
seem to have been placed on the torso, and might mound that is going to be discussed here is grave 3 grave I; Wittenberg
possibly have been used for holding the bronze- V. It partly resembles grave II. The headdress had mound 4 grave II-
Ia, mound 8 grave II,
loaded cloaks in place. Only two burials had neck- been ornamented with studs and rings, seeming- mound 9 grave IV;
rings or neck collars, while the typical wheel-head- ly in similar ways on both sides of the head. Here Schaftstallberg mound
10 and 19; and Worb-
ed pin, or for that matter any pin, only occurred in also the neck region is heavily emphasised with a sloh mound 5.
two burials. neck collar and a necklace made of bronze spirals
Laux has determined ten of the graves as belong- and a bronze disc, and a disc-headed pin held the
ing to his phase IIb49 (Laux 1971: tab 11). Four of probable cloak together. The woman had worn a
these graves have plans published by Piesker (1958: finger-ring on the left hand, and on each forearm
tafel 65 & 66), and these form the basis for the dis- a spiral arm-ring. Two ankle-rings had also been
cussion here. The female burial in Wittenberg placed on both lower legs (Piesker 1958:31).
mound 4 grave V has a round bronze disc placed at Out of the ten graves dating to this phase, nine
the top of the head; it was probably sewn on to the have bronze rings associated with the head. How-
headdress along with two spirals, and at the neck a ever, the heavily ornate head gear seen in phase IIa
neck-ring had been worn. Here 80 to 100 studs had is no longer present, and instead the focus has shift-
been sewn onto the cloak, so that they were visible ed downwards, from the head to the neck region,
at the front and shoulders. Under the cloak there as seen by the presence of five graves with neck
were six bronze discs laid out across the torso. A collars, neck-rings or necklaces made out of bronze
wheel-headed pin had been placed there as well, spirals, bronze discs or pendants. Graves such as
probably to hold the cloak together. On both up- grave III in mound 9 in Wittenberg and grave II in
per arms there was an arm-ring, as well as one on mound I in Schaftstallberg have a strong emphasis
each forearm, and on the right hand three finger- on the torso. All graves contain arm-, finger-, and
rings were worn: one on the ring-finger; one on the /or ankle-rings. As eight of the ten graves contain
middle finger; and one on the little finger. On the ankle-rings one can clearly say that the emphasis
right ankle two ankle-rings were also found (Piesk- on the legs has increased from the period before.
er 1958:27). The deceased woman at Schaftstallberg One of the graves contains objects made of gold.
grave II mound 1 also had a bronze disc placed at her From Laux phase III there are seven graves50
head, positioned in relation to a ‘diadem’, and two (Laux 1971: tab 11). Grave I from mound 3 in Kahl-
probable earrings were found at each ear. One neck berg includes a heavily ornamented headdress that
collar had been placed at the neck, and the woman included: a minimum of 200 studs, bronze tubes
had worn an elaborate cloak covered with 120 to and spirals, bronze rings, and a Haarknotenfibu-
150 studs which were sewn all over the cloak, cov- la (see figure 78). At the neck the woman wore a
ering both back, sides and the front. Among them neck collar and wheel-headed pin, on each forearm
was a wheel-headed pin, indicating that it was used a spiral arm-ring and on one of the legs an ankle-
to hold the cloak together. A bronze disc, a button ring (Piesker 1958:25). Grave IIIa from mound 4 in
and some studs were found in a position suggest- Wittenberg looks slightly different, with a ‘diadem’
ing that they had adorned a belt. Under the cloak and the bronze rings associated with the headdress
four bronze discs were found across the chest. On and bronze spirals, and seven pendants creating a
both forearms she had worn a spiral arm-ring and necklace. A pin was placed on the chest and on the
84 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 74:
Plan of grave A
mound 55, Schu-
by, Ke2414A
(from An-
er & Kersten
1978:157 figure
161).
right forearm was one arm-ring and on the left two but he points out that the wheel-headed pin are rare
arm-rings. Lastly, an ankle-ring had been worn on (Laux1996a:101). Laux tends to divide his different
one leg (Piesker 1958:26). regions based on stylistic differences between cer-
The main new addition to the appearance of tain artefact categories, as seen for example in the
women from this area is the fibula, which becomes division of the Haarknotenfibula into the west and
more common; a fibula was found in five out of the east type (for example Laux 1971, 1996a). Even
the seven graves. The fibula seems to have been though such detailed artefact studies can give im-
used as a part of the head gear/hairdo rather than portant information it can hide overruling social
holding different pieces of clothing together (Laux structures when one works on a higher social level.
1971:32f). In all graves but one arm- or ankle-rings Therefore Laux’s many studies on female costume
were used. Generally there seem to be less richly (for example Laux 1971, 1984, 1996a) in the Lüneb-
ornamented female graves from this phase. The urg culture are difficult to compare with my study
grave from Kahlberg rather relates to the phase IIa as the small details seem to blur the general pic-
female appearances, with its focus on the head and ture. Only a limited number of graves can be said
a heavily elaborated headdress, whereas grave IIIa to belong to the early Period II, and this goes for the
in mound 4 in Wittenberg relates more closely to male graves as well. The studied societies in Coun-
the IIb female costume, with an emphasis on the ty Celle seem to peak in terms of the presence of
torso and the similar headdress. bronze both for the male and female graves dur-
There are another seven female graves dating to ing the second half of Period II, after which the fe-
the Middle Bronze Age. They generally contain few male visibility declines while the male presence, at
objects made of bronze, and seem either to have least in terms of number of graves and gold objects,
had an ornate headdress, and/or arm-/ankle-rings, keeps increasing during Period III. The visibility of
and/or pins. the people seen through the graves and metal ob-
The female graves in the area under investigation jects in this area is most evident in the latter half of
seem to peak during later Period II, and Laux’s sep- Period II. The region as a whole has chosen to bury
aration into an early and a later phase II (i.e. the lat- the deceased individuals only with their weapons,
er part of Period II) might be due to differences in jewellery, and clothing-related objects, and no oth-
two different female categories, one in which the er objects were found in the graves. There is a pos-
emphasis was on the head and another where the sibility that either a corded-skirt, or shorter skirts
emphasis was on the neck region and torso. Many than the south Scandinavian skirt, were used here.
of the objects used are of the same or very similar This is indicated by the presence of many graves
type, therefore one must conclude that this is due with ankle-rings. Comparing the male and female
to variations in one prevailing female gender rath- wealth in bronze objects, regarding both labour
er than totally different gender categories. Maybe value and prime value, it seems like the women
these differences can be attributed to inherited sta- were buried with more expensive outfits than the
tus and/or roles, or maybe they are due to differ- men. However, one might argue that the artefacts
ent positions taken in society and/or family. Laux in the male graves had more use value. Gold, how-
categorised this as belonging to the costume tra- ever, was present in more male graves than female
dition (German: Schmuck tracht) of Wardböhmen- graves, although on the whole it is very rare. The 35
Kolkhagen. A number of artefacts belong to this, graves that cannot be gendered are either ‘empty’
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 85
graves (16 graves) or just contain a few objects such fairly similar objects are used differently in differ-
as: some Lockenringen, an arm-ring, a pin, and/or ent areas, e.g. an individual on the Lüneburg Heath
a ceramic vessel. There is great diversity in what used a pin to hold the cloak together, while a fibu-
a grave might contain and, from ‘empty’ graves to la was used in Scandinavia for the same purpose.
graves loaded with bronze, and this indicates that Unfortunately, none of the graves in my case stud-
the society might be stratified; a fair number of the ies provide clear examples of this due to the lack of
individuals were buried. plans from excavations, but this can be seen, for ex-
ample, in the graves: Jestrup, Sønderhå parish, Has-
sing district, Thisted County (Ke5027); and Uter-
Local or shared dress sum, Föhr County, Schleswig-Holstein (K22653B).
In the section below the male graves and then the Rings of various shapes and sizes are objects
female burials from the area of investigation will be that can be regarded as ‘just jewellery’, without
compared in order to draw conclusions about the any practical functions except for signalling differ-
similarity and differences in the dress between the ent social messages. In the Lüneburg Heath arm-
different areas. For the discussion about the male rings are common during Periods II and III, where-
burials different categories of objects (jewellery, toi- as in the cases studies from the south Scandinavi-
let equipment, clothing-related artefacts, fire-light- an Middle Bronze Age they are uncommon during
ing equipment and weaponry) are emphasised, as Period II, but increase in popularity during Period
they can be related to different masculine ideals. For III, sometimes even appearing in the form of a gold
the female burials the numbers of both graves and arm-ring in male burials.
objects are an important part of the analysis as these In all of the south Scandinavian case studies
can indicate the status of the females in the differ- from the Middle Bronze Age there is so-called toi-
ent regions. Which types of objects and how they let equipment, i.e. tweezers and razors. The pres-
are combined are also studied, as it helps us under- ence of such objects increases from Period II to Pe-
stand whether the different areas connect fully or riod III. There seems therefore to be an increasing
partly to the same feminine ideal. importance of grooming and body-changing prac-
tices over time, for example toilet equipment was
Male entirely absent from the Period IB graves from the
The male burials contain artefacts that can be re- Schleswig area, while in Period II tweezers are
lated to different categories: jewellery, toilet equip- present in two burials and in Period III both razor
ment, clothing-related artefacts, fire-lighting equip- and tweezers are found in one grave and just one or
ment and weaponry. These categories will be the the other in three burials. However, in the Lüneb-
base for the comparison of the four different case urg Heath case study there was no toilet equip-
studies. These categories are important because ment present anywhere. There seems to be an in-
they give us information about how different ide- creasing importance in maintaining and adoring
als of masculinity are shown together in the differ- the male body through the Middle Bronze Age. The
ent regions. They reveal whether the different re- ways the male chose to do this, however, seems to
gions emphasise similar or different masculine ide- vary between south Scandinavia and the Lüneb-
als, and which different European areas they iden- urg Heath. Both cultures, however, strengthened
tified with. their emphasis on the adorned male body, either by
Pins vary in use and function across the studied adding more types of jewellery or by using body-
areas. On the Lüneburg Heath they seem mainly changing objects such as razors.
to have been used as dress accessories, keeping the Fire-lighting equipment seems to be an impor-
cloak together, whereas the pins in south Scandina- tant part of the south Scandinavian male identi-
via seem to have been used to hold a bag or pouch ty, and many graves contain flint strike-a-lights
together. There are no finds of pins in my Funen and pyrites (many more probably had pyrites, but
case study, but in the Schleswig and Copenhagen they have not survived). A stone strike-a-light was
areas, the pins seem generally to have been used for found in only one of all the 36 male graves in my
holding a bag or a pouch together as shown above. case study from Celle county. Why this great dif-
Even though we do not have any certain informa- ference in male identity exists is hard to say. The
tion about the placement of the pins in the Lüneb- all-important pouch that in Scandinavian contexts
urg graves, the lack of small objects that could have could contain many things, such as a flint strike-a-
been placed in a pouch or a bag indicates that there light, awls and toilet equipment, seems to be total-
was no use for such a pin. This taken in combina- ly missing. Does this difference have a connection
tion with the placement of the pin in the Lüneburg to different views of movement and travel? If one
male burial in Dannewirke increases the probabil- is essentially itinerant or ready to travel it might be
ity that the pins on the Lüneburg Heath were used handy to carry objects that help in every-day life, for
as in Dannewerk (Ke2338A). Here we can see that example, enabling one to light a fire and to shave?
86 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Another big difference between the two main re- the Funen case study only daggers and swords are
gions is the weapons they chose to emphasise. In found in the burials, and no other weaponry was
the Lüneburg Heath the bow and arrow seems to found. However in both the Copenhagen and Sch-
be the most important weapon. Axes and daggers leswig areas during Periods IB and II many graves
are less common, and swords are totally missing. contain more than one weapon. They combine dag-
The daggers are generally fairly small. In Ward- ger, sword, axes, and spearheads. The ways the ob-
böhmen and Bleckmar there are 23 dagger blades, jects are related to the body in the graves are very
most of them are fairly short. Only two are longer different during these times. In the Copenhagen
than 20 cm, and four dagger blades are particularly area all the weaponry is related to the waist and
short (10 cm long or less). The swords and daggers upper body. The sword/dagger is generally placed
in Scandinavia are generally longer than 10 cm. on the shoulder, safely resting on the arm. Where-
In the south Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age as the other weapon is placed next to the body, of-
the picture varies between the different regions. In ten with the spearhead or axe is placed on the left
side of the head. In Schleswig the focus is placed on
the lower part of the body, and the weapons are of-
Blade lenght Number of ten found in relation to the waist and legs. It seems
Tabel 4.2. Dag-
>10 4 ger blade length like some of the daggers and axes were tied to the
10. 1-20 14 of the daggers leg in one way or another. In Period III, however,
found in Ward- the treatment and presence of weaponry becomes
>20 2 böhmen and
Bleckmar. Source: much more similar in the different south Scandi-
Undeterminable 3
the catalogue in navian areas. Now even the male burial in the Sch-
Totaly 23 Laux 1971. leswig area has the sword placed at the shoulder.
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 87
Generally the focus in the male graves in period together with the known examples of bone or horn
III goes from weaponry to jewellery and/or body- combs from the well preserved graves in other ar-
changing artefacts. It is also more common to have eas, that elaborate hairdos may have been impor-
been buried with both a sword and a dagger. The tant; what they looked like, however, is impossible
relationship between the male identity, weaponry to say.
and warfare will be further discussed in chapter 5. The last case study from the south Scandinavi-
One can say the men in the Lüneburg Heath an Middle Bronze Age, around Schleswig, shows
are more closely related to the south German Lo- a different pattern in contrast to the two from the
chham phase male ideal of male standard equip- old Valsømagle area. Here there are no visible Pe-
ment, i.e. wearing a dagger, an axe and a pin (Wels- riod II female graves, even if female-related objects
Weyrauch et al. 1986). This is true, even though for are found in the Period II hoard from Schleswig
most of the time they emphasise the bow and ar- (Ke2402), but they are not visible in the burial mate-
row, and one can see an older Central European rial. In Period III we can for the first time see women
male ideal living on longer on the Lüneburg Heath through the presence of metal objects in the graves.
than in many other European regions; in contrast, Of course the woman buried in grave A from Schu-
the south Scandinavian male ideal changes earlier by (Ke2412), which can only be dated roughly to the
to the new European male ideal. Middle Bronze Age, might have lived during Peri-
Even though the clothing seems to be of a general od II. This, however, does not change the general
male North European design, as the wrap-around picture in which a trend characterised by a grow-
from Emmer-Erfscheidenveen indicates, there are ing visibility of females may be detected.
differences in the male head cap. The cap found The female burials from Bleckmar and Ward-
in Emmer-Erfscheidenveen (Comis 2003:193ff) böhmen, on the other hand, show a very dif-
differed a lot from the ones found in the Nordic ferent picture from the three south Scandinavi-
Bronze Age mounds. The cap is made out of sheep- an Middle Bronze Age case studies. Of the gen-
skin (Comis 2003:194) in contrast to the ones found der determinable burials we have an almost fifty-
in the Danish oak-logs, which are made out of wool. fifty split, with slightly more females. If one adds
The presence of Lockenringen in male graves on the the undeterminable graves, we get c. 1/3 of each
Lüneburg Heath indicates that they also had a dif- category (male, female and unknown gender).
ferent cap than the south Scandinavian examples. It seems like there is a boom of female visibility
Maybe the difference in the caps, when the oth- during the latter half of Period II, compared with the
er pieces of clothing were so similar, was a way in situation in the Danish Isles, where there was a pro-
which clear distinctions in appearance could be nounced decrease of female visibility in the graves
created between the different cultural areas. There during Period III. The high visibility of females can
seems to be two different kinds of headwear in also be seen in some of the British Wessex Culture
south Scandinavia, as seen in the Trindhøj burial, cemeteries (Harding 2000:92). Similar to the Funen
however in this case there seems not to be a cul- burials, the female graves are much more lavishly
tural/ethnic difference in the use of woollen cap. furnished with bronze objects than the contempo-
Perhaps the important thing was the material one rary Period II male graves. Here both prime value
chose to make it in and the way in which it was and labour value seem to be higher in many of the
adorned. female graves than the male graves, at least during
Period II. In Period III when the more exotic mate-
Female rial, gold, becomes present, it seems to occur more
There are many clear differences in the female buri- commonly in male burials. However, jet beads, such
als. Within the old Valsømagle area the female cos- as those found in mound 15 in Bleckmar, are an un-
tume seems to be fairly uniform. A belt plate, neck common material that was imported from the Brit-
collar, arm-rings and a dagger seem to all be part of ish Isles (Thrane 1962:19). It is difficult to say which
a common tradition used and combined in similar was valued the most during the Bronze Age; there
ways. Both on Funen and the case study of the area are more gold objects than jet beads in the South
near Copenhagen the women are more visible dur- Scandinavian Bronze Age, suggesting that jet may
ing Period II, both in regard to the total number of have been the rarer material.
graves and the number of bronze objects found in One can see clear evidence of regionalism, as well
the graves. One big difference, however, is the head as an overall area of uniformity, in the female dress
gear. In Funen the placement of the fibula indicates throughout south Scandinavia. Certain artefact cat-
that these have a different style headdress from the egories, such as the Bornholm fibula (for Period III
ones known from the Danish oak-log coffins. The onwards) and the bronze tubes, placed on the cord-
only artefact within the area near Copenhagen that ed skirt, show a distinct and localised distribution
can be related to the head and the hairdo is the (Bergerbrant 2005b, Oldeberg 1933:40ff). Differenc-
bronze comb found in Buddinge, and this indicates es in other areas are visible in artefact combinations
88 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 76: 1=
Plan of grave
V in mound
5, Hengst-
berg, Wardböh-
men; 2= Plan of
grave II mound
5 Hengstberg,
Wardböhmen
(from Piesker
1958: Tafel 65).
Scale unknown.
rather than in distinct material types. Regionalism in Scandinavia (see above) as well as remains in
can also be seen in small-scale stylistic differenc- Lower Saxony (Hägg 1996b) and Thuringia (Hägg
es (see Asingh & Rasmussen 1989, Rønne 1987a + 1996a:139f). Blouses seem, however, to have been
b). In my case study the clearest evidence for local combined in different ways. The example from
regional differences is observed in the head gear, Schwarza, Suhl, Suhl, Thuringia appears to have
comparing material from Funen and the Copenha- been used in combination with a peplos-type cloak
gen area. (Hägg 1996a:139f). Between my two research are-
The short sleeved blouse appears to have been a as, however, the female clothing seems similar, i.e.
common piece of clothing in Northern and Mid- made from similar fabric and into comparable out-
dle Europe, and we have complete examples of it fits. Small differences occur, however, such as the
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 89
example of a long-sleeved blouse in Lower Saxony Here we can see that there is no sharp line be-
(Hägg 1996b), and the possibility that the skirt in tween northern and Central Europe for the female
Lower Saxony was shorter than the examples from costume. There seems to be a gradual changing of
Scandinavia, suggested by the fact that it was more the bronze artefacts and possibly the clothing be-
common in Lower Saxony to wear ankle rings than longing to female costume. A closer study of are-
in Scandinavia. There is no remaining evidence of as such as the Lüneburg Heath and possibly Ful-
the corded skirt in Lower Saxony, but perhaps the da-Werra (Wels-Weyrauch 1989a) might help us un-
corded skirt was worn with ankle rings. The big derstand the changing geographical traditions. The
difference between the two groups is in the head Fulda-Werra area is traditionally seen as a part of
gear. In many Scandinavian regions women seem the Tumulus group, and this relationship can clear-
to have had an elaborate hairstyle and a simpler ly be seen in the shape, form and ornamentation of
hairnet, possibly accompanied with earrings and the bronze objects. However, if one looks at the fe-
a few lockenrings, whereas a number of women in male costumes there seem to be many similarities
Lower Saxony had a complicated headdress with with its northern neighbours, and it is the south-
many bronze artefacts added to it. The style seems ernmost area where neck collars were used (Wels-
not to have accompanied the women to Scandina- Weyrach 1989a:120). In both the Fulda-Werra and
via when they moved there; we have, for example, Rhein-Main regions it was traditional for only one
a number of graves with Lüneburg wheel-headed pin to be placed on the upper torso, and this differs
pins, but no example of Haarknotenfibel (see chap- from other Tumulus groups farther east and south,
ter 7). where two or three pins were placed on the up-
The disc shaped pendants and the quill disc pen- per torso (Wels-Weyrauch 1989a). This might sug-
dants are both used as parts of necklaces in the gest that they also used different pieces of clothing.
Lüneburg area, often in relation with bronze spi- Hägg (1996a) has argued that the two pins used on
rals. The use of these types of pendants as necklac- the upper torso in central and southern Europe are
es can also be seen in regions farther south. Wels- indications of the use of a peplos type dress (see
Weyrauch (1978:31f, 167, 1989a, 1991:15f) shows for above). The use of just one pin in the torso region
southern Germany that these types of pendants might indicate a blouse (or a similar top) such as
were generally used either as a single pendant, those known from the oak-log coffins found on Jut-
placed in the neck region, or as part of a necklace land, meaning that this type of top may have been
placed on the upper torso. Here we can see that this used as far south as the Rhein-Main area. To my
part of the costume on the Lüneburg Heath is more knowledge there are no analyses of textile frag-
similar to southern costumes than to the north- ments from this time period from these areas, and
ern. Therefore one can say that the female costume therefore the cloth cannot help us to determine
on the Lüneburg Heath shares traits both with its where exactly the border for cloth and clothing ex-
northern and southern neighbours. Shared traits ists. Bender Jørgensen (1992:53) argues that in north
with the Fulda-Werra area include the neck col- Germany the main cloth was made of wool, where-
lar, Halsbergen, neck-rings, disc pendants, the use of as in southern Germany it was made of linen. How-
one wheel-headed pin, arm-rings, arm spirals and ever, in the intermediate region, central Germany,
Armbergen. They differ from the Fulda-Werra re- there existed both woollen tabbies and tabbies made
gion by the lack of spectacle shaped pendants (Ger- of wool and vegetable fibre. There might be a rela-
man: Brillenspiralen) that generally are placed in the tionship between the cloth and the type of clothing
pelvis regions (for Fulda-Werra region see Wels- of which it was made. The different fabrics, i.e. wool
Weyrauch 1978:167, 1989a). With the south Scandi- fabric and linen cloth, might have been used to cre-
navian region they share the use of neck collars, ate different basic clothing. Rast-Eicher (2005:125)
neck-rings, arm-rings, and the use of round bronze has argued that pins damaged linen cloth more
discs (even if there are significant differences in than woollen cloth, and this should argue against
how they are used, these regions to my knowledge the presence of a linen peplos, but the lack of finds
are the only ones where round bronze discs are makes it hard to determine with any confidence.
part of the female costume). One major difference Based on the artefact evidence a change in costume
is that daggers are not found in female graves on tradition between south and north seems to occur
the Lüneburg Heath. Laux (1996a:100) argues that somewhere in the Rhein-Main area.
the female costume in the Lüneburg culture origi-
nates in the foreign woman buried in Fallingbostel Conclusion
(see chapter 3), but this seems to be an over simpli- We can see clear differences in both male and female
fied picture. Even if the woman buried in Falling- burial appearance within the regions. The visibility
bostel clearly had a great impact on the region’s fu- of the two biological sexes seen through the bronze
ture costume, we can also see this interplay with material varies between the regions. In Scandina-
the female costume in the nearby regions. via, when women are visible the differences are not
90 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 77:1=
Plan of grave I
mound 1, Schaft-
stallberg, Ward-
böhmen; 2=
plan of grave III
mound 9, Wit-
tenberg, Bleck-
mar; 3= Plan of
grave II mound
1, Schaftstall-
berg, Wardböh-
men (from Piesk-
er 1958: Tafel
66). Scale un-
known.
that great in the different regions. The main differ- it and what was done with the hair. In both south
ence here is that in the Schleswig area women are Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age burials (mainly
hardly visible at all in the grave material during Pe- seen in the oak-log graves) and on the Lüneburg
riod II, when they reach peaks in terms of visibility Heath we can see that there were at least two dif-
in the other three case studies. ferent ways within the cultures for women to wear
The trends observed in the men also vary greatly. their hair and adorn their heads. This is probably
For example, many men are buried with more than due to social roles and structures within the female
one weapon in the Copenhagen and Schleswig ar- variations of gender. However, the ways of dress-
eas, but they are only buried with a few items both ing the female head differed between the two ma-
on Funen and on the Lüneburg Heath during Peri- jor groups. We can also see that there were proba-
od II. However, the placement of the weapons and bly differences in the male head gear between dif-
their relation to the body appears to be more stand- ferent groups. In Cyprus we know that the head
ardised and is similar between Funen and the Co- was moulded into differential shapes during the
penhagen area and between the Schleswig area and Bronze Age. This indicates that different head
the Lüneburg Heath. There seems to be a dramatic shapes signified social differences, gender and sta-
change between the fairly unified Sögel-Wohlde ar- tus (Lorentz 2006:299ff). Due to the lack of evidence
ea during Period IB and the Schleswig and Lüneb- we cannot say if this was done in northern Europe
urg area during Period II. Despite this major change or not, but the head does appear to have been em-
in burial traditions some of the older structures con- phasised. There is a very strong emphasis on the
cerning how people relate to their objects seem to head in certain Lüneburg graves, whereas the fo-
survive longer, and change only later. cus in female Scandinavian burials is rather on the
One thing that clearly differs between the areas upper torso, but the head and how it was displayed
is how the head was dressed, i.e. what was put on seems to have played an important role here, too.
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 91
Kristiansen and Larsson (2005:152f) argue that the Figure 78: Re-
Scandinavian female hairstyles from the oak-log construction
coffins and the hairstyles in Minoan frescos and of the use of a
Haarknoten-
terracotta figures share both general and specific fibel (from Laux
traits. They connect this to a similarity in the ritual 1996a:106 fig-
role of women in the Mediterranean and in Scandi- ure 61).
navia. However, there are many local traits in the
way one presents one’s head, both concerning the
male and female appearance. My argument is more
in the line with Wobst’s (1977), in that the head and
the head gear were used to show both regional and
social differences within and outside the local so-
ciety. Kristiansen and Larsson (2005:150f) also dis-
cuss the heart-shaped pendants in their argument
of the adoption of a Minoan/Mycenaean formal-
ised ritual practices. I have shown elsewhere that Bronze Age, seen through the bronze objects and
even though the heart-shaped pendant was known their placement on the body. Therefore one can
in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany say that the structures of femaleness in both the
during Period IB from burials of women wearing Lüneburg Heath and the south Scandinavian Mid-
objects that originated Austria-Hungary area, and dle Bronze Age are similar to the wider European
many of these artefact styles and shapes continue structure. However, there seem to be very different
in use on the Lüneburg Heath, they rejected this ways of how these two female categories are inter-
particular artefact type (Bergerbrant 2005a). This, preted and the physical manifestation of this.
then, indicates that the same ritual practices and While we can see a basic similar structure - even
ideas did not reach northern Europe. In southern if they are performed and interpreted differently -
Scandinavia and northern Germany the female in the female burial, it is harder to see a basic male
symbolism and power relations seem to come from structure that crosses the border between the south
the round disc, seen in Scandinavia in the belt plate Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age and the Lüneb-
and in the Lüneburg Heath in the round discs. It urg Heath. The male principle seems to be of a very
is possible that these relate either to the sun or the different kind in southern Scandinavia, especial-
lunar round discs as seen in Trundholm and Ne- ly during Period II. The emphasis is on the male
bra (Kaul 2004:252, Meller 2004). Kaul (2004:250ff) warrior and close range fighting technique, where-
argues that the four-spoked wheel (wheel-cross) as the importance placed on the bow and arrow in
might symbolise the sun’s full travel as well as be- the Lüneburg Heath seems to indicate a preference
ing a symbol for the sun. The belt plate could relate for another mode of fighting. There seems to be an
to this sun symbol and perhaps the female author- attempt during Laux’s second male phase to adopt
ity comes from the relation to this powerful sun the general European fighting method (see for ex-
symbol. This could possibly be seen in the four- ample Treherne 1995 and chapter 5). However, it
spoked wheel that is found in a female burial from never seems to really catch on and later the bow
Storehøj, Tobøl, Føvling parish, Malt district, Ribe and arrow return as the most important weapon.
Amt (Ke3919B). The wheel is placed in the usual po- When the south Scandinavian areas seem to share
sition for a belt plate (Thrane 1962). This could indi- a general Central European warrior ideal, although
cate a clear relationship between the wheel-cross, taking slightly different forms on the body during
the belt plate, the gold discs and the Trundholm Period II, the connection with the general Euro-
sun chariot (see Kaul 2004:250ff, Kristiansen & pean warrior ideal seems to be strengthened dur-
Larsson 2005:298ff). The ornamentation on the sun ing Period III, not weakened, as in the case of the
disc on the Trundholm chariot and many of the belt Lüneburg Heath (for more detailed discussion see
plates with their circular and spiral ornamentation chapter 5).
strengthens this hypothesis. To conclude we can therefore say that regional
As shown above there are probably two main differences can clearly be seen in the appearance of
different female variations, which are seen part- both men and women between south Scandinavia
ly in the bronze objects, but mainly in the use of and the Lüneburg Heath. However, even though
different head gear. The two groups probably had regional differences exist within the south Scandi-
different social roles with different rights and re- navian culture, it is shown in the relation between
sponsibilities, but they both existed within a gen- the artefacts and the body rather than in different
eral overarching female ideal. Sørensen (1997) has styles and types of artefacts.
already pointed to the existence of two different fe-
male categories for the Central European Middle
92 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
5. Male identity:
united or separated?
Total number
ramic vessels are found in the graves they can-
weapons %
weapons %
weapons %
% weapons
not be associated with alcohol. The distribution
of graves
Children
with
with
of ceramic vessels is such that they are found in
? with
nr
nr
? Nr
P III
both male and female graves, and they there-
fore cannot be specifically associated with ei-
ther sex. Ars
district 6 83 4 25 1 3 67 14 57
What, then, is warfare? There are many def-
initions of warfare, some with a tight, restrict- Gram
ed meaning, while others are less rigid. Below district 34 94 7 57 0 16 56 57 79
Thorpe’s definition from his 2003 article will be Table 5.1 Number of weapons (i.e. swords, daggers, spearheads, axes) during Peri-
followed, where warfare is defined as “organ- od II in the two different districts.
ized aggression between autonomous politi-
cal units” (Thorpe 2003:146). This definition is
wide-ranging, and includes war and raids. This
Total number
weapons %
weapons %
weapons %
% weapons
all-encompassing definition is chosen to enable
of graves
Children
a discussion of the level of hostility and danger
with
with
? with
of physical violence in Bronze Age society.
nr
nr
? Nr
P III
Case study:
Ars
Ars district, Holbæk County and district 7 100 0 0 0 6 0 13 54
Gram district, Haderslev County
Gram
The material used for this study comes from vol- district 41 75 5 0 0 34 18 80 45
umes 2 and 7 by Aner and Kersten, and can be
found in appendices 6 and 7. Table 5.2 Number of weapons (i.e. swords, daggers, spearheads, axes) during Peri-
Kristiansen (1983) has shown that there is a od III in the two different districts
difference in the degree of wear between the
solid-metal hilted sword and the flanged-hilted
sword. The first shows less wear compared with
Total number
the flanged-hilted sword. An interpretation has
weapons %
weapons %
weapons %
% weapons
of graves
been that they are the swords of the ritual lead-
Children
with
with
? with
MBA
nr
nr
? Nr
Larsson 2005:275ff). In the following study this
difference is not taken into account, as the above
assumption is a generalisation and full hilted Ars
district 6 100 0 0 3 17 24 26 38
swords with a high degree of re-sharpening ex-
ists (Kristiansen 1983:73 figure 6). This implies Gram
district 22 91 0 0 1 110 11 133 24
that one would need to look at the wear pat-
tern for every sword in the study areas to know Table 5.3 Number of weapons (i.e. swords, daggers, spearheads, axes) in the burials
which show use wear and which do not. Here that can only be dated to the Middle Bronze Age or probable Middle Bronze Age in
the focus is simply on the presence or absence the two different districts
of the weapon being discussed. We can also see that the areas with the most indica-
As shown in table 5.1 we can see that there are tions of violence have a higher percentage of wom-
more burials (in percentage terms) with weapons en buried with daggers than the ones with fewer
in them in Gram district than there are in Ars dis- hints of violence.
trict. This can be seen in all categories except the in- Period III shows a different picture, even though
determinable (male/female) graves. This could be the level of violence appears not to have increased.
due to the fact that in Ars district there are so few In Ars district the importance of weapons for the
graves of this type. A total of 79% of weapons in masculine image seems to have increased. All bur-
all Period II burials in Gram district indicate that ials with male-related objects include a weapon. In
there might have been a higher level of violence in Gram district, however, a clear decrease is seen in
this area than in Ars district. Of course a full ex- the number of burials with weapons. This could
amination of the presence of all weapons and all be interpreted as a sign that the level of violence
the skeletal remains and settlement sites is needed decreased in the society. There are also more male
to draw more definite conclusions about the level graves that have male-associated artefacts without
of violence, as phenomena other than warfare may a weapon included. None of the Period III female
play a role in the number of weapons in the burials. graves includes a dagger.
94 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
% arrowheads
Sögel-Wholde
% spearheads
Middle Bronze Age, either due to lack of de-
% total male
nr of graves
graves with
% daggers
terminable objects or because the objects have
% swords
weapons
gone missing, we see a higher level of pres-
% axes
(PIB)
% total male
nr of graves
weapons
eral also has the highest occurrence of female
Period II
% axes
graves with
% daggers
weapons
% axes
51
dinavian Middle Bronze Age culture, and to a less- between the different depositional practices of the An exception could
be the Middle and
er extent in the Weser and Ems and Westfalen re- spearheads might also help us to understand dif- South Hannover re-
gions. In the South Heath and Ilmenau area the new ferences over time in the levels of violence between gion, but the numbers
of graves from the re-
weapon type plays a very marginal role. The sword and within different groups. gion is so small it could
be misleading.
found in the Ilmenau area is probably of Scandina- It has here been shown that male identity, as seen
52
vian origin (Laux 1971:69). It is possible that it is the through weapons, varied in the area of modern day The spearheads with
bog patina are excluded
grave of a foreign man; however, as two of the arte- Lower Saxony, both between different groups and from this group and are
facts from the grave, a dagger and a ring, are now over time. At the beginning all regions indicated treated as possible vo-
tive offerings.
missing it is hard to determine. It is clear that dag- in the burials exercised a fighting technique that
gers play an important role in Lower Saxony, except was closely related to that of the Stone Age. This
in the Weser-Ems area. Axes continued to have an changed over the Middle Bronze Age and the dif-
important role among the weaponry. Spearheads ferent groups had different preferences of combat as
also seem to maintain their status, whereas that of demonstrated in the graves. It seems unlikely that a
the bow and arrow was decreasing.51 conflict between, for example, the North Hannover
A dramatic change occurs in Period III. The use area and the Lüneburg area during Period III could
of swords continues in North Hannover, and in- have agreed on one set of rules with two groups
creases in importance in the Weser-Ems area. The meeting in an even fight – man against man - as the
sword also continues to be an unimportant weap- groups seems to have gained prestige from differ-
on in the Lüneburg Heath. Daggers, however, de- ent types of fighting. In the North Hannover area,
crease in importance generally all over Lower Sax- as seen through the burial material, one engaged
ony. The use of bows and arrows is marginalized in in close range fighting, whereas in the Lüneburg
the grave equipment. However, one burial innova- Heath a longer distance between the combatants
tion takes place in the Lüneburg Heath: from pre- seems to have been preferred. However, a compar-
viously being insignificant in the grave material, ison of all the weapons found in the grave material,
the spearhead becomes the most commonly occur- stray finds, and in hoards could help us to under-
ring weapon in burials. Despite this, it seems to be stand if there were only differences in which mode
treated as unimportant in North Hannover. Will- conferred status or if there were actual differences
roth (1989:91) has shown that in the western part of in fighting techniques. Or, could it have been social
Holstein there are more spearheads in the graves differences that determined the mode of combat?
than, for example, in southernmost Jutland during
Period II. Case study: The threefold frontier
A study of the distribution maps in Jacob-Friesen’s This case study is based on the 1989 article “Re-
(1967) major publication on spearheads shows that iche Männergräber aus Gülzow” by Laux. The ar-
most of the spearheads have been found as stray ea in question is a ‘frontier’ zone where three dif-
finds.52 With the exception of the Kirke Såby type, ferent cultural groups converged, specifically the
the percentage of the stray finds varies between 33% peoples from south Scandinavia, the Lüneburg cul-
(Kirke Såby type) to 75% (Lüneburg type III). This ture and those inhabiting the Mecklenburg area.
might indicate that spearheads were used in actual The area along the Elbe marks the border zone be-
fighting more than we can read from the burial ma- tween the Lüneburg culture and the south Scandi-
terial, and the fact that we find tips of spearheads navian Bronze Age. In Mecklenburg there are no
embedded in human skeletal material in both the known Period IB burials and only a few from Pe-
British Isles and in Denmark indicates that it was riod II. Only in Period III are there numerous Mid-
used as a weapon to kill. This also means that some dle Bronze Age burials. However, the hoards show
of the spearheads found in burials are not actual- a different picture, with numerous hoards during
ly present there as grave goods, but as the cause of Period II and just a few during Period III (Zimmer-
death (see below). The deposition pattern of many mann 1988:154f). The artefacts found in the hoards
of the spearheads shows that even though they are in Mecklenburg during Period II can be said to
found in graves, hoards, and as stray finds in their contain artefacts of Scandinavian types as well as
central region, outside this area they are most often northwest German types (Schubart 1972:66). The
found as stray finds or in bogs. This can be seen in Period III burials are traditionally seen as belong-
the example of the Smørumøvre type (central ar- ing to the South Scandinavian/Nordic Bronze
ea Schleswig-Holstein and southernmost Jutland), Age, but they contain artefact categories of mixed
the Hulterstad type (central area along the Elbe), origins. There are many objects that closely relate
and the Lüneburg type (central area the Lüneburg to south Scandinavia, but also objects that clear-
Heath). A closer examination of the burials with ly have their roots in more southern artefact tradi-
a spearhead outside the main area might show if tions (Schubart 1972). One can therefore argue that
they were included as the cause of death or a part the Mecklenburg region did not belong to the Nor-
of the grave goods. A closer study of the relation dic Bronze Age power sphere until Period III at the
96 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
earliest, despite evidence of contact from an earlier My study is based on Laux’s distribution maps (see
stage. This seems likely due to the fact that many of figures 79-82).
the Carpathian types of artefacts that reached the Based on different combinations of weapons
eastern south Scandinavian area probably came via Laux discusses the cultural belonging of different
Mecklenburg or accompanied people who travelled burials in the region. These results are then plot-
through the region; see for example, the distribution ted on different maps. One can see for the Period
by Apa-Hajdúsámson of swords or Schaftröhrenäxte II burials (figures 79) that the area clearly mainly
(Hachmann 1957: Map 13 &15). Schubart has called contains so-called Nordic graves. There are three
the Mecklenburg area a Mischkultur (English: mixed graves which Laux calls west Holstein burials as
culture) (Schubart 1972:71). In western Mecklenburg they contain spearheads, but they must be seen as
the combination of weapons in male graves is slight- part of the south Scandinavian group. One of the
ly different from the traditional south Scandinavian weapon assemblages in a grave is seen as being a
assemblages. The artefacts are of Nordic type, but part of the Lüneburg culture (Ilmenau group).
the bow and arrow were also a part of the funeral This picture is, however, drastically changed in
equipment (Laux 1989:60). This area is therefore ex- Period III (see figure 80), when a much more mixed
tremely important in the study of contact and con- male weaponry combination is apparent in the ar-
flict between different cultural groups during the ea. Now the area between the Wandse and Delve-
Middle Bronze Age. nau waterways displays a range of burials that can
Laux argues that the view put forward by Ker- be connected to south Scandinavia, Mecklenburg
sten in 1952, i.e. that there was an Ilmenau group and the Lüneburg culture. In contrast, the areas
of the Lüneburg culture stretched over the north north of this zone are still dominated by Nordic as-
banks of the river Elbe, is more complex than pre- semblages, even if a few Mecklenburg weapon as-
viously believed (Laux 1989:51). In the article Laux semblages can be found here as well.
analyses the weapon and jewellery combinations Laux determines all female burials with daggers
in the region in order to decide the culture to which as belonging to the Nordic culture, despite the fact
they relate. He regards Scandinavian assemblages that some have ‘classical’ Lüneburg objects such as
of sword-axe-dagger as part of the male armour, single profiled wheel-headed pins. He argues that
whereas female burials with a dagger are described they may have immigrated or married into the ar-
in more passive terms, as a costume (Laux 1989:68). ea (Laux 1989:65f), i.e. thereby ‘becoming’ ‘Nordic’.
Out of the nine plotted female Period II burials, six and harmonious time followed. This more peace-
have a dagger (see figure 81). It is unusual to have ful time would have allowed the mixing of cultures
so many female graves with daggers from one area. that in the long run led to the expansion of the Nor-
In the following period we can see a clear number dic Bronze Age culture during the Late Bronze Age
of female graves with Lüneburg costume (from dif- (see Thrane 1975:15 for the Nordic Bronze Age bor-
ferent costume groups within the Lüneburg cul- der in the Late Bronze Age).
ture). These female burials dominate the area be-
tween the Wandse and the Delvenau. Only one tra-
ditional Nordic female burial can be found within Women and warfare
this area. The females wearing costumes relating to ”Att äfven könet härstädes varit beväpnadt torde
the different groups are less geographically mixed hafva haft sin grund deri, att det ansetts nöd-
than the males according to the burial equipment. vändigt i en tid, då de utländska kolonisterna
None of the Period III female graves contains a dag- ännu bodde bland halfvildar, för hvilkas anfall
ger (see figure 82). de, likasom de Europiska kolonisterna i Ameri-
It seems that during Period II there were more ka, förmodligen ej sällan voro blottstälda”
rigid boundaries, although some people moved “That here even the fairer sex was armed would
across the borders, as reflected in a degree of mix- seem to be due to its being deemed necessary
ing in burial traditions. This rigidity lessens dur- in a time when the foreign colonists still lived
ing Period III, at least where the male weapon as- among half savages, to the assaults of whom
semblages are concerned. The area in the northwest they were, like the European colonists in Amer-
shows a consistent sense of belonging for the south ica, not infrequently exposed.” [translation Neil
Scandinavian group. The area between the Wandse Price].
and the Delvenau, the ‘border zone’, shows an even
more varied use of the characteristic assemblages (Nilsson, S. 1872:120, concerning the dagger and
from the different cultures, resulting in a visible the ‘small shield’ in the female grave from Bo-
mixing of cultural traditions. rum Eshøj).
Perhaps the situation during Period II can be re-
lated to conflict(s) that might have resulted in vio- As previously pointed out by Thorpe (2006:142) the
lent action(s), as seen for example in the many fe- possibility of female warriors in prehistoric Europe
male burials with daggers. During Period II this is an area that has received very little attention. Fe-
conflict may have been resolved and a more open male warriors are something archaeological re-
search has avoided talking about or else ignored to- bow-legged (perhaps from spending long periods
tally. on horse back?). Both the artefact assemblages and
There is evidence of female warriors from differ- the skeletal information indicate that there have
ent parts of the world. For example, if the interpreta- been female warriors in this culture. In the ceme-
tion is correct that the soldiers in the Qui Shi Huang- tery at Pokrova seven female warrior graves have
di’s famous terracotta army were representations of been found and they date to between the fourth
real people (Quian 1981, referenced in Nelson 1997), to the second centuries BC (Davis-Kimball 1997,
then the group of female clay soldiers must have re- 2002:56ff). In the Sauromatian area 20% of the war-
flected a reality (Nelson 1997:139f). Similarly, Holli- rior graves have been osteologically determined to
mon (2001) has shown that there were female war- female (Rolle 1989:89). In this region most of the fe-
riors in the upper Missouri River, USA. These wom- male warrior burials contain only a bow and arrow,
en joined war parties where they either participat- but in other areas the graves contain weapons like
ed as combatants or conducted ritual functions re- bronze arrowheads, iron spearheads, swords and
lated to warfare. These female warriors can be seen daggers (Guliaev 2003:115, Rolle 1989:89). Many of
both in the ethnographic and ethnohistoric record, them also contain artefact categories that are tradi-
as well as in osteological evidence that lends fur- tionally seen as female, such as spindle-whorls and
ther support to the ethnographic evidence. bronze mirrors (Guliaev 2003:115, Rolle 1989:91).
Closer to the area under investigation, in the kur- Despite concluding that many female warrior
gans of the Eurasian Steppes, female graves have graves existed and that they were treated in the
been found which include grave goods such as iron same manner as the male warriors in the Scythian
swords, daggers, armour, and projectile points. territory, and that many of them had met a violent
Some of the female skeletons show traces of being death, Guilaev’s interpretation was that the role of
100 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
these women was to guard the ‘hearth and home- from the basis of the clothing in the graves that the
stead’ while the adult male warriors were away on males were warriors and the females lived a calm-
raids or longer military campaigns (Guilaev 2003). er life, as their costume was much more limiting
This seems to be yet another attempt to keep wom- for movement. The author considered it most like-
en in the domestic sphere, even when both ancient ly that the daggers found in female graves were
literature and the archaeological remains point to for defence reasons, whereas the male swords
an active female warrior group for whom the horse and daggers were for attack purposes. The author
was an important aspect of their warfare. The im- does, however, speculate about the possibility that
portance placed on horses in the literature for the the women followed/helped the males in battles.
so-called Amazons (Guilaev 2003:113), as well as Mestorf (1889:151) points out that not all women
the presence of riding gear (Davis Kimball 2002:54), wore a dagger, and she wondered if the ones who
is indicative of active warriors who fought and at- did chose to participate with the men in warfare,
tacked from horseback, rather than passive, de- or did they hunger for land? She uses a Roman
fending warriors who sat at home waiting to be source to claim that Germanic women at later times
attacked. The fact that some of the graves contain fought bravely along with their men. She includes
both objects that traditionally belong to females Saxo and the Nordic sagas in the discussion about
and weaponry indicates that this group was seen the female martial temperament. She argued that
as a belonging to the female sphere, and they re- women who had a bellicose nature were in the mi-
late both to other females and to the males in their nority, while most women found happiness with-
burial goods. Therefore it seems unlikely that they in the family sphere. She argued that this was sup-
Figure 84: Fe- would have been seen as an entirely separate gen- ported by the large number of rich graves includ-
male grave from der group, but rather it could have been something ing jewellery and tools. This debate had, however,
the Alb group one chose to do, e.g. for a limited period of time. been preceded by a debate about what artefacts/ar-
(Tumulus cul-
ture) with an- According to Hårde (2006:353ff) 5% of the 237 tefact combinations could be perceived as male or
kle-rings united warrior graves from the Nitra culture (Early Bronze female (Hjørungdal 1994:143f). Subsequently, fol-
by a chain (from Age culture along the Nitra river) are osteological- lowing this initial discussion of the role of daggers
Wels-Weyrauch ly determined to female and 15% were children. in female burials, the subject has been overlooked.
1989:128 figure Hårde writes: “we should not be unfamiliar with There are 69 female graves in Sweden, Denmark,
8A).
the possibility that some women might have been Norway and Schleswig-Holstein53 (excluding Sege-
warriors” (Hårde 2006:355). He does not present berg, Plön, Ostholstein, Pinneberg, Hamburg, Cux-
these in any detail, so it is hard to know if they con- haven, Stormarn, Hzgt Lauenberg, Counties) from
tain other more traditional female objects as well, Period II that include a dagger (to this there can be
53
Based on Aner and or if these are the possible burials of women who added 21 graves that can be dated to Middle Bronze
Kersten’s volumes of
Die Funde der älter- have taken on the full identity of a warrior without Age or PIII) (see appendix 8). Only the daggers that
en Bronzeziet des nor- connecting to the female ideal at all. There seems to are found in combination with secure female indi-
dischen kreises in
Dänemark, Schleswig- be many ways for biological women to relate to the cators, i.e. neck collars, neck-rings, belt plates, an-
Holstein und Nied-
ersachsen for Den-
male warrior ideal, either by fully embracing it and kle-rings, bronze tubes, or with textile remains sug-
mark and Schleswig- rejecting all symbols/objects relating to the female gestive of female dress are counted. There are also
Holstein; for Scania it
is based on Håkans-
sphere, or by connecting to both male and female other possible female graves with daggers, but they
son (1985) (catalogue) objects simultaneously. lack exclusively female artefacts (see the Aner and
and Oldeberg (1974);
for the northern part
An important question raised by a professor in Kersten volumes).
of Jutland the materi- International Relations (Goldstein 2001:5) is: why is One can see that the distribution of female graves
al is found in Broholm
(1942), so there might that, even though many societies have lived or been with daggers is uneven throughout the regions (see
be more graves lack- destroyed by war, very few have mobilized wom- figure 83): some regions, e.g. Gram district in Den-
ing from northern Jut-
land than from the oth- en? According to the author there is no biological mark, have a concentration of female graves with
er areas. reason for this lack of female participation in war- daggers (three clear cases54 and some possible cas-
54
Ke3530A, Ke3521E, fare. Instead, it seems to be due only to cultural fac- es55) belonging to Period II. Another example is in
Ke3515B.
tors (Goldstein 2001: chapter 4). Thisted County, where there is a concentration of
55
For example the In Scandinavia a fair number of the female buri- female graves with daggers in the south part of the
grave in Klovtoft
(Ke3454) containing a
als from Period II and III include a dagger. The pres- county, with a concentration of five female graves
dagger, a pin and two ence of daggers was discussed early on in the his- with daggers56; in this region there is also a contin-
Lockenring.
toric archaeological literature. The background to uation of the material into Period III. In other are-
56
Ke4955C, Ke4993B, this debate was the discovery of the woman in Bo- as such as the islands of Falster or Lolland only one
Ke5039A, Ke5268B,
Ke5372. rum Eshøj in 1871, whose grave contained, among female grave contains a dagger, whereas in regions
other things, a dagger; this artefact type had pre- such as Scania and Ribe County all or the majority
viously been seen as an exclusively male object. of daggers in female graves are dated to Period III.
This new find sparked a debate about the essence As shown above, one can see a correlation between
and nature of females. Müller (1876: 282ff) argues the total number of graves with weapons and the
100 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
these women was to guard the ‘hearth and home- from the basis of the clothing in the graves that the
stead’ while the adult male warriors were away on males were warriors and the females lived a calm-
raids or longer military campaigns (Guilaev 2003). er life, as their costume was much more limiting
This seems to be yet another attempt to keep wom- for movement. The author considered it most like-
en in the domestic sphere, even when both ancient ly that the daggers found in female graves were
literature and the archaeological remains point to for defence reasons, whereas the male swords
an active female warrior group for whom the horse and daggers were for attack purposes. The author
was an important aspect of their warfare. The im- does, however, speculate about the possibility that
portance placed on horses in the literature for the the women followed/helped the males in battles.
so-called Amazons (Guilaev 2003:113), as well as Mestorf (1889:151) points out that not all women
the presence of riding gear (Davis Kimball 2002:54), wore a dagger, and she wondered if the ones who
is indicative of active warriors who fought and at- did chose to participate with the men in warfare,
tacked from horseback, rather than passive, de- or did they hunger for land? She uses a Roman
fending warriors who sat at home waiting to be source to claim that Germanic women at later times
attacked. The fact that some of the graves contain fought bravely along with their men. She includes
both objects that traditionally belong to females Saxo and the Nordic sagas in the discussion about
and weaponry indicates that this group was seen the female martial temperament. She argued that
as a belonging to the female sphere, and they re- women who had a bellicose nature were in the mi-
late both to other females and to the males in their nority, while most women found happiness with-
burial goods. Therefore it seems unlikely that they in the family sphere. She argued that this was sup-
Figure 84: Fe- would have been seen as an entirely separate gen- ported by the large number of rich graves includ-
male grave from der group, but rather it could have been something ing jewellery and tools. This debate had, however,
the Alb group one chose to do, e.g. for a limited period of time. been preceded by a debate about what artefacts/ar-
(Tumulus cul-
ture) with an- According to Hårde (2006:353ff) 5% of the 237 tefact combinations could be perceived as male or
kle-rings united warrior graves from the Nitra culture (Early Bronze female (Hjørungdal 1994:143f). Subsequently, fol-
by a chain (from Age culture along the Nitra river) are osteological- lowing this initial discussion of the role of daggers
Wels-Weyrauch ly determined to female and 15% were children. in female burials, the subject has been overlooked.
1989:128 figure Hårde writes: “we should not be unfamiliar with There are 69 female graves in Sweden, Denmark,
8A).
the possibility that some women might have been Norway and Schleswig-Holstein53 (excluding Sege-
warriors” (Hårde 2006:355). He does not present berg, Plön, Ostholstein, Pinneberg, Hamburg, Cux-
these in any detail, so it is hard to know if they con- haven, Stormarn, Hzgt Lauenberg, Counties) from
tain other more traditional female objects as well, Period II that include a dagger (to this there can be
53
Based on Aner and or if these are the possible burials of women who added 21 graves that can be dated to Middle Bronze
Kersten’s volumes of
Die Funde der älter- have taken on the full identity of a warrior without Age or PIII) (see appendix 8). Only the daggers that
en Bronzeziet des nor- connecting to the female ideal at all. There seems to are found in combination with secure female indi-
dischen kreises in
Dänemark, Schleswig- be many ways for biological women to relate to the cators, i.e. neck collars, neck-rings, belt plates, an-
Holstein und Nied-
ersachsen for Den-
male warrior ideal, either by fully embracing it and kle-rings, bronze tubes, or with textile remains sug-
mark and Schleswig- rejecting all symbols/objects relating to the female gestive of female dress are counted. There are also
Holstein; for Scania it
is based on Håkans-
sphere, or by connecting to both male and female other possible female graves with daggers, but they
son (1985) (catalogue) objects simultaneously. lack exclusively female artefacts (see the Aner and
and Oldeberg (1974);
for the northern part
An important question raised by a professor in Kersten volumes).
of Jutland the materi- International Relations (Goldstein 2001:5) is: why is One can see that the distribution of female graves
al is found in Broholm
(1942), so there might that, even though many societies have lived or been with daggers is uneven throughout the regions (see
be more graves lack- destroyed by war, very few have mobilized wom- figure 83): some regions, e.g. Gram district in Den-
ing from northern Jut-
land than from the oth- en? According to the author there is no biological mark, have a concentration of female graves with
er areas. reason for this lack of female participation in war- daggers (three clear cases54 and some possible cas-
54
Ke3530A, Ke3521E, fare. Instead, it seems to be due only to cultural fac- es55) belonging to Period II. Another example is in
Ke3515B.
tors (Goldstein 2001: chapter 4). Thisted County, where there is a concentration of
55
For example the In Scandinavia a fair number of the female buri- female graves with daggers in the south part of the
grave in Klovtoft
(Ke3454) containing a
als from Period II and III include a dagger. The pres- county, with a concentration of five female graves
dagger, a pin and two ence of daggers was discussed early on in the his- with daggers56; in this region there is also a contin-
Lockenring.
toric archaeological literature. The background to uation of the material into Period III. In other are-
56
Ke4955C, Ke4993B, this debate was the discovery of the woman in Bo- as such as the islands of Falster or Lolland only one
Ke5039A, Ke5268B,
Ke5372. rum Eshøj in 1871, whose grave contained, among female grave contains a dagger, whereas in regions
other things, a dagger; this artefact type had pre- such as Scania and Ribe County all or the majority
viously been seen as an exclusively male object. of daggers in female graves are dated to Period III.
This new find sparked a debate about the essence As shown above, one can see a correlation between
and nature of females. Müller (1876: 282ff) argues the total number of graves with weapons and the
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 101
0 50 cm
number of female graves with weapons. This should Homeric epics (see for example Treherne 1995). Vand- Figure 85: Mul-
indicate that females were more likely to be equipped kilde has looked at the aristocratic female ideal in the tiple bural from
with daggers in areas where conflict was more likely to Iliad. She argues that the female ideal seen in the text Wassenaar (pub-
lished with
arise. In the case of south-eastern Holstein it is evident is a woman who is a “peaceful, caring person who the permis-
that when the mixing of different cultural elements in looked after the home during the frequent absenc- sion of Professor
the burials increased, the daggers disappeared from es of her husband” (Vandkilde 2006b:232). She argues Leendert P. Lou-
the female graves. As can be seen below there is clear that the woman gets her identity from the oikos, the we Kooijmans).
evidence that women were killed in different kinds of private domain where she, in contrast to her husband,
violent acts, either during raids, massacres or battles, spent all her time. This ideal is not so easily visible in
and men, women and children all suffered from the vi- the Southern Scandinavian material. The existence of
olence that could break out in society. With an under- wealthy female burials with daggers probably indi-
standing of this context, it is not so strange that the fe- cates that there is no such sharp boundary between
males might have needed daggers to defend them- the sexes where violence was concerned. Whereas
selves. the aristocratic women in the Iliad only watch the vi-
The male Bronze Age warrior ideal has been con- olent acts from a distance, from the palace or the tow-
nected to the picture of the ideal warrior portrayed in ers of the citadels (Vandkilde 2006b:523), the daggers
102 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
57
Mound 5 Worbsloh,
Wardböhmen, Celle. in the south Scandinavian female burials indicate that uals of whom about half were children. In both sex-
58
According to Laux’s
women were in closer proximity to the violent acts, ei- es and all age groups there is evidence of trauma,
typology this arm- ther using the dagger for ritual purposes to enhance both healed and unhealed, as well as health prob-
ring type (B2) was al-
so found in other fe-
luck in war, as suggested for some Viking Age female lems relating to stress. The skeletal material indicat-
male graves, for exam- rituals by Price (2002: chapter 6), or actively using it to ed that the individuals had been assaulted at close
ple in Steinbeck, Har-
burg (Laux catalogue
defend herself – or, for that matter having the dag- range and that the wounds had been inflicted by ei-
nr 203). ger for both purposes. In the Alb group of the Tumu- ther a sword, an axe or a thrusting spear. A skeleton
lus culture there are female burials that have ankle- of a mature/elderly male has been found in Kråk-
rings with a chain between them, limiting the move- erøy, Østfold, Norway, and it has been dated to 1105
ments of the woman (Wels-Weyrauch 1989a, see figure ± 165 cal BC. Examinations of the skeleton showed
84). This might indicate a female ideal closer to the one that the most likely cause of death was by a blow of
seen in the Iliad, where the women stay closer to the a sword (Fyllingen 2002:45, Holck 1987:37ff). These
home and are less likely to suffer from violence (at least cases, and more, demonstrate that the Middle Nor-
not at the hands of strangers). As shown in chapter 4 dic Bronze Age society included an element of risk
the female clothing may be seen, in contrast to that of and violence for at least some of its inhabitants.
the male, as having limited the ability to move about A Middle Bronze Age grave found in Søborg,
freely. It therefore seems more reasonable to side with Holbo, Fredriksborg contains: a bronze dagger, a
Müller’s view that the daggers found in female graves flint strike-a-light, pyrite, and 10 flint arrowheads
were used for defence purposes, rather than Mestorf’s and one arrow-like flake. The exact placement of
belief that some women actively participated in bat- the arrowheads is unclear, except for the ones that
tles. The geographically uneven distribution of female were situated on the throat or lower face. The tooth
daggers in the graves indicates that they are there for enamel indicates an age of no more than 30 years
reasons other than ritual use. Unless they are used ex- (010110-42 Det Kulturhistoriske Centralregister). It
clusively in rituals to enhance luck in warfare, then they seems likely that the arrowhead found in the throat
were mainly needed in areas with warfare. If they were area had been used to kill the individual.
used for a ‘common’ ritual practice then these cus- In Lower Saxony there is a grave of a possible fe-
toms must have been very fluid between the different male57 who might have been killed by an arrow-
south Scandinavian areas at different times. It seems head. The excavator, Hans Piesker, views it as a
more reasonable to argue that they are there for de- grave of a male who wore a neck-ring. He argues
fence purposes in insecure areas. that the type of arm-ring58 and the arrowhead be-
long to the male sphere, and therefore it is a unique
male, wearing a neck-ring (Private archive of Piesk-
Evidence of warfare in er in Herr Dr F. Laux’s possession). Bergmann part-
northern Europe ly agrees with this interpretation, and determined
the grave to ‘a male?’ (Bergmann 1970: A List 2:66).
The most secure evidence for violent death is in the Laux, however, has designated the same grave as
analysis of skeletal material. In the skeletal materi- that of a female (Laux 1971:114f). I agree with Laux
al one can find signs of trauma, such as fractures, that it is most probably a female burial. The earlier
dislocation, post-traumatic deformity and miscella- determination as a male grave is probably based on
neous traumatic conditions. Not all of these trauma the nineteenth-century ideal of “the needle-work-
signs are weapon related. Different weapons leave ing woman” (see Hjørungdal 1994). On the basis of
different kinds of traces, but not all violent deaths the excavation plan (Private archive of Piesker in
leave marks on the skeleton (Kjellström 2005:31ff). Herr Dr F. Laux’s possession), however, it is hard
Some of the skeletal evidence of violent death found to decide if the arrowhead was a grave gift or the
in northern Europe will be presented and discussed cause of death. It is found in the area of the waist
below. close to the hand, but the exact position is difficult
Human bone material from the Nordic Bronze to determine with certainty. It seems most likely
Age is scarce. Despite this, there are specimens of that it was indeed the cause of death, since in the
human bone with clear traces of brutality in the Lüneburg culture - with the exception of this case -
Middle Nordic Bronze Age (1600-1100 BC). One weapons are unknown in female graves. If we look
example of this is the Period IB Valsømagle type at the biological anthropological data for Bronze
spearhead tip found at Over-Vindinge, Præstø Age Europe there are other females whose cause of
County, Denmark which had been inflicted from death was most probably due to violent conflict.
behind and was still in situ in the lower back (Vand- Taking a broader look at Europe generally, there
kilde 1996:232, 2000:42f, see figure 86). Fyllingen are numerous cases of violent deaths during the
(2002, 2003 & 2006) has analysed bones from a Middle Bronze Age. One example of this may be
mass burial in Norway dating to c. 1400 BC. This seen in West Littleton Down, Tormarton, Glouces-
multiple grave contained between 22-30+ individ- tershire, England, where four to five men were
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 103
found in a pit, one with a bronze spearhead em- above). Of course this could
bedded in the vertebrae and an arrowhead embed- be because sword blows from
ded in the hip in a way similar to the Over-Vind- a fair fight leave few traces in
inge case, as well as evidence of a blow to the head the skeletal material. The only
(Osgood 2000:21f). Another example is the multi- evidence for this kind of war-
ple burial in Wassenaar, Holland, which contains fare (personal combat) might
the remains of 12 individuals: children, women, be seen mainly on the ritual-
and male (see figure 85). Despite the poor preserva- ly deposited weaponry in e.g.
tion of the bones at least four individuals could be bogs. This could be an indica-
shown to have died in acts of violence. Three of the tion that this kind of fighting
individuals had cutting blows and one person had was mainly performed within
an arrowhead embedded between his ribs (Louwe the male ritual sphere and the
Kooijmans 1993, Smits & Maats 1993). Other exam- violence people were subject-
ples from the Late Bronze Age are found, for exam- ed to in their everyday lives
ple, in Lower Austria, where there exists a multiple was that of raiding and am-
grave in a former storage pit in Wallburg von Still- bushing. One could argue that
fried an der March, an Urnfield culture settlement the remains of the man from
with a surrounding wall. The pit contained the re- Kråkerøy (Fyllingen 2002:45)
mains of one male, two females and four children. should be the result of ritual
Instead of the common burial practice of the time combat in the male sphere, but if the killing had fol- Figure 86: The
(Late Bronze Age), cremation, they had been placed lowed ritual combat rules it is unlikely to have been de- tip of a spear-
in the pit as an inhumation. Lochner discusses the posited in such a way. Holck (1987:37ff) interprets it as head in Over-
Vindinge,
find in terms of sacrifice or possibly a “Palatsrevolu- a person who has been sacrificed accompanied by an Præstø coun-
tion”. In the later Urnfield period there is one more animal which was found nearby. ty, Denmark
multiple grave containing 15 individuals in a sepa- An interesting aspect of the mass burials is the (from Vandkil-
rate pit at the settlement (Lochner 1994:216ff). In my varying ways in which the deceased were disposed de 2000:43, fig-
opinion the storage pit containing seven persons of. In the Wassenaar example the dead were neat- ure 21).
does not look like the remains of a sacrifice; the ly buried, probably according to sex and age. They
bodies have not been treated in a way that would were placed parallel to each other, with the chil-
indicate this. Instead, they look like they have been dren and youngsters on their sides, women with
thrown into the pit, which is more like a Palatsrevo- their heads facing down, and men on their backs
lution or the remains from an ambush or a raid. The (Louwe Kooijmans 1993). This could indicate many
lack of skeletal evidence indicating how they died things: that they had been killed for ritual purpos-
is a problem, since the cause of death could help in es, or that their attackers took what they wanted
the interpretation of the find. Lower Austria, how- and then left, or that their rescue came too late (but
ever, has incontrovertible remains of violent deaths. in time to bury the deceased). The English example
For example, the cranium of a young girl displayed of Tormarton, where four to five men were killed
evidence of having been struck by a blunt weapon, and thrown into a ditch which then was backfilled
causing her death (Lochner 1994:218f). in a single phase, has been interpreted by Osgood
According to Keeley (1996:65) raids and ambushes (2002:21f, 2006:336) as the killing of some men who
were the most common methods of attack in ‘primi- were in the process of trying to change the land-
tive’ warfare. Characteristic for these types of warfare is scape when they were killed. The killers then
that only a few people were killed at a time, but that all tossed the bodies in the ditch and backfilled it. This
types of people were killed indiscriminately: children, seems like an ambush on a few people while they
women, and men. The victims were often taken by were working on a task that may have displeased
surprise, and were therefore frequently unarmed, and the killers. The killing put an end to the task. The
their wounds were often inflicted in the process of flee- Wallburg von Stillfried an der March case, where
ing. Keeley claims that there is a gradual shift in scale of people were thrown into a storage pit, also seems
this type of warfare, from small raids to massacres (Kee- to be the result of an ambush or a raid, possibly the
ley 1996:66f). Despite the lack of skeletal evidence in taking over of a landscape/settlement. The attack-
the Scandinavian material there are traces of this kind er disposed of the bodies in the easiest way possi-
of violence. The Over-Vindinge example could indicate ble after the killing was completed. Another exam-
that the deceased had died while trying to flee from a ple of dumping human remains after a possible at-
raid. Similarly, the multiple burial in Sund, where chil- tack during the Middle Bronze Age is observed in
dren, women and men were found together, could be Velim, district of Kolín, in the Czech Republic. Here
seen as another example of raiding. bones from children, women, and men are found
There seem to be few examples in the skeletal ma- in a series of large pits. Some of the skeletal mate-
terial of the kind of warfare Treherne envisions (see rial was complete and articulated, while other re-
104 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
mains were only scattered or incomplete, and some during the European Bronze Age, but there are sig-
bones even bore cutmarks (Harding 1999:58). This nificant differences between the two regions. For
also seems like an example of a Bronze Age raiding Bronze Age Europe he argues for small-scale war-
culture, albeit perhaps on a larger scale. fare and raiding by small parties. Harding also ar-
Why did people in the anthropological record gues for a probable increase in the military organ-
raid? There are many reasons: some of the raids isation over the period, and points out that in the
were for revenge, to gain slaves, to capture women Bronze Age weapons with the sole purpose of kill-
(who would gain different social positions), and to ing humans (the sword) were first invented. The
obtain wealth or food (Keeley 1996:86,114f). In the first swords are relatively long and thin, and ac-
archaeological material there is evidence that the cording to Harding were only suited for thrusting
Bronze Age might have been a time with at least blows. The stouter blade and stronger hilt attach-
sporadic bad nutrition. Fylling (2002) shows that ment that developed were used for cut- and thrust
during the Middle Bronze Age in Norway there fighting. At the end of the Early Bronze Age spears
are skeletal changes/illness that can be related to a came into use in the region. The Scandinavian long
lack of nutrition. It has been shown that on Funen spearheads appear with the Valsømagle horizon
during Period IV there was a general lack of nutri- (c. 1600 BC), although this type of spearhead was
tion, but also periods of famine. This could be read not used until the Late Bronze Age in Central Eu-
from the Harris lines on some of the bodies in Peri- rope. The author claims that the difference between
od IV graves in the Late Bronze Age mound Luse- a small spearhead and a long spearhead is their use.
høj (Kühl 1985:139). Health parameters in a ceme- The small ones were suitable for throwing/hurl-
tery in Slovakia (Jelšovce) changed over time, and ing and the longer (heavier) ones were better suit-
Schultz, Schmidt-Schultz and Kreutz (1998) have ed for thrusting, i.e. the fighting range changed ac-
shown that the deficiency diseases seen in the chil- cording to the type of spear one had. The smaller
dren’s graves from the Únětice period were more spearheads allowed for a longer distance between
common than in the earlier Nitra period. The most the combatants, or the attacker and the attacked,
common diseases were anaemia, scorbutus (scur- than the longer spearheads, which indicate close
vy), and rachitis (rickets). Whether the difference in distance between the people involved. Harding ar-
the health of children is related to a changed view gues that warfare was the hallmark of the Bronze
on children (and their access to food) or if it shows Age.
a general nutrition problem is hard to say without The raids and killing that, for example, can be
a similar study relating to adults. It could, however, seen in Sund and Wassenaar indicate that Bronze
indicate an impetus for raiding that was sustenance Age society and its networks had a fragile struc-
motivated. If the main purpose for raiding was to ture. If, as Kristiansen (1999a) suggests, travel and
capture a woman or to gain slaves it is hard to find the knowledge of faraway places were important,
reliable proof for this in the archaeological record; it must have been a risky business travelling in Eu-
on the other hand, raiding to gain access to food rope in this militaristic climate, which may be char-
seems like a strong possibility, and a food shortage acterised by its raiding and ambushing culture.
leading to starvation conditions would have had One needed to know what routes to take and who
physical ramifications that may at times be seen in to trust along the way, while also being on the con-
the skeletal record. stant look out for attackers, knowing that one’s al-
lies may no longer exist. Keeley (1996:122ff) points
out that intermarriage and trade do not in any way
Concluding discussion exclude warfare, as groups that trade and intermar-
Osgood (1998:91) argues that during the Middle ry can periodically be at war with each other. He ar-
Bronze Age (tumulus culture) people were fighting, gues that failure in trade and reciprocity can quick-
man against man, in hand-to-hand combat and pos- ly escalate to warfare. Another ethnographic rea-
sibly in small-scale raids, while during the Urnfield son to engage in warfare is when one social group
culture they were more likely to employ static de- has a monopoly of some important resources, such
fences or engage in raiding. He argues that the fight- as quality flint and mineral salt, etc. A marriage al-
ing technique changed in northern and western Eu- liance gone bad is also a common reason for war-
rope during the Bronze Age, and that the bow and fare, which could happen if a promised bride failed
arrow was the dominant weapon for killing, where- to materialize or if a dowry or a bride-price had
as thrusting spears were used for most killings in to be refunded. He argues that trade and warfare
the later periods. He bases this idea on some skele- can have the same result, and we have a tendency
tal evidence of violent death from England, Holland to interpret exotic objects as products of trade and
and Denmark (Osgood 2000:22). hardly ever as spoils of war. Keeley goes on to ar-
In Harding’s view (2000:chapter 8) many things gue that for “high-volume exotic items with an eve-
suggest a heroic era similar to the one in Greece ryday use, like pottery … these assumptions are
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 105
probably usually correct. But for rarer items, espe- ma on the skeletons. The left sides of some bodies
cially those that might have prestige value, or the display evidence of hack, slash and crush injuries.
bones of domestic livestock, archaeologists should On top of this there are many healed so-called par-
at least consider the possibility that they represent ry injuries, i.e. wounds that occur on the left arm
plunder” (Keeley 1996:126). when the arm is raised in order to dodge a blow to
Randsborg argues that the Middle Bronze Age the head. This indicates that some individuals sur-
burials that were plundered during the Mid- vived violent attacks.
dle Bronze Age were done so not to gain metal, Rock-art has often been drawn into the debate in
but to humiliate and re-kill the deceased (Rands- discussions of Bronze Age warriors and the war-
borg 1998:116). He argues that it was only power- rior ideal (see for example Osgood 2002:30ff). Nor-
ful male burials that were plundered, based on the dbladh (1989) conducted an early influential study
four plundered oak-log coffin graves (Randsborg on this topic. He argued that spears, axes, and ar-
1998:115ff), but it is worth noting that if a female chery, i.e. bow and arrow, are more commonly seen
grave was robbed of its neck-collar and belt plate in rock-art than in the burials. On rock art ships
it would be hard to recognise it as female burial. all weapons are depicted, but swords and axes pre-
Based on what he sees as removed from the bur- dominate. He continues to point out that defensive
ials, Randsborg concludes that “highly important armour, such as shields and helmets, also seem to
and symbolic significant items were deliberately re- be very important in depictions of warfare. The
moved from the graves” (Randsborg 1998:117). It is fighting scenes show just a few combatants; most
always difficult to know what has been taken out often they are shown in pairs, although depictions
of a plundered grave as, by definition, it is no long- with three fighters are also present (Nordbladh
er there – Randsborg’s conclusion is therefore high- 1989:326f). One might argue that these are depic-
ly dubious. Even if a sword sheath is found in the tions of the ritual or correct way of fighting be-
burial we cannot conclude that a sword has been tween two equals, showing the ideal for which Tre-
removed, since we know for example that a sword herne has argued. It might be compared with later
sheath in the burial of the young man from Borum historical duels, a way for two equals to settle an ar-
Eshøj contained a dagger. Clearly Randsborg’s in- gument or disagreement. The duel followed certain
terpretation that the elite graves plundered around rules and rituals, and there were specific ways the
1300 BC can be connected to a change of regime, i.e. challenge should be made and certain rules as to
a new elite was established by ritually killing the how the fight was conducted (Low 2003:5-18). This
old ones (Randsborg 1998:122f) through the act of might very well be the ideal fighting that the de-
plundering their graves, rests upon very uncertain ceased warriors wanted to refer to in their burial
assumptions. However, he shows that most of the rituals. Nordbladh (1989:331) argues that the fight-
graves plundered in prehistory are found in south- ing depicted in rock-art is purely ritual, for if it had
ernmost Jutland (Randsborg 1998:116 fig 1), an ar- had a lethal outcome one of the combatants would
ea that demonstrates a strong presence of weapons have to have been portrayed in a dishonoured po-
in the burials during Period II, which decreases in sition. This need not be true if the status derived
Period III (see above). This might indicate that the from the fighting itself rather than from the actual
plundering was connected to warfare/raids and killing. Fighting with an equal and winning prob-
possibly also a change of regime. However further ably gave much more status/honour than fighting
studies are required before any positive conclu- and killing a subordinate.
sions can be drawn. The skeletal remains in northern and western
Perhaps the graves show an idealised view of Bronze Age Europe show that there were other
Bronze Age warfare, but the other remains, such types of violence as well. One type does not seem to
as multiple burials and the skeletal remains, pro- have been between two equals, but rather uneven
duce a different picture. Arrowheads are some- attacks against different weaker groups. This can
times seen in the graves as the weapon used to kill be seen in Sund, were it seems likely that a group of
an individual, but this weapon is not common in people attacked and killed a full community con-
the burial traditions in Period II. Maybe here we see sisting of a few households. All types of weapons
the ideal meeting the reality? The ideal may well seem to have been used to kill people, and there
have been the one described by Treherne (1995), are, as shown above, arrowheads and spearheads
with men fighting men in honourable sword fights, still in situ in the bones. Some of the latter show that
as, for example, depicted in rock carvings. The re- the victim had been killed while fleeing, or had fall-
ality seems to have been much more brutal with en on the ground facing downwards. Marks left on
raids and the slaughter of men, women and chil- the bone after cutting blows are found on some of
dren, young as well as old. the skeletons, indicating that swords or other sharp
According to Hårde (2006:364) the normal burials weapons were used. The young girl from Austria
from the Nitra culture contain many traces of trau- who had her head bashed by a blunt weapon might
106 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
It has been observed that while one learns about Brown has shown that many women across the
gender appropriate dress, one also learns about world get access to numerous new opportunities
the rights and responsibilities to act as one looks in life when their children grow up. For example,
(Eicher & Roach-Higgins 1992:19). With this in a woman might get the chance to travel, arrange
mind it is very important to add a life course the- marriages and trade (Brown 1982) at this stage of
ory to the discussion about dress and gender. her life.
Based on her analysis of the treatment of infants
in the Irish Neolithic and Early Bronze Age as well
Age and archaeology as historic times, Finlay argues that it is important
Lifecycle/course theory in archaeology started with to separate infants from the older children, as they
an interest in the archaeology of children (Lilleham- often require special treatment (Finlay 2000:419).
mer 1989, 2000 Moore & Scott 1997, Sofaer Dereven- As this is not done in all anthropological reports
ski 1994, 1997 a+b & 2000b) and has since developed it is sometimes hard to do in practice. However,
into an interest in the archaeology of the lifecycle/ as far as it is possible, the youngest children will
life course, bringing in all stages of life (Gilchrist be viewed separately from the older ones in this
2000a). Kamp (2000) has pointed out that the main study.
view of children in archaeology has been seen from People on the other extreme of the scale, the eld-
a modern western perception of childhood, which erly, have also often been overlooked in archaeo- Figure 87: Two
is essentially a medical one. She points out that both logical interpretation. As observed by Welinder oak log coffins
in traditional societies and in many historical peri- (2001:163), old age is also a cultural construction. He next to each oth-
er from Trindhøj,
ods children have been viewed from an entirely dif- also argues that the chronological age and the bio- Vamdrup par-
ferent perspective. The attitude toward the relation- logical age are not necessarily the same (Welinder ish (from Aner &
ship between children and work is just one aspect 2001:164). “Anthropologists have observed that in Kersten 1986:28
that differs greatly from society to society. traditional societies ageing women do not lose sta- figure 18).
Gilchrist (2000b:325) argues that archaeology
has tended to be very static, with the normal focus
on the prime of life, and we only tend to capture a
single moment. According to Gilchrist, by analys-
ing the whole human life course we can achieve a
broader view of prehistoric societies.
Boivin (2000:374) argues that “the nature and
quality of the lifecycle, like the cycle of the year,
varies both between and within groups … like the
yearly cycle, the lifecycle is heterogeneous in qual-
ity, and (from a larger perspective at least) infinite-
ly repetitive”. She argues that different economic
groups can have different life stages and different
rituals. Sofaer Derevenski argues that we can study
age both on a micro-scale, e.g. how objects are used
to express changes in a person’s life, and on a mac-
ro-scale, e.g. how a group responds to changes in
the ageing process (Sofaer Derevenski 2000a:390).
Here the focus will not be on the individual, but
rather an attempt to see the overarching structure.
However, the social construction will be interpret-
ed based on the individual graves.
It is important to remember that roles and rules
of the individual can change over the person’s
life course. Taking an anthropological approach,
108 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
59
Bone material from
of wooden coffin or body, and 28 have been deter- Late Neolithic and the Middle Bronze Age (Ström- grave 46 in Ingelstorp
mined by the remains of the skeleton, which of- berg 1999:645). Burials with a radiocarbon date 10:57 (Strömberg’s bur-
ial area 2) has been sent
ten consists only of the remains of the teeth. Some that indicates Period IA (1700-1600 BC) will here be in for radiocarbon dat-
of these children’s graves which are determined treated as if they belonged to the Late Neolithic and ing (results pending).
All other radiocarbon
by bone remains are found in mounds, but with- graves belonging to Period IB, II, and III are regard- dates are from Märta
out any visible traces of coffins or stone cists. This ed as from the Middle Bronze Age. Late Bronze Strömberg’s old radio-
carbon dating.
type of burial seems to be most common on Zea- Age relates to the Periods IV-VI.
land. Some of the inhumation graves of children, The cemeteries studied here all come from an ar-
with skeletal remains, are burials where the de- ea in south-eastern Scania, in the parishes of Ingel-
ceased child has been placed in some kind of coffin storp and Löderup (see figure 88). Some of the bur-
placed within a simple stone-packing. These stone ial areas have graves from the Battle Axe culture
packing graves can be of a very large size, e.g. Hjor- (2700-2350 BC) while others have burials as late as
dkjær, Rise, Åbenrå (Ke 3017C). However, in the the Viking Age (AD 800-1050). Only the ones that
Middle Bronze Age this grave may not have been probably date to the Late Neolithic, Middle Bronze
viewed as a child’s grave, but rather as a grave of Age and Late Bronze Age will be considered here.
a full member of society. It contained remains of The burials have been determined to one of the pe-
teeth of an 8 to12-year-old who seems to have worn riods on the basis of the artefacts in the burial, radi-
a grown-up female costume (for further discussion ocarbon dates59, stratigraphical details, the type of
see below). A Period IB grave in Nebel, Südtonder, burial (e.g. stone-cists), and/or the position in the
Amrum (Ke 2592G) also has a fairly long stone cist cemetery. The material discussed here is presented
(2.9 m), and a Period II grave in Mikkelgård, Hør- in appendices 9-11.
sholm, Lynge-Kronborg, Fredriksborg (Ke 211B) Strömberg uses Lomborg’s chronology for flint
has a 3.15 m long stone cist. These last cases indicate daggers (Strömberg 1982:96ff). Based on the flint
that there is a likelihood that more children have dagger typology Lomborg (1973: chapter III) di-
been buried, but due to the preservation conditions vides the Late Neolithic into three phases LN A, LN
they are overlooked in our analysis. B and LN C. This division has subsequently been
In the Scanian Late Neolithic graves we find skel- questioned both by Madsen (1978:54ff) and Vand-
etal material from young children, mainly from the kilde (1996:13f). The latter authors argue that the di-
age of five and upwards. In the same cemeteries vision of flint daggers of type I and II into LN A and
there are few or no traces of such young children LN B is wrong, as they were mainly contemporary.
from the Middle Bronze Age. In the Late Bronze The perceived difference is geographical rather than
Age, however, the children reappear in the materi- temporal. In using the older chronology Strömberg
al, i.e. they are found in the graves again, such as at (1982:106f) sees a lack of early Late Neolithic (LN A)
the cemeteries of Löderup and Ingelstorp (Ström- graves in the region. By using the chronological di-
berg 1975a, 1982). Why are the children missing in vision suggested by Vandkilde (1996:13f), i.e. sepa-
the Middle Bronze Age material? This question is rating Late Neolithic into two phases LN I (keeping
examined in the section that follows. Lomborg’s LN A and LN B) and LN II (Lomborg’s
LN C), we have the full time span in the region rep-
resented in the material, from the early Late Neo-
Case study: south-eastern lithic until the end of the Bronze Age.
Scania In Scania we can see that there are clearly more
buried individuals from the Late Neolithic than
The following case study deals with the materi- there were in the preceding Battle Axe culture, i.e.
al excavated in Löderup and Ingelstorp by Märta there are more people on average buried per year
Strömberg. This material has been chosen because it in the Late Neolithic (Edenmo 2000:31). This can al-
is well published and contains graves from the Late
Neolithic to the end of the Late Bronze Age (Ström- average number average number
berg 1975a, 1982 & ATA). The focus here will be on of buried of buried
the age distribution of the graves in the different pe-
individuals per children per 100
riods.
Period 100 years years
In south-east Scania people were buried in mega-
Battle Axe culture 2.85 ?
lithic tombs, stone-cists as well as flat graves during
Late Neolithic 9.6 1.7
both the Late Neolithic and the Middle Bronze Age.
It is unclear if any mounds were constructed in the Middle Bronze
7.2 0.8
Age
area during the Late Neolithic (Strömberg 1984:49-
Late Bronze Age 24 3.16
63). It can sometimes be difficult to construct a finer
chronology of the material from one cemetery. It is Table 6.1. The average number of known burials from In-
also difficult to draw a clear boundary between the gelstorp and Löderup parishes per 100 years
110 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
fore fall within the age group comprising young (grave 36 A&B). The eight Late Bronze Age graves
and adult persons. Due to the fact that not all bur- that contain probable young individuals are spread
ials had preserved skeletal material good enough over the cemetery. The five individuals buried dur-
for ageing, and the fact that many graves contain ing the Late Bronze Age who were determined to
more than one deceased person, it is difficult to as- middle age, and the one determined to older, are
sociate any of the artefacts to a particular age. Of also fairly evenly spread over the cemetery. Three
the 18 age-determined Middle Bronze Age individ- Late Bronze Age cemeteries in Schleswig-Holstein
uals the majority are adult (10), while only two are (Panten-Mannhagen, Kr Herzogtum Lauenburg;
adolescent and two are mature/senile. Age cannot Sirksfelde, Kr Herzogtum Lauenburg and Neu-
be seen as an important factor for the quantity of münster-Falderaschule, Stadt Neumünster) had an
grave goods someone was buried with, but there area in the burial ground where many children’s
does seem to be a general tendency that one should graves were concentrated (Schmidt 1993:134, Sie-
be over 20 before one was buried in this way, even moneit 1996:347).
if there are exceptions to this rule. Of the 114 Late There are other structures that also appear to
Bronze Age burials that have been age determined have extended over time in the area. Flint daggers
we have a broad age range comprising people from are only seen during the Late Neolithic in Ingel-
infant to about 60 years old. There are no clear age storp, and in the Middle Bronze Age all the bronze
differences in the quantity of bronze that accompa- daggers found are from this parish. One sword is,
nied the deceased in the grave, although the grave however, from Löderup (Löderup 10:1 grave III)
with most bronze objects belonged to a man who and dates to the Middle Bronze Age. It is first dur-
was determined to about 60 years old; however, ing the Late Bronze Age that swords and miniature
even small children were sometimes buried with swords are found in both parishes. On the other
bronze objects. There seems to be no loss of status hand, flint strike-a-lights are common in Löderup
as one grew old, but it is difficult to say whether age during the Late Neolithic, but only one is found in
was an important factor in the increase or decrease one grave in Ingelstorp; this structure can only be
of status as seen through the bronze objects. regarded as a weak tendency in the Middle Bronze 60
This grave, Ingel-
storp F2 burial 41, can-
In Löderup 15:4 it is evident that during the Lat- Age. However, in the Late Bronze Age there are no not be dated to an-
er Bronze Age most of the seven children’s graves61 burials in Ingelstorp with a flint strike-a-light, and ything closer than
Late Neolithic-Middle
were placed in the south-eastern corner of the cem- just a few in Löderup, which strengthens the con- Bronze Age.
etery, even though there are some exceptions to nection between Löderup and flint-strike-a-lights. 61
The individuals in
this, such as grave 26 and grave 3. This pattern can Slate slabs are used in the buildings of the graves in the graves are aged as
also be seen in the late Neolithic where all but two Löderup during both the Middle and Late Bronze children (grave 3 & 60),
or probable or possible
of the children’s burials are within a limited area Age whereas other types of stones are used as slabs children (grave VIII, 16,
of the cemetery. The two Middle Bronze Age chil- in Ingelstorp (Strömberg 1975a, 1982). Despite the 20 & 21) and as child or
teenager (grave 26).
dren are buried within the same complex of burials close proximity of the cemeteries there seem to
112 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
62
Or grave 4, depend-
cates that the mounds at Abbekås, like the mounds ssander 1936:210, Hansen 1938:75ff).65 In south- ing on if one reads
in Löderup and Ingelstorp, are a continuation of a ern Scania it seems like the majority of bronze ob- Hansen’s excavation
report or publication
Late Neolithic flat ground cemetery. The grave also jects from the Late Neolithic and Period I accom- from 1938.
contains a spiral arm-ring, an artefact category that panied children rather than adults. This has been 63
Or a female aged
Sofaer Derevenski (2000a:398) has argued for the shown for the burials in Abbekås, but can also be to ten according to
Tiszapolgár phase of the site of Tiszapolgár-Basa- seen in Löderup and Västra Virestad, Bösarp par- Hansen’s 1938 publica-
tion (age 8 according to
tanya, Hungary, to be common in children’s graves. ish (Håkansson 1984, Hansen 1938, Rydbeck 1912, the report in ATA).
One reason for this is that the arm-ring type could Strömberg 1975). 64
Laux’s catalogue nr
be adjusted and could therefore accommodate the Some Scanian Middle Bronze Age mounds are 21B (mound 4 grave I &
IIIa), 21G, 58A & H, 59B.
growth of the children. The grave is unusual in a placed on Late Neolithic cemeteries, for example 74A & 85A, Bergmann
Swedish Late Neolithic perspective not only be- Ingelstorp cemetery F2 and F4, Löderup and Valle- A List 7:89.
cause of its unique artefact type, but because it has berga (Strömberg 1975a & b, 1982). This can be seen 65
Forssander writes
clothing/costume-related bronze artefacts. In the in the case of Abbekås as well. If we take mound that the child is 2-3
years old, but Hansen
Late Neolithic there seem to be few clothing-related II as an example the mound seems to be built over claims it is around 6
bronze objects. Some bronze rings, often ear-rings a Period II grave that is covered by a smaller stone years old. There is an-
other grave (grave 7)
or at least ornaments connected to headgear, and a cairn. Below the former ground level there are that contains a child
few beads, generally amber or from animal teeth, a number of graves that must be earlier than the who was 2-3 years
of age.
are found in the graves. The rings are not always mound. Abbekås grave 10, mound II, is for example
placed on the buried person(s). Sometimes it seems only covered by two-thirds of the mound. All the
more like a sacrifice than a personal object, for ex- graves that have osteological remains of children in
ample Ingelstorp F1 grave 3, a grave that was di- mound II are placed under the former ground level
vided into different compartments and above each (Hansen 1938:72-80) and therefore are likely to be-
part a gold ring had been placed on stone founda- long to either Period I or the Late Neolithic.
tions (Strömberg 1982:75). As shown in chapter 3 In Skivarp parish bone remains of eight children
very few graves contain Period I artefacts in this were found during Folke Hansen’s excavations dur-
area. It therefore appears that the Neolithic tradi- ing the 1920s (Hansen 1938). At least six of these can
tions lived on longer in Scania than in, for exam- be dated to the Late Neolithic based on stratigra-
ple, Zealand. phy or associated material. Many of the children’s
The graves that have clothing-related bronze ar- burials in Knutsson’s (1998) Masters thesis turn out
tefacts in Scania from the Late Neolithic and Period to be Late Neolithic upon closer examination. This
I seem to be the ones with imported objects. An ex- makes her statistics of the age determined graves in
ample of this is grave 2 from mound II in Abbekås Håkansson’s study (1984:192), the basis for Knuts-
(see above). son’s analysis, irrelevant. Knutsson’s 23% (Knuts-
There are ten64 graves with ‘diadems’ or pos- son 1998:17ff) should be corrected to 7.8 % of the
sible ‘diadems’ in the Lüneburg culture. None of buried individuals where age is known were chil-
them belong to Laux’s first time group (Zeitgruppe dren from the Scanian Middle Bronze Age. Clearly
I) (Laux 1971:114ff Table 11-12). If the chronology of this is below the percentage that would be expected
Laux’s different time groups is correct it is hard to for a ‘prehistoric society’ (Welinder 1998:186ff).
see that the Lüneburg culture ‘diadems’ are a di- In Denmark there have been excavations of Ne-
rect follower from the Central and south-east- olithic mounds, which contain only children’s
ern European Early Bronze Age ones, as has pre- graves. In Strandet Hovedgaard, Ørum, Fjends, Vi-
viously been suggested (Laux 1971:39). According borg sb nr 69 a mound belonging to the late Single
to Bergmann all the graves with ‘diadems’ belong Grave Culture held 20 graves of children. All the
to Period II (Bergmann 1970:A80-89). Most of these graves in the mound were child graves (Simonsen
graves are well-equipped. None of them has as few 2000). This mound is yet another example of order-
objects as the Abbekås grave. All except possibly ly and structured children’s graves in the Late Ne-
one (Laux 1971: 58Q III) seem to be adult graves. olithic. As seen in the example of Skivarp parish
To these graves the Period II grave from Smid- children’s graves seems to be placed in one mound
strup Hovgård, Skibinge, Bårse, Præstø (Ke 1264A) or in one part of the cemetery. This can also be seen
can be added, a grave of an individual who most in a similar way in Löderup, where the flat graves
likely originally came from the Lüneburg Heath. of children were generally placed close to each oth-
This grave has been compared with grave II from er and within a smaller part of the cemetery. Some
mound 7 in Wardböhmen (Lomborg 1969:129ff), children were also placed in a stone-cist with oth-
even though it is a much wealthier grave. er individuals.
Mound II at Abbekås contains one more child’s Sometimes children in Middle Bronze Age
grave with a bronze object. Grave nr 5 contains mounds were accompanied by an adult. An exam-
a bronze pin of Únĕtice character and two finger ple of this is the Egtved burial, where the cremated
rings. The child is aged to about 6 years old (For- remains of a young girl 8-9 years old were placed
114 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
in a leather bag which was posi- al pattern of mortuary treatment and corpse dis-
tioned in the waist area of a 16-18 posal” (Finlay 2000:408). She also argues that these
year old female inhumation (Thom- people might not have been seen as different in life,
sen 1929:197). In this case it seems but that their death differed from the norm (Finlay
unlikely that the child was buried 2000:409). We might be able to use this hypothesis
in her own right. She seems rather to further analyse and interpret the south Scandi-
to have been sacrificed and includ- navian Bronze Age individuals buried in megaliths
ed as a companion for the deceased or stone cists. Maybe these were individuals whose
older female. death prohibited them from being buried accord-
There are, to my knowledge, no ing to the normal burial practice.
finds of newborns or children un- It is difficult to say if age is important for ac-
der the age of one found in mounds cess and use of bronze artefacts during the Mid-
dated to the Middle Bronze Age dle Bronze Age. The young adult buried in Egtved
in southern Scandinavia. Like- has only a few bronze objects with her in the grave,
wise, newborn children appear to whereas the 50 to 60 year old woman from Borum
be generally absent from the ceme- Eshøj carried a large number of objects, and even
teries or known burial places dur- in terms of weight her artefacts can be seen as con-
ing the Bronze Age in Europe, e.g. siderable. Due to the lack of skeletal material it is
newborns are missing in the Mälar hard to know if this is a general pattern or just a co-
Valley, Sweden (Thedéen 2004:195). incidence. The woman in mound 15 in Wittenberg,
They are virtually absent from the Bleckmar, has been determined to a young adult
Later Bronze Age cemeteries in Low- and the woman buried in grave II in mound 1 in
er Saxony (Siemoneit 1996:356) and Schaftsatllberg, Wardböhmen, both county Celle,
Figure 92: Pan Schleswig-Holstein (Schmidt 1993:130), although are also adults (Molnar see appendix 12). Both
of grave 2 (4) in the odd example exists, and they are clearly un- women wore bronze-laden costumes, however the
mound II, Ab- der-represented in the Early Bronze Age in Lower older woman (Schaftstallberg) wore one of the cos-
bekås, Scania
(from Hansen Austria (Teschler-Nicola 1988:43). One can ask: how tumes with the most bronze objects from the en-
1938:76, figure have these individuals been deposited? In Lustru- tire area of study (see appendix 5 and chapter 4).
42). Scale un- pholm, Ribe Sankt Katharina, Ribe, Ribe a flat It seems that age, even among adults, could have
known. ground cremation cemetery has been 14C dated to been an important factor. Women seem at least not
the Middle Bronze Age (1745-1130 BC) and contains to have lost in wealth and status when they grew
23 burials (24 individuals). Five of these were under old. For the males this is harder to claim. The old-
one year old and one was probably a foetus or just er man found in the Borum Eshøj mound is bur-
newly born (Feveile & Bennike 2002). These peo- ied without any bronze objects, whereas the op-
ple have been buried outside the traditional burial posite is true of the younger man (see chapter 4).
66
Bad Oldesloe- norm, i.e. inhumations placed under flat ground or The older man wears a cap, which by Kristiansen
Poggensee, Kr Storman in a barrow. This might indicate that newborn and (1999b) has interpreted as a status symbol. A grave
and Neumünster-Fal-
deraschule, Stadt Neu- small children under the age of one were not seen that is wealthy in bronze objects is Valleberga 6:7,
münster.
as full members of society and were therefore treat- where the man buried is interpreted as between
67
Neumünster-Tun- ed differently in death. This small cemetery might 40-55 years old (Strömberg 1975b:35-42). If there
gendorf, Stadt Neu-
münster.
be the burial place for people who, for some reason, is a relationship between age and wealth it is dif-
68
were not granted the normal treatment in death, ficult to determine due to the lack of skeletal mate-
Börnsen, Kr Her-
zogtum Lauenburg maybe because of the way they died or for the way rial. More detailed studies need to be conducted to
(88 ind.); Panten-Man- they lived. This can be compared with Finlay’s in- reach a more conclusive interpretation. Indications
nhagen, Kr Herzog-
tum Lauenburg (180 terpretation of the historic and pre-historic burial exist, however, that there is a connection between
ind.); Schwarzenbek, places for infants (see above). There is another ex- some artefacts and the right to use them. Except for
Kr Herzogtum Lauen-
burg (60 ind.); Sirksfel- ample of an infant from the Later Bronze Age hav- the above cases, Willroth has shown that the fibula
de, Kr Herzogtum Lau-
enburg (121 ind.); Bad
ing different treatment in death: an almost com- is part of the adult female costume. He argues that
Oldesloe-Poggensee, plete skeleton of an infant was found in a well in fibulae are never found in young girls’ graves, on-
Kr Storman (41 ind.);
Neumünster-Falderas-
Langbjerggård 4, Brøndbyøster, Smørum, Køben- ly in the graves of grown up females from southern
chule, Stadt Neumün- havn, with Later Bronze Age ceramics (Berntsson Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein. The author does
ster (42 ind.); Neumün-
ster-Tungendorf, Stadt
2005:220). If the remains belong to the Later Bronze not discuss age as a part of his analysis of the ob-
Neumünster (63 ind.) Age then this might indicate that there were al- jects in male graves; here he focuses mainly on the
and Bordesholm-Braut-
berg, Kr Rendsburg- ternative ways of disposing of the remains of the weapons (Willroth 1989:98).
Eckernförde (23 ind.) youngest in society. In Schleswig-Holstein during the Late Bronze
(Schmidt 1993:128).
Finlay has pointed out that “the treatment of in- Age there generally seems to have been more fe-
fants in death often mirrors that of other catego- males buried than males. Of the eight cemeter-
ries of individuals who are excluded from the usu- ies investigated by Schmidt only two66 had more
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 115
eteries from the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron the age of 14. This is true for southern Scandinavia,
Age in Lower Saxony are anthropologically deter- as has been shown above, and also holds true for
mined. Two or possibly three69 infants are buried in Lower Saxony (Siemoniet 1996:353). For other Euro-
the cemetery in Heidberg bei Liebenau, Ldkr. Nien- pean regions Ó Donnabháin and Brindley (1990:19)
burg, Lower Saxony, dating to the Late Bronze Age have shown that in the Irish Bronze Age individu-
and Early Iron Age. The total number of buried indi- als were buried in the same manner as adults and
viduals is 22, and of these nine are under ten- years- also received grave goods from the age of 14. They
old and four are under twelve-years-old (Siemoneit state that they were buried “…as individuals in their
1996:353). This means that this cemetery had 72.7% own right”. The authors suggest that this might be a
children buried there. In total of the 51 burials of sign of a change in status from a dependent mem-
children from the Later Bronze Age/Early Iron Age ber of society to an active contributor. In the Ear-
only five are under one year (Siemoneit 1996). ly Bronze Age cemetery at Franzhausen I, Lower
Of eleven children buried in Lower Saxony from Austria, females wore the Frauentracht (the wom-
the Middle Bronze Age, five come from graves en’s costume) from about the age of 14 (Neugebau-
containing adults. Two of them are cremated chil- er-Maresch & Neugebauer 1988:30).
dren buried with a female inhumation (Siemoneit Rega (1997) has studied an Early Bronze Age cem-
1996:357-360), and these seem to be buried in a sim- etery Mokrin, Banat region, in former Yugoslavia. It
ilar way to the youngest girl in the Egtved grave. contained 312 graves and the analysis showed that
The other three are cremated and buried together children under the age of one were totally missing.
with cremated adults. Of the eleven graves, six are According to Rega the age group of one to six had
attributed with the help of grave goods, and all re- a realistic death rate; however, there was a great-
ceived arm- or ankle-rings (Siemoneit 1996:357-360). er number of individuals sexed as ‘female’. This
Therefore it seems possible that the first metal ob- is something Rega connects with favouritism for
ject a child received was an arm-ring, which would girls. She suggests that maybe the boys, who gen-
have been an important landmark in the process of erally have a higher death rate in this age group,
learning the rights and responsibilities of their fu- might have had a higher death rate during infancy,
ture position in society. The treatment of children i.e. up to the age of one, the burials that are missing
in Lower Saxony seems to be comparable to that from the cemetery. There also seems to be a surplus
in south Scandinavia. It is likely that the two socie- of individuals aged 30-40 years old, which she ar-
ties had very similar fundamental social structures gues might be a result of general under-ageing of
and views on children and ageing in general. adults, as between the ages of one to 20 the num-
How does the picture from south-eastern Scania bers for a complete population are realistic.
relate to the world around it? If we look at the ma- Central European research on children’s skele-
terial from Europe we can see, for example, that the tons has shown that at least in some cases we can
cemetery at Franzhausen I, Lower Austria during see deterioration in the general health of the pop-
the Early Bronze Age (2300-1600 BC) contains many ulation. Research done on 110 children’s skeletons
children. 15.7% of the deceased are infants I (0-6) from a cemetery in Jelšovce, Slovakia, shows that
(Neugebauer1994:20, Teschler-Nicola 1988:41). The both deficiency diseases, malnutrition, such as Ra-
average age for a female in the Early Bronze Age chits and lack of vitamin C, and infection diseas-
was 35 years and a few years more for the men (Te- es, such as meningitis, increased between the Nitra
schler-Nicola 1994:169). It is hard to compare this (2200-1900 BC) and the Únĕtice Culture (1900-1700
with a Scandinavian population since there is so BC). In other words, the children’s general health
little material for such a study. decreased. Even the dental care diminished from
It can be shown for different areas in Europe that Nitra to Únĕtice. However, neither of these factors
infants and neonates have been treated differently had a significant impact on child mortality. There
in death. Finlay, for example, shows that it is likely is a weak but positive indication of a higher life ex-
that Megalithic tombs were reused as burial plac- pectancy for the Nitra Culture up to the age of sev-
es for infants in the Early Irish Bronze Age (Finlay en. After that the mortality expectancy of the differ-
2000:217ff). In Lower Austria neonates and infants ent periods is more or less equal (Schultz, Schmidt-
are underrepresented despite the quite high child Schultz and Kreutz 1998). This might be an indica-
69
mortality visible in the material (Teschler-Nicola tion of a change in how children were perceived
Grave nr 17 and 20
are determined to be 1994:169). Therefore we can say that it seems like- during the late early Central European Bronze Age.
aged between 0-1 and ly that very small children are treated differently This tendency might also be seen in the later di-
grave nr 9 between 0-3
years old. from adults throughout a large part of Europe and minishing number of children’s graves from the
70
There are an as-
over an extended period of time. Late Stone Age to Period II in southern Scandina-
sumed deterioration in There seems to be a general rule in Europe that, at via. There is no evidence that the climate deterio-
the climate, partly seen
on tree rings around
least in burial practices, one stopped being viewed rated at this time to explain the difference in chil-
1628 BC (Baillie 1998) as a child and was treated as an adult from about dren’s health. The decline in children’s health hap-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 117
pens before the assumed climatic deterioration of dle Bronze Age in Central and northern Europe
the Middle Bronze Age,70 so the change should re- only a few people received inhumation burials in
flect a cultural change in the perspective on chil- a mound or under flat ground. Small infants and
dren. A similar study of the adults would be need- children up to the age of 5 seem to be missing from
ed to make sure that the change was not one of gen- our burial record. It appears that a few individuals
eral eating habits between the two periods. Some from about the age of five were treated in a simi-
of these malnutrition problems in childhood might lar manner to the adults. From at least the age of 14
be reflected in the health of the adults as well. May- one was seen as a full member of society. This was
be 13C analysis of teeth and bone from individuals true even though it is more common that people
who died as children and those who survived to over the age of 20 were buried with more bronze
an older age can help in elucidating these questions objects. There are weak indications that female sta-
(Eriksson 2003). This might also help us to under- tus might grow over a lifetime, whereas there is a
stand if there were differences in the nutrition be- possibility that older men lost symbols, and possi-
tween the children who died young and those who bly also status, as they aged. There are similarities
live on to adulthood. with the preceding and the following phases, how-
There seems to have been a similar way to view ever neither of these seems to have a burial form
and treat children in Central and northern Europe as exclusive as that of the Middle Bronze Age in-
during the Early and Middle Bronze Age. There al- humations.
so seems to have been a generally accepted concept
of when one became an adult, i.e. stopped being a
dependent child and became a full member of so-
ciety. It is difficult to discuss if perspectives on old
age and the ageing process were similar too, due to
the general lack of studies dealing with old age. For
the Middle Ages Shahar (1995:147) has shown that
for the farming population an individual’s wealth
might remain intact or even grow over the course
of a lifetime, whereas merchants lost property and
their wealth drastically diminished in their fifties.
This was because farmers often kept control of their
farm and livelihood into old age, unlike merchants.
Perhaps the individuals during the Middle Bronze
Age also kept control of the longhouse and the land
and animals that went with it until their deaths,
and in that way insured that their status was main-
tained and/or growing. More detailed studies are
needed on this topic before firm conclusions can be
put forward.
Welinder’s (1998:192) suggestion that children/
youth might earn status through herding, can pos-
sibly be seen in the burial traditions of the Late
Neolithic in Löderup and Ingelstorp. However, it
seems not to be present at all during the Middle
Bronze Age. Perhaps cultivation and control of land
and property were more important than livestock
during the Middle Bronze Age, hence we get this
change. Shahar’s observation that farming popula-
tions keep their property intact into old age might
explain the burial pattern vis-à-vis age that we see
in the case study examples. Receiving a burial in
a coffin either under flat ground or in a mound
may have been connected in some way to control
of land. With the larger changes that occurred be-
tween Middle and Late Bronze Age, both in society
generally and in the burial traditions, more people
and ages are included in the ‘normal’ burial prac-
tice.
To conclude, one can argue that during the Mid-
118 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
7. Valued as exchange?
Exchange, networks and
movement
It has been shown in chapters 3, 4 and 6 that there Rowlands (1980) has discussed kinship and alli-
are indications that people travelled in the Middle ances during the Late European Bronze Age. His
Bronze Age and therefore long distance contacts study is based on early Greek texts, which he us-
can be observed in the burial material. This can be es to interpret Bronze Age society in Greece as one
seen in the so-called ‘foreign men and women’ as where men who had not achieved the absolute top
well as the artefacts that were made in areas oth- level of society married the daughters/sisters of
er than where they were found. This is not to say top level men in order to enhance their own sta-
that the raw material, i.e. copper and tin, most likely tus. Men who were ranked at the highest level ei-
came to south Scandinavia from other areas. There ther married their daughters/sisters to men of the
is new research that indicates that copper may have same status in other areas, or to men in the same
been mined in parts of Scandinavia as well (Pres- area who had lower status than their own. He then
cott 2006). The fact that travelling in Middle Bronze uses this model to interpret alliances and kinship
Age Europe could not have been an easy task has in the Late Central European Bronze Age. If this
been shown in chapter 5, where it was argued that model is the correct interpretation it must mean
a certain degree of risk was always involved. The that the alleged foreign women were the wives of
evidence for female and male travel and long dis- chiefs, and most likely the daughters or sisters of
tance contacts based on the ‘foreign’ artefacts found foreign chiefs. However, a closer study of the mate-
in burials will be discussed below, leading to a dis- rial shows a much more complex picture than the
cussion about the social reasons for this movement. one put forward by Rowlands.
The chapter ends with a wider discussion regarding Jockenhövel (1991) claims that the women in
both male and female journeys and how they might the Middle Bronze Age in modern day Germany
have been conducted. have a mobility pattern where the woman moved
between 50-100 km, even though there are also a
In the chapter a variety of evidence for movement few that moved more than 200 km (see figure 95).
during the Bronze Age will be presented, but it is However, most of the women only moved within
in no way a comprehensive survey of all of the evi- the local regional group. It is possible that the Late
dence available for journeys during the period, nor Bronze Age partly has a different pattern as a few
has any attempt been made to identify all the buri- female Nordic Bronze Age objects have been recov-
als of foreign people in southern Scandinavian and ered in Switzerland. These objects have been inter-
northern Germany during the Middle Bronze Age, preted as possibly having arrived in Switzerland as
as this would be too big a task for this dissertation. a part of bridal equipment (Thrane 1975:225ff).
Are there ways to view these women other than
as individuals who were used passively, as pawns
Women’s travels in male power strategies? Sørensen has pointed out
The Bronze Age is often seen as a society that is that the supposed foreign women carry the com-
based on alliances and gift exchange (for exam- plete costume from their area of origin. According
ple Kristiansen 1998:85-98, Rowlands 1980). Wom- to her this should mean that it is the mature wom-
en have been interpreted as an integral part of this an rather than young woman who moved between
exchange network, regarded as ‘the supreme gift’ the different regions (pers.comm. Marie Louise Stig
(Lévi-Strauss 1969:65). The supposed foreign wom- Sørensen 2007-03-13). Anthropological studies have
en, i.e. a woman buried in one area wearing the cos- shown that in many societies the female gains an
tume from another geographical area, have tradi- increased mobility after reaching the menopause,
tionally been interpreted by many archaeologists for then many limitations due to the menstruation
as women who have passively been moved in or- cycle vanish. The woman’s sexuality can no long-
der to strengthen alliances (for example Kristiansen er result in children and therefore the woman can-
1998:91f). This interpretation is based on the anthro- not disgrace the family. Cases have been recorded
pological work of Mauss (1969) and Lévi-Strauss where women start trading, going on pilgrimag-
(1969), where a woman was seen as the ultimate gift es and travelling to distant family after the meno-
in an alliance network. pause (Brown 1982). There are also anthropological
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 119
71
I have previously
examples of societies that are matriarchal, i.e. the and by the ankle-ring. Remains of s/z-fabric, with written (Bergerbrant
men move into the woman’s home (Sanday 2003). embroidery on the edge, were discovered near the 2005a:166) that the neck
collar was of Mecklen-
neck collar. There are no remains of textile by the burger type based on
Foreign women arm-ring, which suggests that the arm of the blouse Zich’s (1992a&b) pub-
lication of this; howev-
A few of the graves that could be interpreted as a ended before the arm-ring (Ehlers 1998:163ff). Em- er, this turned out to
be incorrect. Closer ex-
foreign woman in southern Scandinavia will be broidery was also found on the blouse of the Sky- amination of the neck
presented and discussed below. dstrup grave (Broholm & Hald 1939:51ff) and on collar in Schleswig re-
vealed that it was an
The visible examples of foreign women or wom- a piece of a blouse from a grave in Melhøj (Bend- ordinary ribbed type,
en with imported objects from Period IB have al- er Jørgensen, Munksgaard & Stærmose Nielsen which is very common
on the Lüneburg Heath.
ready been presented and discussed in chapter 3, 1984:34f). Both examples of embroidery belong to
72
and this evidence will also be brought into the dis- Period III. This makes the textile fragments with In Aner and Kersten
volume 2 (Ke1264A) the
cussion in this chapter. embroidery found in Flintbek the oldest remains of objects are interpret-
ed differently (a wheel-
There are some examples of women who were embroidery on a blouse in the south Scandinavi- headed pin, a belt plate,
buried in southern Scandinavia in Lüneburg cos- an Bronze Age. It is likely that it is the remains of a a disc-headed pin and a
‘diadem’), based on the
tume. There also exist a number of burials that blouse of the same type as the three fully preserved drawings of the objects.
have, for example, a Lüneburg wheel-headed pin examples (see chapter 4). Along with the remains However, Lomborg’s
interpretation of the
in combination with Nordic Bronze Age artefacts. of the above-mentioned s/z-fabric were pieces of s/ artefacts seems more
The ones with a full array of foreign equipment will s-fabric which were found under the wheel-head- probable.
be discussed first, before bringing the mixed exam- ed pin’s head, the finger bones and the ankle-ring.
ples into the discussion. A piece of s/z-fabric was also found by the finger
One of the graves in Flintbek (mound LA 1, Grave bones. The s/s-fabric was found above the finger
A), Kr Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-Holstein bones and the s/z-cloth under the finger bones. Eh-
(Ke9593A) demands closer consideration. The buri- lers’ interpretation of the s/s-fabric is that the two at
al is the central grave in a mound that also contains the top were part of a blanket or a cape, and the part
three other interments. The mound is one in a tu- at the feet derive from either a piece of a skirt, foot-
mulus necropolis with 80 barrows containing bur- wear or a blanket. All of the s/z-fabric was probably
ials from the Stone and Bronze Ages. The mounds remains of a blouse. Close to the remains of a pyrite
were excavated between 1977-1991, and the burial a piece of sprang and cord was found, which either
in question was found during the last year of exca- belonged to some kind of bag or a second piece of
vation (Zich 1992a&b). The grave contains a young headwear. Ehlers interpreted this as resembling the
person who has been determined to be between headpieces found in Skrydstrup and Borum Eshøj
the ages of 15-16 years old by the help of analysis (Ehlers 1998:162ff).
of the 28 remaining teeth. The grave also contained Another possible Lüneburg woman buried in
skeletal remains of the skull and other parts of the southern Scandinavia, one who has moved fur-
skeleton, such as finger bones. The skull and teeth ther than the one in Flintbek, is the burial found
were coloured green, so it is plausible that the head in Smidstrup Hovgård, Skibinge, Bårse, Præstø
gear could have had some bronze ornamentation, (Ke1264A). The grave contained: a double-sided
possibly a ‘diadem’ (German: Stirnblech), although profiled wheel-headed pin, a small buckle orna-
this cannot be confirmed. In the area of the skull mented tutulus, a buckle ornamented bronze disc,
two Lockenringen, possibly a part of the head gear, and a ‘diadem’ (see figure 96).72 The tutulus and the
were found. A neck collar was placed at the neck71, disc have been interpreted by Lomborg (1969:129ff)
on the chest was a Lüneburg wheel-headed pin, on as pure Lüneburg objects. Lomborg compares the
each forearm was a spiral arm-ring and there were burial with the female buried with a costume rich
finger-rings on two of the right hand fingers. An with bronze decoration in grave II, mound 1, Schat-
ankle-ring had also been worn on one of the legs. stallberg, Wardböhmen, Celle, Lower Saxony (see
The body had been placed in the supine position appendix 5). According to Lomborg the remains in
with arms crossed on the chest (Zich 1992a:185ff). Smidstrup Hovgård belong to a woman who orig-
Some of these artefacts are characteristic for the inated in the Lüneburg culture. Lomborg also ar-
Lüneburg culture. This particular combination of gues that wheel-headed pins of the type found at
artefacts is typical for the Ilmenau-group, Behrin- Smidstrup Hovgård are also found in the Lüneburg
gen-Bonstorf period of the Lüneburg culture (Zich culture. This, however, is a truth requiring modifi-
1992a:186). What makes it extraordinary and inter- cation. According to Laux (1976:24f) there are only
esting vis-à-vis the question of the so-called for- two double-sided profiled wheel-headed pins with
eign women is that the grave also contained some this spoke scheme (F) on the Lüneburg Heath. Ac-
textile remains. These remains have been analysed cording to Laux this pin type has its main distribu-
by Ehlers (1998:162ff). Textile remains were found tion in southern Germany and Böhmen. It seems
and conserved from the area of the neck collar, the too simplistic to interpret the Smidstrup Hovgård
wheel-headed pin, near the right hand finger bones find as a woman who originated in Lower Saxony.
120 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Figure 96: Ar- Skanderborg (sb 60) a Lüneburg wheel-headed pin, be discussed below.
tefacts from a Lockenring, a dagger, a possible finger-ring and a Grave B in mound 1 in Itzehoe, Steinburg, Sch-
grave A sb nr 50, ceramic vessel were found (Jensen, K.B. 1986). A leswig-Holstein (Ke9407B) contains a wheel-head-
Smidstrup hov-
gård, Skibinge burial with typical Lüneburg characteristics with ed pin of Lüneburg type. In Löderup 15, Scania, in
parish, Ke1264A an added dagger was found in Albertsdorf, Dith- a small construction (36C) between grave 36A and
(from Aner & marschen grave B mound 29 (Ke9005). The burial 36B, some human bones were found together with
Kersten 1976: contained: a possible ‘diadem’, a ribbed neck collar, a drilled dog tooth, and above this two bronze pins
Tafel 110). a wheel-headed pin, a dagger, three glass beads, had been placed. The pins were a Lüneburg disc-
and a tutulus. The burial in Hademarschen, Han- headed pin and a small undecorated disc-head-
erau-Hademarschen, Rendesburg-Eckernförde, ed pin (Strömberg 1975a:44ff). The Lüneburg disc-
Schleswig-Holstein (Ke9641) contains: a Lüneb- headed pin belongs to Period II, while the other
urg wheel-headed pin, a dagger, and a belt plate/ pin type is more commonly dated to European late
bronze disc. The women appear to have originat- phases of the Early Bronze Age (Kubach 1977:52ff).
ed in the Lüneburg culture, and added a dagger to The Löderup cemetery is discussed in more detail
their outfits only after coming to southern Scandi- in chapter 6, where it is interpreted as a cemetery
navia. There seems to have been a much wider ge- for the people situated below the uppermost stra-
ographical spread of women wearing a Lüneburg ta in the society.
costume and a dagger than that suggested by Will- A wheel-headed pin and a spiral arm-ring were
roth. My overview indicates that this class of buri- found in Hochdonn, Dithmarschen, Schleswig-
al is limited to the old Sögel-Wohlde area, but this Holstein (Ke9156). The drawings do not allow one
is only a tentative conclusion since a comprehen- to determine whether the pin has a double-sided or
sive survey for this type of burials has not yet been single-sided profile, although it appears to be dou-
conducted. ble-sided. It should therefore be viewed as coming
Graves where the deceased person’s area of ori- from further south than the Lüneburg culture. The
gin is more difficult to decide are those with only a wheel-headed pin is of the Mülheim-Dietesheim
few objects where some are of a general type, such type, which belongs to the Bessunger Wald phase,
as spiral arm-rings, finger-rings, etc. These more i.e. Br C, late Period PII, and has its main distribu-
‘ordinary’ graves are seldom discussed in the liter- tion in eastern Hessen and north-eastern Stark-
ature, perhaps because they are harder to place as a enburg (Kubach 1977:236ff). According to Lom-
chief’s sister/daughter that has been married to an- borg (1969:138) there are at least three double-sid-
other chief. There are probably many examples of ed profiled wheel-headed pins in Denmark (in Hol-
these types of graves, but only a few examples will bæk district, Præstø district [the above mentioned
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 123
The combination of a spearhead of Valsømagle strated in chapter 4, it was common in parts of Sch- Figure 98: Arte-
type, a dagger/sword and a belt hook can be found leswig-Holstein that the men in Period II were bur- facts from grave
in Lysemosegård, Bovense, Vindinge, Svendborg ied with more than one weapon, and some of them IV A in sb nr
134, Store Lofts-
(Ke2141B); and Buddinge, Gladsakse, Sokkelund, had two swords. Therefore it is likely that this is the gård, Pedersk-
København (Ke381). Bergmann and Laux disagree burial of a man who originated in Schleswig-Hol- er parish, Ke1477
on the origin of the axe; Bergmann argued that it stein. What is really interesting is that two foreign IVA (from Aner
is of Nordic type and Laux that it is an Osthanno- men from two succeeding periods are buried in the & Kersten 1977:
ver type. In my view the deceased was a man who same mound, a mound that covered a megalithic Tafel 13).
originated in the Danish Isles, but was buried for tomb (Laux 2000:42f). In the Stade region there is
some unknown reason in Lower Saxony. another grave that contained a sword and a Nordic
An especially interesting place for this discus- fibula (Ohrensen) (Laux 1971: catalogue nr 401).
sion is a mound in Schwinge, Stade, Lower Saxony. As shown in chapter 4, it was a man from the
The mound is within the Lüneburg culture area, Lüneburg Heath who was buried in Dannewerk,
but close to the Nordic Bronze Age burials in north- Schleswig-Holstein (Ke2338A). This appears to be
western Lower Saxony (Laux 1971:1f). Randsborg the only Lüneburg man in southern Scandinavia.
(1993:78) argues that a grave in Anderling, Bremer- Other scholars, for example Aner and Kersten,
wörde, north-eastern Lower Saxony is the absolute have interpreted this grave as a female burial, so
south-eastern border of the Nordic Bronze Age (Pe- there might be more men wearing the full costume
riod II). The Schwinge recovery is a mixed find, but of the Lüneburg culture in southern Scandinavia
it is still very interesting for our discussion. With- who have been overlooked because they were in-
in the mound two sword blades, two axes (one of terpreted as female burials. The erroneous determi-
a British and one of a Nordic type), a Nordic fibu- nation of the burial is probably due to the lack of
la and spiral ornamented button were found (Laux ‘weaponry’ (as daggers are a unisex artefact cate-
catalogue 409). Here it seems we have the materi- gory) and the presence of many arm-rings. This is a
al from two male graves; one from the British Isles combination that is common in male burials in the
and one from the Nordic area. Laux (2000:42f) dates Lüneburg Heath, but uncommon in Scandinavia.
the British axe type to the Sögel-Wohlde period, and During Period IB we can see a fairly wide move-
appears to regard this find as the only artefact from ment of males in the region, both Sögel-Wohlde
a probable burial. It seems possible that the two males who moved outside their region of origin (as
swords, the Nordic axe, the fibula and the button seen in the cases from Holland), and the acceptance
came from one possible Period II grave. As demon- of newcomers into the Sögel-Wohlde region from
126 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
males from other areas. During the following peri- seen during Period IB, and then again during the
od, however, this steady movement of males seems Late Bronze Age, not only in the so-called “Princess
to have decreased. from Drouwen”, but also in the two burials contain-
ing Nordic razors (Butler, J.J. 1986:154).
Men with both local and foreign
artefacts A society in movement?
Foreign artefacts in male graves are generally in- Oestigaard and Goldhahn (2006) argue that at fu-
terpreted as evidence of an important chief with a nerals of important individuals from many places
wide network of contacts (Kristiansen & Larsson came together and exchanged goods. Therefore for-
2005:231f, Randsborg 1993:132ff, Thrane 1984b:146). eign objects might not indicate that the same per-
In the Lüneburg culture there are graves with son had travelled all the distance, as they might just
foreign objects. The Böhmische Scheibenkopfnadeln have travelled one part of the journey. They argue
(Bohemian disc-headed pins) are found in male that funerals were times where people reconfirmed
graves dated to Laux’s male phase II; the pin type and made new alliances. This is definitely one pos-
was then copied locally during the following phase sibility; however, it also leads to many more ques-
(Laux 1971:55f). One example of an imported pin is tions. How was the deceased body kept in order to
the one found in grave II, mound 4, in Wittenberg, wait for the guests to arrive, and how did the in-
Bleckmar, Celle (Laux 1971: catalogue nr 21B). One formation travel. Even if people only travelled from
pin of this type was also found with a flint strike- southern Germany to the Lüneburg Heath to meet
a-light in a grave in mound II in Fuglie, Steglarp, people who travelled from southern Scandinavia
Scania (O169). we are still talking about information and people
In male graves in Scandinavia there are many ob- travelling a fair distance. In order to confirm and
jects that travelled long distances, such as the Peri- keep the alliances made at the funeral the contacts
od II vessel found in grave A in Gyldensgård, Øster- had to be maintained, and that probably involved
Marie parish, Bornholms Øster district, Bornholm further contact and travels. Also, did one not need
County (Ke1548A), and Nadel mit Trompetenkopf und to travel to an ally’s funeral when that person died?
geripptem Hals that, for example, can be seen in the There are many ways artefacts can change hands
burial at Hjerpsted parish, Højer district, Tønder and areas. One thing is clear, however: they can
County (Ke2916), as well as a large number of im- never travel on their own. All movement of objects
ported swords. It has been shown that swords that involved movement of people. I argue that objects
come from the same workshop have been deposit- used on the costume can be related somehow to the
ed in both southern Germany and Denmark (Kris- person wearing the artefact. As shown here and in
tiansen & Larsson 2005:232ff). earlier chapters there was a fairly significant move-
Due to the fact that many imported swords and ment of both people and objects during the Mid-
other foreign objects are found in male graves in dle Bronze Age. Indeed, it is possible that this com-
southern Scandinavia one can conclude that there munication has been more complex than previous-
may have been quite a lot of contact between at ly thought. For example, there is clear evidence that
least certain groups of south Scandinavian men sewn plank boats crossed the waters in northern
and their counterparts on the Continent. Europe. The boat discovered at Dover is an exam-
ple of this. The boat is dated to the Middle Bronze
Conclusion Age (c.1550 BC) and it is believed to have required a
One can conclude that a lot of male-related arte- crew of five to twenty to carry a load of 1-3 tonnes.
facts were moving between different regions, not It has been interpreted as a seagoing vessel capa-
only from the south going northwards, but also ble of taking its crew a long distance and able to
artefacts that moved the other way. Some of these handle relatively rough waters, and the wear on the
contact networks seem to have had long traditions. bottom of the hull indicates that the boat had been
All of the amber beads from the Early Bronze Age well used (Clark 2005). It has been claimed that the
that have been found in Hungary and Slovakia are boat is “the product of a long shipbuilding tradi-
made from Baltic amber (Bátora 1995:190ff). Dur- tion, implying expert and specialized knowledge
ing Period IB objects such as the Apa-Hajdúsámson of the tradition” (Clark 2005:91). A recent interpre-
sword came the other way. It has been claimed that tation of the Bronze Age plank boats found in the
moulds of Late Nordic Bronze Age objects, such as British Isles are that they were used for long-dis-
fibulae and buttons, are found in south-eastern Eu- tance exchange (van de Noort 2006:283).
rope (Wanzek 1997), and many of the bronze shields Thrane (1975:183ff) claims for the Late Nordic
found in Scandinavia are regarded as having been Bronze Age that the male costume, seen through
made in the Carpathian Basin (Thrane 1975:71-84). the artefacts, shows more foreign influences than
Or, as shown in the Drouwen example, contact be- the female. He argues that this is due to the fact
tween southern Scandinavia and the area can be that it is the men who travelled to Europe in order
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 127
technological developments in textiles (Berger- to clarify our understanding of the kinship and
brant manuscript) to the use of similar objects. This marriage patterns during the Middle Bronze Age.
influence is selective, and not all traits from the ar- It seems clear, however, that the very long distance
eas are taken up, and different influences from oth- marriages that can be seen in the Late Neolithic
er European areas can also be observed in the cos- and Period IB, for example the Søsum, Stenløse, Øl-
tume. Some European influences were also adopt- stykke, Frederiksborg burial (Forssander 1936:103)
ed in both areas, but were treated differently with- and the probable burial in Fallingbostel, were not
in each society (Bergerbrant 2005b). There seem to undertaken during Period II. Instead, shorter dis-
have been more contacts between the two regions tance ‘foreign’ marriage patterns appear to have
on the female side than on the male side. On the been preferred, generally consisting of Lüneburg
Lüneburg Heath it generally seems like the women women moving to southern Scandinavia. This pat-
were more influenced by different geographical re- tern correlates well with Jockenhövel’s (1991) con-
gions than the men. This might be the result of the clusion about marriage patterns during the Middle
seemingly active movement of Lüneburg women Bronze Age in Germany. The earlier marriage pat-
to other areas. This probably resulted in good net- tern among high ranking women may have been
works between the women in these areas, as the taken up again during the Late Bronze Age, as indi-
daughters of foreign women could probably keep cated by the Nordic artefacts found in Switzerland
up their relationships with the Lüneburg Heath. (Thrane 1975: 225ff).
As shown above the foreign woman buried in The existence of male prehistoric networks has
Fallingbostel influenced the community in which long been studied within archaeology; a modern
she was buried. This can clearly be seen in that so example of this is Apel’s (2001) study of flint dag-
many parts of her costume continued to be used gers. In his thesis he argues for different networks/
by the following generations. No foreign male bur- patterns of distribution for the Late Neolithic flint
ial seems to have had the same visual impact on dagger within Scandinavia. However, he also sug-
the new area. The man buried in Drouwen, despite gests the possibility of two different interaction
being among the wealthiest Sögel-Wohlde burials, spheres within the Late Neolithic: one male, with
did not leave a lasting mark on the following gen- flint daggers as an important part of a male elite
erations of men in the Drenthe region. exchange, and the other possibly relating to fe-
Only a limited portion of the local costume was males, where other goods were bartered. I have ar-
found in the new region. For example, the winged gued elsewhere (Bergerbrant manuscript) that tex-
bonnet is not found in any of the graves that con- tiles could be part of this female exchange network.
tain Lüneburg women in southern Scandinavia. By Sometimes an idea is exchanged with an object and
studying the differences between the costume of sometimes the idea is transformed in that process.
the individuals buried in another area and the ones In the case of the bronze tubes, we can see that they
buried in the local area we might be able to identify were used differently in different areas of Europe
and discuss artefacts or clothing that had a unique (Bergerbrant 2005b), but the general idea was main-
meaning to the culture in question. Perhaps in this tained that it should be incorporated in the female
way we can find signs and traces of social hierarchy dress as a sound-creating object. Therefore we can
and/or ritual roles in the local society versus gener- see that these contacts lead to new influences, but
al Middle Bronze Age structures. not always the direct acceptance of an idea, which
My study has focused on the movement of peo- was often re-modified to suit the local society. Not
ple and objects between different cultural groups. all new ideas/objects were adopted by the society,
Detailed artefact studies of well excavated graves just special ideas/objects that suited the local socie-
with plans of the grave are needed to study move- ty. As shown in other parts of the dissertation there
ment on a smaller geographical scale. Movement are many traits and structures that are common
also occurred between people who belonged to the within the European Middle Bronze Age society,
same cultural group on a higher level, such as the but no two societies are exactly the same.
south Scandinavian or the Lüneburg culture, but Some modern research has emphasised the im-
who used the artefacts slightly differently. Laux has portance of travel in order for male Middle Bronze
conducted many detailed studies of the Lüneburg Age individuals to gain status. The actual journey
Heath and in some cases demonstrated a more lo- and the knowledge of far away places were impor-
cal movement pattern in the female burials (Laux tant for obtaining high status in the local society
1989). In southern Scandinavia we have one clear (Kristiansen 2002, Kristiansen & Larsson 2005:371).
example of movement within the larger group as That there is much evidence of prehistoric travels
seen in the female burial in Skrydstrup, Gram, in the Middle Bronze Age is clear. However, to as-
Haderslev (Ke 3516D, see chapter 4 for details), the sume that only men travelled and a gained status
remains of a woman who probably originated on from this knowledge is a misconception. In the
Funen. More detailed studies of this type can help light of all the evidence of the alleged foreign wom-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 129
en of the European Bronze Age, we must conclude son’s (2005:39f) travelling chief is also difficult to
that women travelled as well. Who would have understand, as no one can leave their domain and
more knowledge about a foreign place than some- travel for many years, and then come back and ex-
one who grew up there? It is therefore likely that pect the power base to remain intact - surely some-
both men and women had the possibility of gain- one else would have taken over in the interim. To
ing prestige from knowledge about foreign places. me it seems more reasonable to argue that it was
One of the most visible examples from the Bronze the young generation who went on longer educa-
Age of a person who clearly affected subsequent tional journeys to gain experience of the world and
generations comes from the foreign woman in Fall- perhaps ritual knowledge, and to strengthen and/
ingbostel. or reconfirm old alliances. After their return they
It is possible that educational travels among the would be ready to take over the higher social posi-
youth of the higher levels of society were fairly tions. It also seems reasonable to believe that not all
common, but they were unlikely to have travelled who left on a long journey would return.
alone. It would have taken a lot of knowledge and
skill to be able to travel safely between the differ-
ent areas of Europe. In historic times young men
on their ‘Grand Tours’ travelled with servants if
the family could afford it (Ohler1995:223f). It seems
likely that the young Bronze Age individual trav-
elled with a group of people, too, including war-
riors and other experienced travellers. During the
Middle Ages on the Continent there were well or-
ganised routes, with roads and places to stop and
eat and sleep along the way (Andersson, L. 1989:13),
but this was not so during the Bronze Age, when
roads, sign posts and inns are unlikely to have exist-
ed. To travel to distant places would therefore have
required great skill and knowledge, something a
first time traveller would not have possessed.
Berntsson argues for small scale travel in small
boats accommodating one or two people, and he
argues that there was a need to limit the people
who travelled so that not too many people would
have gained from the prestige of travelling (Bern-
tsson 2005:198f). The smaller boats that Berntsson
finds evidence for in his material might have been
the boats that were used for local journeys. The Do-
ver boat and the other plank boats from the Brit-
ish Isles indicate that there were also larger boats
for more people and longer journeys in northern
Europe. Presumably the travellers needed to bring
a fair amount of food and other staples in order
to make a longer trip, and therefore a larger boat
would have been necessary. As the Middle Bronze
Age was a stratified society it does not need to be
a problem that many people travelled in a group,
as some might travel in the function of servants/
slaves, and any status gained would have been
among others of the same kind; some might travel
as warriors and others as potential future leaders.
The important knowledge required to gain pres-
tige and status might not have been available for
all the participants in the journey at the destina-
tion. To me it seems impossible that one or two men
without any previous travel experience could safe-
ly find their way down to e.g. the Carpathian Basin
and back. It seems that more than one person was
needed for a task like that. Kristiansen and Lars-
130 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
8. Conclusion
This dissertation has discussed male and female so- differ from that of south Scandinavia based on the
cial identities in the Middle Bronze Age in north- lack of swords and grooming equipment. The fe-
ern Europe based on the rich burial material avail- male costume from the Lüneburg region connects
able for this period (1600-1300 BC). It builds upon both to the south Scandinavian female costume
the seminal work of Aner & Kersten (1974 onwards), (e.g. in the neck collar), and to the central European
Bergmann (1971), Håkansson (1985), Laux (1971), female costume (e.g. in the use of pins). The male
Oldeberg (1974), and Vandkilde (1996), augmented ideal seems to partly connect to the central Europe-
by archival and museum materials, to elucidate the an standard as seen in the use of pins, but the lack
main questions and aims of this investigation. Nu- of swords and grooming equipment suggests that
merous case studies have been presented and the it differed from both the south Scandinavian and
subject has been examined from a variety of angles, central European ideals.
ranging from costume and appearance to gender- As shown in chapter five there is a discrepancy
and age-related issues, and from the evidence for between the ‘gentlemanly’ fighting culture shown
conflict and violence to long distance contacts and in the burial record and the indications of brutal-
travel. Some of the main conclusions of this research ity and violence in the skeletal material. The ideal
are outlined below, where new questions and areas reflected in the graves and rock art seems to show
for future research are also highlighted. men fighting as equals, but this is met with a re-
The burial material from Period IB revealed that ality that appears to be characterised by a martial
the area of investigation was divided into two dif- culture where ambushing and raiding were the
ferent burial traditions. One tradition displays signs norm. Men, women and children were all victims
of institutionalised hierarchal structures with long of this kind of violence, although the level of con-
lived centres of power (Sögel-Wohlde), while the flict appears not to have been constant. The female
other (Valsømagle) may be characterised by a more response to violence seems to have varied from
experimental, non-fixed approach to burial behav- region to region in Europe. There remains much
iour. The two ideals seem to be in conflict. In order scope for future work both on the traces of violent
to fully understand this period and the difference acts on female skeletons and relating it to, for exam-
between these cultures - and why a large part of the ple, different movement patterns as seen through
two cultures merged into what became the south female costumes.
Scandinavian Bronze Age while a smaller part of This Ph.D. dissertation has demonstrated that
the Sögel-Wohlde area became the Lüneburg cul- views on age changed over the period from the
ture - one needs to examine the Fårdrup style as- Late Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age. For the Mid-
semblages found in the hoards in both the Valsø- dle Bronze Age it has been shown that children un-
magle and Sögel-Wohlde areas. While such an in- der the age of six did not receive inhumation buri-
vestigation has not been possible within the con- als, and that from about the age of 14 the adult bur-
fines of the present research project, it may prove ial form was adopted. The focus generally seems
fruitful to expand the study in this way in future to have been on people in the prime of life. There
work. are also indications that women maintained or im-
In chapter four it was shown that the presence proved their status in old age, whereas men did
of women in the burial material varied from area not. However, there is a dearth of studies about the
to area and over time. Regarding males in south- treatment of the elderly in the Bronze Age. Stud-
ern Scandinavia, it was observed that during Pe- ies about elderly people in regions with better pre-
riod II swords and other weapons were positioned served skeletal material are essential to a better un-
differently in the graves between the ‘Danish’ re- derstanding of these structures.
gions and the Schleswig area. This changed over In chapter seven it was shown that the exoga-
time, however, and swords were treated in the mous marriage pattern seems to have extended
same manner in all south Scandinavian regions much farther during Period IB than during Period
during Period III. The most noticeable differences II. In the first period there is evidence for long dis-
were observed between southern Scandinavia and tance marriages of distances up to 800 km, while
the Lüneburg area. In the Lüneburg area there is a in the second period there is only evidence for ‘for-
much greater visibility of female burials than in the eign’ marriage within a shorter range. Marriages
south Scandinavian material, and it is also the fe- between different culture groups seem only to oc-
males who have the most bronze objects associated cur between neighbouring cultures. A fuller under-
with their attire. The male ideal here also seems to standing of the level of contact between the differ-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 131
Summary
Chapter 1 Social identity and social from the Middle Bronze Age in southern Scandina-
structure – a gender approach via. To date, around 30 barrows with preserved oak
The aim of this dissertation is to discuss gender and coffins have been excavated. The 24 coffins dated
issues relating to social identity in the Middle Nor- by dendrochronology occupy a short time frame of
dic Bronze Age in southern Scandinavia and north- within 50 years of each other; when the rest of the
ern Germany between c. 1600- c. 1300 BC. dated coffins are added they all fall within a range
Gender is seen as a social construction that is of approximately 150 years (from the 14th and be-
based on biological sex. While the possibility of a ginning of the 13th centuries). The state of preserva-
‘different’ gender in addition to male and female tion is due to special conditions where the core of
is not ruled out, it is not discussed here due to the the mound was encapsulated by an iron core that
lack of evidence resulting from the dearth of skel- created very wet or water-logged soil with anaero-
etal material. The focus is instead placed on varia- bic conditions. The latest results in the study of iron
tions of male and female as one might have differ- core creation in Middle Bronze Age mounds indi-
ent gender roles at different stages of life. cate that the redox process was responsible for the
There has been a long debate about which par- creation of a sealed wet environment. This special
ticular artefacts one can relate to male and female. way of building mounds appears to have been lim-
In this dissertation the artefact categories are as fol- ited to an area on southern and middle Jutland.
lows: Chapter 1 ends with a theoretical discussion
about if and how one can see elites in prehistory
Southern Scandinavia and what a grave can tell us. This Ph.D. rests on the
Male: swords, axes, socketed axes, belt hooks, razors, assumption that a grave reveals something about
tweezers, flint strike-a-lights, and slate pendants. the deceased individual’s life. I also argue that with
Female: belt plates, neck rings, neck collars and ‘gendered glasses’ it is possible to use the ‘old’ theo-
bronze tubes. ries and hypotheses in gender studies. In studying
Unisex: daggers, awls, arm- and finger rings, pins, contact and relations between different groups it is
fibulae and double buttons. helpful to think in terms of a ‘peer polity interac-
tion’ model; however, if the evidence suggests that
Lower Saxony interaction has not occurred on more or less equal
Male: axes, daggers, flint arrow heads, spearheads, terms, then ‘centre-periphery’ is a useful explanato-
and certain pin types. ry model. It is, however, important to examine the
Female: wheel-headed pins, bronze tubes, neck goods and ideas that travel in both directions, and
collars, neck rings, round bronze discs, certain not just focus on one prestige item e.g. the bronze.
arm-rings such as ribbed arm-rings, bronze studs, In this thesis both rank and social categories are ex-
and ‘diadems’ etc. amined. The main focus will be on the upper eche-
Unisex: Lockenring, different types of arm-rings lon of society, as it is the remains of these individu-
and some fibulae. als that form the basis for this dissertation.
For the sake of clarity and consistency the term Mid- Chapter 2 Chronology and time
dle Bronze Age is used throughout the text for the This chapter discusses the chronology of the Middle
period between c. 1600 - c. 1300 BC. Bronze Age. First the early Scandinavian chronolo-
The two main areas of study are south Scandi- gy is discussed and, in accordance with Vandkil-
navia and the Lüneburg culture. The former re- de, the conclusion is reached that the different bur-
lates to the area encompassing southernmost Swe- ial traditions of Sögel-Wohlde and Valsømagle are
den, Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein. The latter is more or less contemporary. The artefacts in Fårdrup
the area north and east of the river Elbe and reach- style also belong to this phase (Period IB). The Lo-
es into north-western Lower Saxony (Stader Geest) chhalnadel are found with all three different assem-
down to the Hannover area. blages, as are other foreign artefacts of European
The main sources of data for this work have been type Br B2. In order to include the material from the
drawn from the different published catalogues of Lüneburg Heath and make meaningful compar-
Middle Bronze Age material from the relevant ar- isons, Laux’s chronology is compared and related
eas (Aner & Kersten, Bergmann, Laux, Oldeberg, to both the south Scandinavian and central Euro-
Piesker and Vandkilde). pean chronology. The main results are summarised
Due to the extraordinary preservation of a series in figure 21.
of burials from oak log coffins we have full outfits
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 133
Chapter 3 Period IB: A time of social sets of objects, even though there is slight region-
differences and the construction of al variability, indicates institutionalised hierarchi-
gendered identities cal structures/principles.
This chapter discusses Period IB with a focus on its The Sögel-Wohlde culture seems to have had a
two different burial traditions. It starts with a short more expansive cultural ideology than the Valsø-
presentation of both the background on the period magle region. This can, for example, be seen in the
and its gender research history. The presence/ab- graves from Schneiderwald and Thierschneck (Ku-
sence of female burials is then discussed. The con- bach 1973), where simpler or more complex Sögel-
clusion is that only two secure Period IB female bur- Wohlde burials have taken place far from their ar-
ials exist, both with foreign artefacts, and these are ea of origin. This can be seen in the light of Jock-
determined as female based on the gender associ- enhövel’s study of foreign women in Central Eu-
ation of the artefacts in their area of origin. There rope, where it is shown that the average movement
is also another probable female burial as well as a of women was between 50-200 km, with only a few
few possible female graves. The analysis of the two moving beyond 200 km from their place of origin
burial traditions is based on 247 graves from a large (Jockenhövel 1991:60). The present study indicates
part of northern Europe that can be dated to Period contacts between different areas of over 270 km
IB (appendix 1). in this period. The formalised system that might
In the Valsømagle region of the burial tradition, go back further in time in the Sögel-Wohlde area
i.e. Blekinge, Scania (Sweden) the Danish Isles and might have hindered or delayed the acceptance of
Northern Jutland, there are 69 graves containing the new ways of showing status and identity that
metal objects dating to Period IB. were created in Europe. It is possible that it is a
The most common object that accompanied the merge between these two cultures - the non-fixed,
deceased into the grave is the dagger/sword, fol- adventurous Valsømagle area with the organised,
lowed by axes and spearheads. One can say that regulated and institutionalised Sögel-Wohlde cul-
most of the men adhered to a warrior ethos. How- ture - that led to what became the so-called Nordic
ever, another male ideal is also evident, one where Bronze Age Culture. The institutions of the Sögel-
no weapons were deposited in the burial, only Wohlde region were slowly accepted in the Valsø-
clothing-related and body changing artefacts, such magle region, and the subsequent experimentation
as belt hooks and tweezers. The distribution of the with form and shape in the Valsømagle area led to
burials is over a wide area. Only four parishes have the new style of bronze objects that are so charac-
more than one Period IB burial with metal objects, teristic for southern Scandinavia.
and one of these is on the boundary between the
two different burial traditions. Only in Bovense Chapter 4 Gendered burial traditions:
parish on Funen do we find two burials with three an analysis of local and regional
or more metal objects in the burials. This is the only patterns
area where we can see that wealth in metal objects This chapter opens with a discussion about gender,
may possibly have been maintained over two gen- biological sex and the body, followed by a brief his-
erations. The new warrior ideal was created based tory of textile. This is then followed by a discussion
on individual actions rather than kinship and tra- about the clothing and costumes of the individuals
dition, and this might explain the ‘lack’ of female buried in the oak log coffins.
burials with metal objects. This group of people al- The male clothing seems to have some shared
so seems to have been open to different European traits. They all wore a cloak of some kind, oval or
influences as seen in the lack of uniformity in sets kidney-shaped, and there were remains of cloth or
and combinations of burial gifts. leather in the area of the feet, which indicates that
172 graves are analysed from the Sögel-Wohlde they were all wearing shoes of some kind. The cap
region. Here we find combinations of sets, e.g. a seems to be a common feature for male attire, with
dagger/sword combined with an axe, which is the only Borum Eshøj grave B lacking a cap. The main
most common combination. There are regional dif- difference between the men is that two are wearing
ferences within the group, which can be seen e.g. in wrap-arounds (Muldbjerg and Trindhøj) and two
the different types of axes or the use of the bow and are dressed in kilts (the two Borum Eshøj burials).
arrow. The graves with the highest number of met- This gives us three different outfits. The clothing
al artefacts are the two foreign females (Fallingbos- of the Muldbjerg and Trindhøj individuals is very
tel with 107 bronze objects and Fahrenkrug with similar, i.e. a cap, a wrap-around, a cloak and shoes.
its seven metal objects). The region seems to have a Grave A from Borum Eshøj is also similar, but dif-
number of long lived centres, and in some smaller fers somewhat by the fact that a kilt was worn in-
regions there are two to four Period IB burials with stead of a wrap-around. The deceased in grave B
metal objects. This indicates some kind of structur- from Borum Eshøj differs the most in that he did
al stability. One could argue that the presence of not wear a cap.
134 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
There are two distinct outfits for the females. The A woman walking around wearing a big neck col-
first is characterised by long hair worn in an elabo- lar, a belt plate, four small tutuli, a dagger and c.
rate hairstyle covered by a hair-net. On the torso a 125 bronze tubes (the Ølby grave outfit) probably
blouse was worn, and this seems to be the typical did not invite close physical contact. Her appear-
blouse for the Middle Nordic Bronze Age. On the ance would be very noticeable; one has the warm,
lower part of the body there was a skirt fastened softness of wool clothing contrasted with the shin-
by a belt on the hips. This produced a dress with ing cold metal. When it comes to the physical sensa-
some cloth hanging over the belt and hiding it. It tion of touch for the outfit/person, the women dif-
would also have had a train of cloth, and some kind fer individually much more than the men did. This
of leather shoes or sandals were worn. The second would have been dependent on the associated ar-
type of outfit comprised a blouse on the torso and a tefacts, whereas the men, except for their swords,
corded skirt worn from the hips, and in contrast to only had discrete dress fittings. The jewellery as-
the first type of outfit, this costume seems to have sociated with the women is much more noticea-
been accompanied by short hair. ble, and the individual woman’s wealth and gen-
There is nothing in either the clothing or the arte- der status would have had a direct impact on the
facts that would hinder movements for the males. physical sensation of touch one would have experi-
The only thing that might somewhat encumber a enced when she was in full costume. There is only
moving individual is the heavy cloak of the Trind- one individual in this qualitative study who would
høj man. The only visual body modification that have made a distinct sound when she was moving,
can be traced is that the men seem to have had long i.e. the female buried in Ølby, but there are oth-
hair and shaved cheeks. The importance placed on er graves with the same phenomenon. The other
combs and razors could indicate a concern with women would not differ much from the sound the
cleanliness and therefore odour. The only effect of men made when they were moving.
touch, except for the wooden sheath of the sword, Appearances are then studied in four different
is the wool in the clothing, and wool is a warm soft case studies: the Copenhagen area, Hasselager par-
material. The rest of the bronze, wooden or bone ob- ish, Schleswig area, and Wardböhmen and Bleck-
jects are too small to make any significant impact in mar.
terms of hampering movement. The costume of the We can see clear differences in both male and
men should not have made any particular sounds, female burial appearance within the regions. The
except for the possible sound the cape might have visibility of the two biological sexes seen through
created when the man moved around. the bronze material varies between the regions. In
The women have a wider variety of accessories Scandinavia, when women are visible the differ-
associated with their costume than the men. They ences are not that great in the different regions. The
have large, heavy bronze ornaments like belt plates main difference here is that in the Schleswig area
and neck-collars. All the women had combs fas- women are hardly visible at all in the grave material
tened to the belt, or under the belt plates as in the during Period II, when they reach peaks in terms of
cases of Egtved and Borum Eshøj grave C. The on- visibility in the other three case studies. The trends
ly garment that seems to have artefacts as a per- observed in the men also vary greatly. For example,
manent part of the clothing is the Ølby burial, many men are buried with more than one weap-
where the 125 bronze tubes appear to have been on in the Copenhagen and Schleswig areas, but are
a permanent part of the corded skirt. As with the only buried with a few items both on Funen and
men, most of the women’s artefacts are remova- on the Lüneburg Heath during Period II. Howev-
ble. For the women, movement would mainly have er, the placement of the weapons and their relation
been restricted by the trail of the long skirt and to the body appears to be more standardised and
the weight of the artefacts. This means that some is similar between Funen and the Copenhagen ar-
of the women, like the Egtved individual, would ea and between the Schleswig area and the Lüneb-
have been able to move their body almost as freely urg Heath. There seems to be a dramatic change
as the men (even though the tightness of the cord- between the fairly unified Sögel-Wohlde area dur-
ed skirt would have limited movement as well), ing Period IB and the Schleswig and Lüneburg area
whereas the women dressed in long skirts and/or during Period II. Despite this major change in bur-
heavy artefacts would have been more restricted in ial traditions some of the older structures concern-
their body movements. The only visible body mod- ing how people relate to their objects seem to sur-
ification is the length and coiffure of the hair. The vive longer, and change only later.
women wore clothes made out of the same mate- One thing that clearly differs between the areas
rial as the men, which would also have had a sim- is how the head was dressed, i.e. what was put on
ilar feeling when handled. The women, however, it and what was done with the hair. In both south
wore large pieces of bronze jewellery; this would Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age burials (mainly
have produced a very different sensation of touch. seen in the oak-log graves) and on the Lüneburg
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 135
Heath we can see that there were at least two dif- small parties is seen as the general mode for engag-
ferent ways within the cultures for women to wear ing in conflict in Bronze Age Europe. The raids and
their hair and adorn their heads. This is probably killing that can, for example, be seen in Sund and
due to social roles and structures within the female Wassenaar indicate that Bronze Age society could
variations of gender. However, the ways of dress- be perilous and its networks had a fragile structure.
ing the female head differed between the two ma- The evidence suggests that Europe had a militaris-
jor groups. We can also see that there were proba- tic climate in this period, and travel must have been
bly differences in the male head gear between dif- a risky business.
ferent groups. One can say that the structures of It seems likely that the graves show an idealised
femaleness in both the Lüneburg Heath and the view of Bronze Age warfare, whereas the other re-
south Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age are sim- mains, such as multiple burials and the skeletal re-
ilar to the wider European structure. However, mains, produce a different picture. Arrowheads
there seem to be very different ways of how these are sometimes present in the graves as the weapon
two female categories are interpreted and the phys- used to kill an individual, but this weapon is not
ical manifestation of this. common in the burial traditions in Period II. May-
While we can see a basic similar structure - even be here we see the ideal meeting the reality? The
if they are performed and interpreted differently - ideal could at times have been the one shown by
in the female burial, it is harder to see a basic male Treherne (1995), with men fighting men in honour-
structure that crosses the border between the south able sword fights, as, for example, depicted in rock
Scandinavian Middle Bronze Age and the Lüneb- carvings, but the reality seems to have been much
urg Heath. The male principle seems to be of a very more brutal, with raids and the slaughter of men,
different kind in southern Scandinavia, especial- women and children, young as well as old. The dif-
ly during Period II. The emphasis is on the male ferent case studies indicate that the risk of violence
warrior and close range fighting technique, where- during the Middle Bronze Age varied between dif-
as the importance placed on the bow and arrow in ferent areas. Few Middle Bronze Age individuals
the Lüneburg Heath seems to indicate a preference were completely safe from the threat of violent ac-
for another mode of fighting. To conclude we can tions. This does not mean that the society was at
therefore say that regional differences can clearly war all the time. At certain times some areas seem
be seen in the appearance of both men and wom- to have been subjected to massive conflicts, such
en between south Scandinavia and the Lüneburg as southern Holstein during Period II, and these
Heath. However, even though regional differences conflicts seem to have decreased during Period III,
exist within the south Scandinavian culture, these when they were replaced by an increase in inter-
are revealed in the relation between the artefacts marriage. Similarly, Gram County had a high per-
and the body rather than in different styles and centage of weapons in the burials during Period II,
types of artefacts. which then decreased during Period III.
Deutsch Zusammenfassung
sich ein Model wie das „Zentrum-Peripherie Mod- meisten Männer einem Kriegerethos folgen. Aller-
ell“ als nützliche Erklärung an. Auf jeden Fall ist es dings ist auch ein anderes männliches Ideal von
wichtig den beidseitigen Austausch von Beigaben Bedeutung, bei dem keine Waffen zur Niederle-
und Ideen zu untersuchen und sich nicht auf Pres- gung gelangen sondern nur solche Artefakte, die
tigegüter wie z. B. Bronze festzulegen. In dieser Ar- zur Kleidung oder Körperpflege gehören, wie z. B.
beit werden beide Aspekte, Rang und soziale Kate- Gürtelhaken und Pinzetten. Die Gräber verteilen
gorien berücksichtigt. Das Hauptaugenmerk rich- sich über ein großes Gebiet. Nur vier Kirchspiele
tet sich auf die höheren Schichten der Gesellschaft, weise mehr als eine Periode IB Bestattung mit Met-
die Hinterlassenschaften dieser Individuen bilden allgegenständen auf. Eine dieser vier Kirchspiele
die Basis dieser Dissertation. liegt zudem an der Grenze zwischen den zwei un-
terschiedlichen Bestattungstraditionen. Nur in der
Kapitel 2 Chronology and time Gemeinde Bovense auf Fünen finden wir zwei Be-
Dieses Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit der Chronologie stattungen mit drei oder mehr Metallobjekten als
der Mittelbronzezeit. Zuerst wird die frühe skandi- Beigabe. Dies ist das einzige Gebiet, indem der
navische Chronologie besprochen. Das Ergebnis Wohlstand an Metallgegenständen möglicher-
zeigt, in Übereinstimmung mit Vandkilde, die me- weise über zwei Generationen hin andauerte. Das
hr oder weniger Gleichzeitigkeit der unterschiedli- neu entstandene Kriegerideal basiert eher auf indi-
chen Bestattungstraditionen von Sögel-Wohlde und viduellen Leistung als Verwandtschaft oder Tradi-
Valsømagle. Auch die Artefakte des Fådrup Stiles tion. Dies mag den Mangel an weiblichen Bestat-
datieren in diese Phase (Periode IB). Die Lochhal- tungen mit Metallbeigaben erklären. Diese Gruppe
snadel findet sich in allen drei Traditionen, ebenso von Menschen war anscheinend für unterschiedli-
wie andere Artefakte aus europäischen Br B2 Kon- che kontinentale Einflüsse offen, welches aus dem
texten. Um das Material aus der Lüneburger Heide Mangel an Einförmigkeit in den Beigabenensem-
einbeziehen zu können und sinnvolle Vergleiche zu bles und der Kombination der Grabbeigaben her-
ermöglichen, wurde die Chronologie von Laux un- vorgeht.
tersucht und sowohl zur südskandinavischen als 172 Gräber der Sögel-Wohlde Region konnt-
auch zur zentraleuropäischen Chronologie in Bez- en analysiert werden. Hier finden sich Beigaben-
iehung gesetzt. Die wichtigsten Ergebnisse sind in ensembles wie Dolch/Schwert und Beile, welch-
der Abb. 21 zusammengefasst. es die häufigste Kombination darstellt. Innerhalb
der Gruppe lassen sich regionale Unterschiede z.
Kapitel 3 Period IB: A time of social B. in den Beiltypen oder in der Verwendung von
differences and the construction of Pfeil und Bogen feststellen. Die Gräber mit der
gendered identities größten Anzahl an Metallgegenständen sind zwei
Dieses Kapitel richtet den Schwerpunkt auf die fremde Frauen (Fallingbostel mit 107 Bronzeob-
zwei unterschiedlichen Bestattungssitten der Peri- jekten und Fahrenkrug mit seinen 7 Metallbeiga-
ode IB. Es beginnt mit einer kurzen Präsentation ben). Die Region scheint eine große Anzahl an lan-
der Hintergründe dieser Periode einerseits und glebigen Zentren aufzuweisen. In einigen kleiner-
der Forschungsgeschichte der Gender-Studien an- en Regionen liegen zwei bis vier Periode IB Bestat-
derseits. Anschließend wird die Anwesenheit bzw. tungen mit Metallbeigaben vor. Das deutet auf eine
Abwesenheit von weiblichen Bestattungen erörtert. Art von struktureller Stabilität hin. Man könnte ar-
Es lässt sich feststellen, dass nur zwei sicher bestim- gumentieren, dass das Vorhandensein von Objekt-
mbare Frauenbestattungen in der Periode IB exis- sätzen, selbst bei einer schwachen regionalen Vari-
tieren, beide mit fremdländischen Artefakten. Die abilität, auf institutionalisierte hierarchische Struk-
Geschlechtszuordnung basiert allerdings nur auf turen oder Grundlagen hinweist.
der im Ursprungsgebiet gängigen geschlechtsspe- Die Sögel-Wohlde Kultur scheint über mehr ex-
zifischen Ausstattung. Es gibt noch eine weitere pansive kulturelle Ideologie als die Valsømagle
wahrscheinliche Frauenbestattung sowie einige Region zu verfügen. Dies zeigt sich z. B. in den
wenige mögliche Frauengräber. Die Analyse dieser Gräbern von Schneiderwald und Thierschneck
zwei Bestattungssitten basiert auf 247 Gräbern der (Kubach 1973), wo weit entfernt von ihrer Urs-
Periode IB aus dem weiträumigen Gebiet Nordeu- prungsregion einfachere oder mehr komplexe
ropas (Apendix 1). Sögel-Wohlde Bestattungen stattfanden. Im Lichte
In der Bestattungssitte der Valsømagle Region, der Forschungen von Jockenhövel über die Fremde
d. h. Blekinge, Schonen (Schweden), die Dänischen Frau in Zentraleuropa, können eine durchschnittli-
Inseln und Nordjütland, enthalten 69 Gräber Met- che Mobilität der Frauen von 50-200 km und einige
allobjekte der Periode IB. Die am häufigsten auftre- wenige Wanderungen von über 200 km belegt wer-
tenden Objekte, die den Verstorbenen ins Grab fol- den (Jockenhövel 1991:60). Die vorliegenden Un-
gen sind Dolch/Schwert gefolgt von Beilen und tersuchungen belegen in der Periode IB Kontakte
Lanzenspitzen. Man kann behaupten, dass die zwischen unterschiedlichen Gebieten bis auf eine
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 139
Entfernung von 270 km. Das formalisierte System, wird der obere Teil des Rockes umgeschlagen und
welches möglicherweise weiter zurück in der Zeit verdeckt so den Gürtel. Der Rock ist lang und sch-
der Sögel-Wohlde Region reicht, hat vermutlich die leift über den Boden. Ferner wurde eine Art von
Akzeptanz des neuen Ausdrucks von Status und Lederschuhen oder Sandalen getragen. Der zweite
Identität, der im kontinentalen Europa entsteht, Ausstattungstyp beinhaltet eine Bluse als Oberteil
verhindert oder verzögert. Möglicherweise ist hi- und einen Schnurrock, getragen auf den Hüften.
er ein Übergang zwischen diesen beiden Kulturen Im Gegensatz zum ersten Ausstattungstyp, scheint
- dem nicht starren, unternehmungsfreudigen Val- diese Tracht mit kurzen Haaren vergesellschaftet
sømagle Gebiet und der organisierten, regulierten zu sein.
und institutionalisierten Sögel-Wohlde Kultur – er- Es gibt keine Anzeichen, weder bei der Beklei-
fasst, die dann später zur Kultur der Nordischen dung noch bei den Artefakten, die die Bewegungs-
Bronzezeit überleiten. Die Institutionen der Sögel- freiheit der Männer einschränken. Das einzige was
Wohlde Region werden langsam in der Valsømagle auf die Bewegungsfreiheit hinderlich wirkt ist das
Region akzeptiert und die nachfolgenden Experi- der schwere Umhang des Trindhøj Manns. Die
mente der Valsømagle Region mit Form und Ge- einzige sichtbare und nachweisbare Veränderung
stalt münden schließlich in einem neuen Stil der am Köper, scheint dagegen die Langhaarigkeit
Bronzen, wie er so typisch für das südliche Skandi- und die rasierte Gesichtspartie zu sein. Die Be-
navien ist. deutung der Kämme und Rasiermesser weist auf
ein Bedürfnis nach Reinlichkeit einhergehend mit
Kapitel 4 Gendered burial traditions: dem nach Geruch hin. Die einzige Auswirkung
an analysis of local and regional auf eine Berührung sind, mit Ausnahme der hölz-
patterns ernen Schwertscheide, die Wolle der Kleidung
Zu Beginn dieses Kapitels werden Gender, biolo- - ein warmes und weiches Material. Die restli-
gisches Geschlecht und der Körper diskutiert, ge- chen Bronze-, Holz- oder Knochenobjekte sind zu
folgt von einer kurzen Gesichte der Textilien. Dem schmal um irgendwelche Auswirkungen in Form
schließt sich eine Erörterung über die Kleidung von Bewegungsbeeinträchtigung zu haben. Die
und Kostüme der bestatteten Individuen aus den Bekleidung der Männer sollte keine spezifischen
Eichenkistensärgen an. Geräusche von sich geben, abgesehen vielleicht
Die männliche Kleidung weist, wie es scheint, von dem Geräusch, das der Mantel erzeugt, wenn
einige gemeinsame Charakterzüge auf. Alle tra- ein Mann sich umdreht.
gen einen Art Mantel von ovaler oder nierenartiger Die Frauen weisen eine größere Varietät in den
Form. Ferner finden sich Reste von Kleidung oder Accessoires ihrer Bekleidung auf als Männer. Sie
Leder im Bereich der Füße, die auf eine Art Schuhe haben großen, schweren Bronzeschmuck wie
hinweisen. Die Kappe ist anscheinend eine allge- Gürtelplatten und Halskragen. Alle Frauen be-
meine Eigenschaft der männlichen Bekleidung, sitzen ein Kamm, befestigt am Gürtel oder unter
nur im Grab B von Borum Eshøj fehlt eine solche der Gürtelplatte, wie im Fall von Egtved und Bo-
Kappe. Als wichtigstes Unterscheidungsmerkmal rum Eshøj Grab C. Das einzige Kleidungsstück,
zwischen den Männern lassen sich die zwei Kit- das Artefakte als feste Bestandteile der Bekleidung
tel (Muldbjerg und Trindhøj) und die zwei in Kilts aufweist, ist die Bestattung von Ølby mit ihren
gekleideten Bestattungen (zwei aus Borum Eshøj) 125 Bronzeblechröllchen, die Teil des Schnurrocks
benennen. Somit liegen drei verschiedene Ausstat- sind. Wie bei den Männern, sind die Artefakte der
tungen vor. Die Kleidung der Individuen aus Muld- Frauen ansonsten abnehmbar. Die Bewegung der
bjerg und Trindhøj gleichen sich: eine Kappe, ein Frauen wird hauptsächlich durch das Schleifen des
Kittel, ein Mantel und Schuhe. Grab A aus Borim langen Rocks und das Gewicht der Artefakte ein-
Eshøj ist ebenfalls ähnlich, unterscheidet sich aller- geschränkt. Einige der Frauen, wie das Egtved In-
dings in der Tatsache, dass ein Kilt statt eines ge- dividuum, dagegen wären in der Lage ihren Körp-
wickelten Kittels getragen wird. Der Bestattete im er nahezu ebenso frei zu bewegen wie die Männer
Grab B von Borum Eshøj unterscheidet sich vor al- (auch wenn die Enge des Schnurrocks die Bewe-
lein durch das Fehlen der Kappe. gung eingrenzen könnte). Frauen mit den langen
Bei den Frauen lassen sich deutlich zwei Ausstat- Röcken und/oder schweren Artefakten wären me-
tung unterscheiden: Die erste Ausstattung ist du- hr in ihrer Körperbewegung eingeschränkt. Die
rch das Tragen langer, aufwendig frisierter Haare einzige sichtbare und nachweisbare Veränderung
und der Bedeckung mit einem Haarnetz charakter- am Köper ist die Länge des Haares. Die Frauen tru-
isiert. Am Oberkörper wurde eine Bluse getragen. gen Kleidung aus dem gleichen Material wie die
Es handelt sich dabei wie es scheint um eine typis- Männer, welches sich in der Handhabe auch gleich
che Bluse der mittleren nordischen Bronzezeit. Am anfühlt. Die Frauen trugen eine große Anzahl an
Unterkörper befand sich ein Rock, der mittels eines Bronzeschmuck, der eine völlig andere Berührung-
Gürtels auf den Hüften befestigt wurde. Dabei serfahrung hervorruft. Eine Frau, die mit großen
140 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Halskragen, einer Gürtelplatte, vier kleinen Tu- ige der alten Strukturen, bezüglich der Beziehung
tuli, einem Dolch und 125 Bronzeblechröllchen zwischen Objekt und Mensch, länger erhalten und
(die Ausstattung des Ølby Grabes) herumläuft, ändern sich erst später.
lädt wahrscheinlich nicht zu einem engen phy- Zu den Dingen, die deutlich zwischen den Re-
sischen Kontakt ein. Ihre Erscheinung ist eine se- gionen zu trennen sind, gehört die Kopfbeklei-
hr beachtenswerte; die Wärme und die Nachgie- dung, d.h. wurde etwas aufgesetzt oder etwas mit
bigkeit der wollenen Bekleidung kontrastiert mit dem Haar getan. In beiden Regionen, der Mittel-
dem glänzenden kalten Metall. Wenn es zu einem bronzezeit Südskandinaviens (überwiegend die
physischen Kontakt mit der Ausstattung bzw. Per- Eichenkistensärge betreffend) und in der Lüneb-
son kommt, unterscheiden sich die Frauen indivi- urger Heide, lassen sich letztendlich innerhalb
duell wesentlich stärker als dies die Männer tun. der Kulturen zwei unterschiedliche Arten wie die
Die Erfahrung ist abhängig von den assoziierten Frauen ihr Haar tragen und ihre Köpfe schmück-
Artefakten, während die Männer, mit Ausnahme en unterscheiden. Dies bezieht sich wahrschein-
ihres Schwertes, eine eher „diskrete“ Ausstattung lich auf die soziale Rolle und Struktur innerhalb
aufweisen. Der mit den Frauen verknüpfte Sch- der weiblichen Variationen von Gender. Die Art wie
muck ist wesentlich bemerkenswerter. Der indiv- die Frauen ihren Kopf schmücken ist allerdings in
iduelle Wohlstand und Gender-Status hätte direk- den zwei Hauptgruppen verschieden. Wir können
ten Einfluss auf die physische Erfahrung bei ein- wahrscheinlich auch Unterschiede in der männli-
er Berührung, wenn sie in voller Tracht wäre. In chen Kopfbedeckung zwischen unterschiedlichen
dieser qualitativen Studie gibt es nur ein Individ- Gruppen feststellen. Man kann sagen, dass die
uum, welche ein deutliches Geräusch bei einer Be- Strukturen der Weiblichkeit sowohl in der Lüneb-
wegung verursachen würde, die weibliche Bes- urger Heide als auch im südlichen Skandinavien
tattung in Ølby. Es gibt allerdings andere Gräber in der mittleren Bronzezeit vergleichbar mit äquiv-
mit gleichem Phänomen. Alle anderen Frauen un- alenten Strukturen des centralem Europas sind.
terscheiden sich nicht stark in ihren Bewegungs- Es scheint allerdings sehr unterschiedliche Mögli-
geräuschen von den Männern. chkeiten zu geben diese zwei weiblichen Kategor-
Anschließend wird das Auftreten in vier unter- ien und ihre physische Manifestation zu interpre-
schiedlichen Fallstudien beleuchtet: in der Region tieren.
von Kopenhagen, dem Kirchspiel Hesselager, Sch- Während eine gemeinsame Struktur in der weib-
leswig sowie Wardböhmen und Bleckmar. lichen Bestattung – selbst wenn sie unterschied-
Es zeigen sich deutliche Unterschiede im Erschei- lich ausgeführt und interpretiert wird – erkennbar
nungsbild sowohl bei den männlichen als auch ist, ist es schwerer eine grundlegende männliche
den weiblichen Bestattungen innerhalb der Regio- Struktur, die die Grenze zwischen der südskandi-
nen. Die Erkennbarkeit der zwei biologischen Ge- navischen Mittelbronzezeit und der Lüneburg-
schlechter mithilfe des Bronzematerials, variiert er Heide überschreitet, zu fassen. Das männliche
zwischen den Regionen. In Skandinavien – wenn Prinzip scheint im südlichen Skandinavien von
sich Frauen zeigen – sind die Unterschiede nicht einer ganz anderen Art zu sein, besonders in der
so stark wie in anderen Gebieten. Der Hauptunter- Periode II. Die Betonung liegt auf dem männlichen
schied zeigt sich darin, dass Frauen in der Region Krieger und der Nahkampftechnik, während die
Schleswig kaum im gesamten Material der Periode Bedeutung, die dem Pfeil und Bogen in der Lüneb-
II fassbar sind, in den anderen drei Regionen aber urger Heide zugemessen wird, eine Vorliebe für
den Höhepunkt hinsichtlich ihres Auftretens ere- eine andere Kampesweise anzudeuten scheint.
ichen. Auch bei den Männern lassen sich Trends in Zusammenfassend können wir daher sagen, dass
ebenso starker Variabilität ablesen. Beispielsweise die regionale Unterschiede zwischen Südskandi-
sind viele Männer mit mehr als einer Waffe in der navien und der Lüneburger Heide deutlich im
Region von Kopenhagen und Schleswig in der Peri- Erscheinungsbild von sowohl Männern als auch
ode II bestattet, aber nur mit wenigen Beigaben sow- Frauen sichtbar werden. Auch wenn regionalen
ohl auf Fünen als auch in der Lüneburger Heide. Unterschiede innerhalb der südskandinavischen
Die Niederlegung der Waffen und ihre Beziehung Kultur existieren, offenbaren sie sich doch eher in
zum Körper erscheint aber mehr standardisiert der Beziehung zwischen Artefakten und Körpern
und gleicht sich jeweils in den Gebieten Fünen und als zwischen unterschiedlichen Artefakttypen und
Kopenhagen sowie in Schleswig und der Lüneb- –stilen.
urgerheide. Ein dramatischer Wechsel scheint sich
zwischen der ziemlich einheitlichen Sögel-Wohl- Kapitel 5 Male identity: united or
de Region während der Periode IB und in den Re- separated?
gionen Schleswig und Lüneburger Heide in der Das Kapitel 5 dreht sich um die Beziehung zwischen
Periode II aufzutun. Trotz dieses großen Wechsels Gewalt und den unterschiedlichen Geschlechtern.
in der Bestattungssitte bleiben anscheinend ein- Der Fokus liegt auf dem Männerideal und des-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 141
sen Verhältnis zur Gewalt. Das Konzept von Tre- stein während der Periode II. Diese Konflikte
herne von einem gemeinsamen Ideal, dass charak- haben im Laufe der Periode III offenbar abgenom-
teristisch für die europäische Kriegerelite ist, wird men, sobald sie durch einen Anstieg von Mische-
erörtert. In diesem „Paket“ Kriegerideal spielen Ac- hen abgelöst wurden. Ähnliches im Bezirk Gram,
cessoires der Körperpflege (z. B. Kämme aus un- wo eine hohe Prozentzahl an Waffen in den Bestat-
terschiedlichen Materialien, Bronzepinzetten, Ra- tungen während der Periode II auftritt, worauf ein
siermesser, Spiegel und Pfrieme) eine wichtige Rolle. Nachlassen in der Periode III folgt.
Kurzgesagt man muss seiner Rolle entsprechen. Es
wurde hier eine weitergefasste Definition gewählt, Kapitel 6 Ageing in the Bronze Age
um eine Erörterung über den Grad der Feindselig- Aufwachsen und alt werden in der Bronzezeit ist
keit und die Gefahr physischer Gewalt in der Ges- der Schwerpunkt dieses Kapitels. Als erstes wird
ellschaft der Bronzezeit zu ermöglichen. das Konzept des Lebenslaufes bzw. Lebenskreises
Drei unterschiedliche Fallstudien werden vorgestellt. Es wird hervorgehoben, dass es sich bei
präsentiert, die Gewalt und Männlichkeit aus ver- der Art unserer Betrachtung der Menschen unter-
schiedenen Blickwinkeln besprechen. Ein Ab- schiedlichen Alters um ein kulturelles Konstrukt
schnitt beschäftigt sich mit den Dolchen in den handelt, das sich kulturell und zeitlich unterschei-
weiblichen Bestattungen. Dem schließt sich eine det.
Erörterung über die Notwendigkeit von Gewalt in Die Besprechung von Lebensläufen anhand der
der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft an. Bronzen des südlichen Skandinaviens ist aufgrund
Es wurde angedeutet, dass in der europäischen des Mangels von Skelettresten schwer. Das Mate-
Bronzezeit ein heroisches Zeitalter, vergleichbar mit rial aus Schonen, aus den Kirchspielen Ingelstorp
dem Griechenlands existiert hat. Kriegsführung im und Löderup, verdeutlicht die Variationen, die sich
kleinen Rahmen und Überfälle von kleinen Trupps in der Behandlung der verschiednen Lebensalter
werden als mögliche Konflikthandlungen in der innerhalb der Bestattungspraxis vom Spätneolithi-
Bronzezeit Europas angesehen. Die Raubzüge kum bis in die späte Bronzezeit hinein zeigen. Es
und das Töten, welches in Sund und Wassenaar wird gezeigt, dass weniger Menschen das Recht
ersichtlich wird, zeigen, dass die Gesellschaft der einer „normalen“ mittelbronzezeitlichen Bestat-
Bronzezeit gefährlich und ihre Netzwerke von ein- tung zustand als in anderen Perioden.
er fragilen Struktur sind. Diese Aussage impliziert Nach einer Studie zum Alter in Europa während
in dieser Periode ein militärisches Klima in Eu- der Mittelbronzezeit, scheinen infans nicht in
ropa; reisen muss ein gefährliches Unternehmen derselben Art und Weise bestattet zu werden wie
gewesen sein. Individuen anderer Altersgruppen. Infans fehlen
Es ist wahrscheinlich, dass die Gräber eine ide- im Material. Scheinbar gilt man erst im Alter von
alisierte Sicht des bronzezeitlichen Kriegswe- 14 Jahren als vollständiges Mitglied der Gemein-
sens widerspiegeln, hingegen andere Hinterlas- schaft. Alte Frauen haben offenbar ihren Status be-
senschaften, wie z. B. Mehrfachbestattungen und halten, hingegen gibt es einige wenige Anzeichen,
Skelettreste, ein anderes Bild ergeben. Pfeilspitzen die darauf hindeuten, dass Männer mit dem Er-
repräsentieren manchmal in der Bestattungen die reichen eines höheren Alters möglicherweise
Waffe zum Töten eines Individuums, allerdings ist ihren Status verlieren. Diese Ergebnisse schein-
diese Waffe nicht üblich für die Bestattungssitten en in großen Teilen Europas während der Mittel-
der Periode II. Vielleicht erfassen wir hier im Ge- bronzezeit vergleichbar zu sein.
gensatz zum Ideal die Realität? Das Ideal zu dieser
Zeit kann dem von Treherne (1995) dargestellten Kapitel 7 Valued as exchange?
entsprechen: einem Kampf Mann gegen Mann in Exchange, networks and movement
einem ehrenhaften Schwertkampf, wie er z. B. aus Im letzten Kapitel wird das Reisen in der Bronzezeit
den bildlichen Erzählungen der Felsbilder über- in Bezug auf Bestattungen von Individuen mit
liefert ist, doch scheint die Realität mit ihren Über- fremden Objekten untersucht. Beide sowohl die so
fällen und dem Gemetzel von Männern, Frauen und genannte Fremde Frau bzw. der Fremde Mann, d.
Kindern, Jungen als auch Alten wesentlich brutal- h. Individuen bestattet in einem Gebiet mit der vol-
er gewesen zu sein. Die unterschiedlichen Fallstu- len Ausstattung eines anderen Gebietes, als auch
dien deuten darauf hin, dass das Risiko von Gewalt Gräber mit lokalen und fremden Artefakten, sind
während der Mittelbronzezeit zwischen einzel- berücksichtigt.
nen Gebieten variiert. Wenige mittelbronzezeitli- Als Argument kann angeführt werden, dass re-
che Individuen sind unversehrt und ohne Spuren isen während der Bronzezeit ein großes Risiko
von Gewalt. Das bedeutet allerdings nicht, dass die gewesen sein muss und große Kenntnis und Fähig-
Gesellschaft ständig im Krieg lag. Zu bestimmten keiten verlangte. Man kann darüber streiten ob län-
Zeiten scheinen einige Gebiete massiven Konflik- gerer Reisen hauptsächlich von Gruppen unter-
ten unterworfen zu sein, sowie das südliche Hol- nommen wurden, wie es beispielsweise die Größe
142 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Dansk Resumé
Genstandene i Fårdrupstilen tilhører også denne typer eller brugen af bue og pil. Gravene med det
fase (periode Ib). Lochhalsnålen er fundet i alle tre højeste antal af metalgenstande er de to fremme-
fundhorisonter − ligesom andre fremmed fundty- de kvinder (Fallingbostel med 107 bronzegenstan-
per af de europæiske typer Br1 og Br2. For at kun- de og Fahrenkrug med syv metalgenstande). Regi-
ne lave meningsfulde sammenligninger med Lü- onen synes at have flere centre med lang levetid, og
neburg Hedes materiale sammenlignes Laux’s kro- i nogle mindre regioner er der to til fire periode 1b
nologi med både den sydskandinaviske og central- begravelser med metalgenstande. Dette indikerer
europæiske kronologi. De vigtigste resultater kan en form for strukturel stabilitet. Man kunne argu-
ses refereret på figur 21. mentere for at tilstedeværelsen af sæt af genstande,
selvom der er en lille regional variation, indikerer
Kapitel 3 Period IB: A time of social institutionelle hierarkiske strukturer/principper.
differences and the construction of Sögel-Wohlde kulturen synes at have haft en me-
gendered identities re ekspansiv kulturel ideologi end Valsømagle re-
Dette kapitel diskuterer periode IB med fokus på gionen. Dette kan for eksempel ses i gravene fra
to forskellige begravelsestraditioner. Det begynder Schneiderwald og Thierschneck (Kubach 1973),
med en kort præsentation af både baggrunden for hvor både simple og mere komplekse Sögel-Wohl-
perioden og den kønsbaserede forskningshistorik. de begravelser er fundet sted langt væk fra oprin-
Herefter diskuteres tilstedeværelsen/fraværet af delsesområdet. Dette kan ses i lyset af Jockenhövels
kvindelige begravelser. Konklusionen er, at der kun studie af fremmede kvinder i Centraleuropa, der
eksisterer to sikre kvindebegravelser fra periode IB viser, at den gennemsnitlige bevægelse af kvinder
− begge med fremmed genstande, der er bestemt er mellem 50-200 km, og der var kun få, der bevæ-
som kvindelige genstande ud fra den kønsbetydn- gede sig over 200 km væk fra deres oprindelsessted
ing de har i oprindelsesområdet. Derudover er der (Jockenhövel 1991:60). Det pågældende studie indi-
også en mulig kvindebegravelse og nogle mulige kerer kontakter mellem områder mere end 270 km
kvindegrave. Analysen af de to begravelsestradi- fra hinanden i perioden. Det formaliserede system,
tioner er baseret på 247 grave fra store dele af det som måske rækker længere tilbage i tid i Sögel-
nordlige Europa, som kan dateres til periode IB (ap- Wohlde området, forsinkede eller forhindrede må-
pendix 1). ske en accept af de nye måder at vise status og iden-
I Valsømagle regionen (Blekinge, Skåne, de dan- titet, som blev skabt i Europa. Det er muligt, at det
ske øer og Nordjylland), som repræsenterer den er sammensmeltningen af de to kulturer - det ikke
ene begravelsestradition, er der 69 grave, som inde- fikserede, dristige Valsømagle område med det or-
holder metalgenstande, der kan dateres til periode ganiserede, regulerede og institutionaliserede Sø-
IB. Det mest almindelige objekt, som følger den af- gel-Wohlde kultur - der blev til den såkaldte Nor-
døde i graven er dolk/sværd, efterfulgt af økser og diske bronzealderkultur. Sögel-Wohlde regionens
spydspidser. Man kan sige, at flest mænd tilslutter institutioner blev langsomt accepteret i Valsømag-
sig krigermyten. Men dertil kommer et andet man- le regionen, og den efterfølgende eksperimenteren
deideal, hvor der ikke var placeret våben i gravene, med form og udtryk i Vlsømagle området førte til
men kun kropsrelaterede klæder og kropsændren- en ny form og stil for bronzegenstande, som er så
de genstande som bæltekroge og pincetter. Udbre- karakteristisk for Sydskandinavien.
delsen af gravene dækker et stort område. Kun fi-
re sogne har mere end en periode IB grav med me- Kapitel 4 Gendered burial traditions:
talgenstande, og en af disse er på grænsen mellem an analysis of local and regional
to forskellige begravelsestraditioner. Kun i Boven- patterns
se sogn på Fyn finder vi to begravelser med tre el-
ler flere metalgenstande i gravene. Det er det ene- Dette kapitel begynder med en diskussion af køn,
ste område, hvor vi ser metalrigdomme blive ved- biologisk køn og kroppen, fulgt af en kort gennem-
ligeholdt over to generationer. Det nye krigerideal gang af tekstil-historikken. Det efterfølges af en dis-
var skabt på baggrund af individuelle handlinger kussion af individerne i egekistegravenes klæder og
snarere end slægtskab og tradition, og det kan må- dragter.
ske forklare fraværet af kvindegrave med metal- Mandens tøj synes at have nogle fællestræk. De
genstande. Denne gruppe mennesker synes også bærer alle en form for kappe, oval eller nyreformet,
at have været åbne for europæisk indflydelse set i og der var bevarede dele af tekstil eller læder ved
forhold til manglen på uniformitet i gravgaverne. fødderne, som indikerer, at de alle bar en form for
172 grave fra Sögel-Wohlde regionen er blevet sko. Huen synes at være en udbredt del af mande-
analyseret. Her finder vi sæt-kombinationen med dragten, hvor det kun er grav B fra Borum Eshøj,
dolk/sværd og økse, som er den mest alminde- som mangler en hue. Den største forskel mellem
lige sammensætning. Der er regionale forskelle i mændene er, at to bærer slå-om dragter (Muldbjerg
gruppen, som kan ses i form af forskellige økse- og Trindhøj) og to er klædt i kilte (de to Borum Es-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 145
høj grave). De giver os tre forskellige klædedragter. den samme stoflighed ved berøring. Men kvinder-
Klædet fra Muldbjerg og Trindhøj individerne er ne bar store bronzesmykker, som gav en helt an-
meget ens, det vil sige en hue, en kappe, en slå-om den fornemmelse ved berøring. En kvinde som bar
dragt, en slængkappe og sko. Grav A fra Borum Es- rundt på en stor halskrave, en bælteplade, fire små
høj ligner også, men afviger lidt pga. kilten i stedet tutuli, en dolk og 125 små bronzerør (dragten fra
for slå-om dragten. Den afdøde i grav B fra Borum Ølby graven) indbød formodentlig ikke til fysisk
Eshøj afviger mest pga. den manglende hue. kontakt. Hendes fremtoning ville være bemærkel-
Kvinderne har to forskellige dragter. Den før- sesværdig med kontrasten mellem den varme blø-
ste er karakteriseret ved, langhårede kvinder bæ- de uld og det skinnende kolde metal. Når det kom-
rer deres hår i en ekstravagant håropsætning dæk- mer til følelsen af berøring af personen/dragten, så
ket med et hårnet. På overkroppen bæres en bluse, adskiller kvindedragterne sig meget fra hinanden
og det synes at være den typiske bluse i mellem- langt mere end mandsdragterne. Kvindedragter-
ste bronzealder. På den nedre del af kroppen var et nes udtryk afhang af genstandene, hvor mænde-
skørt fæstnet på hofterne. Det skabte en dragt med ne kun havde diskrete genstande på dragten ud-
noget klæde draperet ud over bæltet, som dermed over sværdet. Smykker associeret med kvinderne
også skjulte det. Skørtet havde også et lille slæb, og er langt mere bemærkelseskrævende, og den indi-
til dragten hørte også sko eller sandaler. Den anden viduelle kvindes rigdom og kønsrelaterede status
type dragt bestod af en bluse på overkroppen og et havde en anderledes påvirkning af følelsen af berø-
snoreskørt, som blev båret på hofterne, og modsat ring, alt efter hvilken dragt hun brugte. Der er kun
det første sæt, så blev dette båret af kvinder med et individ i den undersøgte gruppe grave, som ville
kort hår. have frembragt en særlig lyd, når hun gik, nemlig
Der er intet i mændenes dragter, der hindrer fri kvinden fra Ølby graven, men der er andre grave
bevægelse. Det eneste stykke tøj, der kunne hindre med samme fænomen. De andre kvinders lyd vil-
bevægelse er måske Trindhøj mandens tunge over- le ikke afvige meget fra den mændene frembragte,
kappe. De eneste kropsændringer, der kan eftervi- når de gik omkring.
ses hos mændene er de glatragede ansigter og lan- Udseende studeres i fire forskellige ”case-sudi-
ge hår. Vigtigheden af kamme og rageknive kan in- es”; området omkring Købenavn, Hasselager sogn,
dikere en bevidsthed om renlighed og dermed og- Schleswig området og Wardböhmen og Bleckmar.
så kropslugt. Vi kan se tydelige forskelle i både mandlige og
Den eneste effekt af berøring bortset fra den træ- kvindelige graves udseende i regionerne. Synlighe-
agtige sværdskede kommer fra uldtøjet, og uld er den af de to biologiske køn set i forhold til bronz-
varmt og blødt materiale. Genstande af metal, ben egenstandene varierer meget mellem regionerne. I
eller træ er for små til at have nogen særlig begræn- Skandinavien, hvor kvinderne er synlige, er der ik-
sende effekt på bevægelsen. Mændenes dragter ke de store forskelle mellem regionerne. Den store
skulle ikke afgive nogen særlig lyd, bortset fra ly- forskel er, at kvinderne i Schleswig næsten ikke er
den af kappen der bevægede sig i takt med, at de synlige i gravmaterialet i periode II, hvor de i de an-
gik omkring. dre tre regioner topper, når det kommer til synlig-
Kvinderne havde mange flere tilbehørsdele til hed i netop den periode. Tendenserne observeret
dragten end mænd. De havde store tunge smyk- blandt mændene varierer også meget. For eksem-
ker, som bælteplader og halskraver. Alle kvinder pel, så er mange mænd begravet med mere end et
havde kamme fæstnet til bæltet eller sat fast un- våben i Københavns- og Schleswig området, men
der bæltepladen som det er tilfældet i Egtvedgra- mændene på Fyn og Lüneburg Hede er kun begr-
ven og Borum Eshøj grav C. Det eneste klædnings- vet med få genstande i periode II. Alligevel ser det
stykke som har permanente genstande integreret ud til, at genstandenes placering i forhold til krop-
er snoreskørtet i Ølby begravelsen, hvor 125 bron- pen er mere standartiseret og ens mellem Fyn og
zerør har været en del af et snoreskørt. Som det er Københavnsområdet og mellem Schleswigområ-
gældende for mændene, så er de fleste af kvindens det og Lüneburg Hede. Der synes at have været en
tilbehør ikke permanente. For kvinderne ville be- dramatisk ændring mellem det nogenlunde uni-
vægelsen kun blive forhindret af det lange skørt forme Sögel-Wohlde område i løbet af periode IB
og vægten af genstandene. Det betyder, at nogen og Schleswig og Lüneburgområdet i løbet af peride
af kvinderne som Egtvedpigen kunne bevæge sig II. Trods denne store ændring i begravelsestraditio-
næsten så frit som mændene (selvom snoreskør- nen, så synes måden, hvorpå folk relaterer genstan-
tet er stramt over knæene og forhindrede noget be- de til den dødes krop ikke at ændre sig før senere.
vægelse), hvor kvinderne med lange skørt og/eller En ting, som klart adskiller sig områderne imel-
tunge genstande ville være stærkt begrænsede i de- lem, er måden hovedet var udsmykket på, − det
res kropsbevægelser. De eneste kropsmodifikatio- vil sige, hvad der blev placeret på det, og hvad der
ner er længden på håret. Kvinderne bar klæder la- blev gjort ved håret. I begge Sydskandinaviske be-
vet af det samme materiale som mænd, der havde gravelser fra den mellemste bronzealder (hoved-
146 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
sagligt set i egekistegrave) og på Lüneburg Hede krigstogter foretaget af mindre grupper ses som
kan vi se, at der var mindst to kulturelle traditio- den fremherskende måde at engagere sig i konflik-
ner for, hvordan håret og tilbehør dertil kunne bæ- ter i europæisk bronzealder. De togter og drab, som
res. Dette skyldes sandsynligvis sociale roller og for eksempel kan ses i Sund og Wassenaar indike-
strukturer indenfor det kvindelige køn. Derudover rer, at bronzealdersamfundet kunne være fare-
varierer måden at udsmykke kvindens hoved me- fuldt, og at dets netværk havde en skrøbelig struk-
get mellem de forskellige grupper. Vi kan også se, tur. Fundene foreslår, at Europa havde et militært
at der sandsynligvis var forskelle på de mandlige klima i perioden, og rejser måtte have været en ri-
hovedbeklædninger i de forskellige grupper. Man sikabel affære.
kan sige, at de strukturelle forudsætninger for at Det synes sandsynligt, at gravene viser en idea-
være kvinde i både Sydskandinavien og Lüneburg liseret syn på bronzealderens krigsførelse, hvor de
Hede i mellemste bronzealder ikke afviger meget andre jordiske rester, som fællesbegravelser og ske-
fra den generelle struktur på europæisk plan. Al- letrester, skaber et andet billede. Pilespidser er nog-
ligevel synes der at være forskellige måder, hvorpå le gange tilstede i gravene som det våben, der er
disse to kvindelige kategorier tolkes og den fysiske brugt til at dræbe individet i graven, men det vå-
manifestation af dette. ben er ikke almindeligt i periode II grave. Måske
Mens vi kan se en basal struktur − selv hvis det ser vi her idealet møde realiteten? Idealet kunne
er udført og fortolket forskelligt − i den kvindelige til tider være det ideal Treherne (1995) viser, hvor
begravelse, så er det sværere at se en fælles struktur mænd kæmper mod mænd i ærefulde tvekampe,
i de mandlige begravelser, som krydser grænsen som dem vist på helleristningerne, men realite-
mellem sydskandinavisk mellemste bronzealder terne synes at have været langt mere brutale, med
og Lüneburg Hede. De mandlige principper synes krigstogter og nedslagtning af mænd, kvinder og
at være af en helt forskellig art i Sydskandinavien børn, unge som gamle. De forskellige casestudies
især i periode II. Vægten lægges på den mandlige viser, at voldsrisikoen i mellemste bronzealder va-
kriger og nærkampsteknikker, hvor bue og pil ind- rierer alt efter hvilket område, man befandt sig i. Få
tager en betydningsfuld plads i Lüneburg Hede, og bronzealdersamfund kunne vide sig sikre for vol-
dermed indikerer en anden fortrukken kamptek- delige handlinger. Det betyder ikke, at samfundet
nik. Som konklusion kan vi derfor sige, at regiona- altid var i krig. I visse perioder synes nogle områ-
le forskelle tydeligt kan ses på både mænd og kvin- der at have været udsat for massive konflikter, som
ders udseende mellem Sydskandinavien og Lüne- det sydlige Holstein i periode II og disse konflikter
burg Hede. Selvom der ikke eksisterer regionale synes at nedtrappe i løbet af periode III, hvor de er
forskelle i den sydskandinaviske kultur, så viser de erstattes af øget antal ægteskabsalliancer. På sam-
sig alligevel en smule i relationen mellem genstan- me vis havde Gram herred en højere procentdel af
dene og kroppen i stedet for forskellige genstands- våben i periode II end i periode III.
typer og stiludtryk.
Kapitel 6 Ageing in the Bronze Age
Kapitel 5 Male identity: united or Emnet i dette kapitel er at vokse op og blive gam-
separated? mel i bronzealderen. Først introduceret livs retning/
Kapitel 5 omhandler forholdet mellem vold og de cyklus konceptet. Det handler om, hvordan vi ser
forskellige køn. Fokuset er rettet mod det mandlige andre mennesker på forskellige alderstrin som en
ideal og dets forhold til vold. Trehenes koncept af del af en social konstruktion, som kan variere mel-
et almindeligt ideal, som karakteriserer den eu- lem kulturer og over tid.
ropæiske mandlige krigerelite diskuteres. I denne Det er svært at diskutere livsretning i sydskandi-
krigerideal-pakke spiller tilbehør til personlig pleje navisk bronzealder pga. mangel på skeletmateria-
(f.eks. kamme af forskelligt materiale, bronzepincet- le. Materialet fra Skåne, fra sognene Ingelstorp og
ter, rageknive, spejle og syle) en stor rolle. Kort for- Löderup, bliver brugt til at vise variationer i, hvor-
talt så skulle man se godt ud. Der er valgt en bred dan forskellige aldre blev behandlet anderledes i
definition for at muliggøre en diskussion af graden begravlsespraktikken fra senneolitikum til yngre
af fjendtlighed og fare for fysisk vold i bronzealde- bronzealder. Det vises tydeligt, at færre mennesker
rens samfund. havde lov til at blive begravet ifølge en ”normal”
Der præsenteres tre forskellige casestudies, som mellemste bronzealder begravelsestradition i for-
diskuterer vold og maskulinitet fra forskellige vink- hold til andre perioder.
ler. En sektion handler om dolke i kvindelige grave. Et studie af mellemste bronzealder i Europa vi-
Dette følges op med en diskussion af bevis for vold ser, at spædbørn ikke bliver begravet som resten af
i bronzealderens samfund. individerne i andre aldre. Spædbørn mangler i ma-
Det har været foreslået at en heroisk æra eksiste- terialet. Det synes som om, man blev betragtet som
rede under den europæiske bronzealder meget lig et fuldgyldigt medlem af samfundet, når man fyld-
den i Grækenland. Krigsførelse i mindre skala og te 14 år. Ældre kvinder synes at have beholdt de-
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 147
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158 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Appendix 1:
Period IB burials
Unless otherwise specified, all objects are made of for which the exact use is unknown, and it is most likely
bronze with the exception of ‘vessel’, which indicates a some type of ear ring or Lockenring.
ceramic vessel of some kind (in column ‘other’).
The numbers written in the columns represent the to- ‘Frag’ = fragment or fragmentary.
tal of something, except for the three columns presented
below, where the number stands for one special type of In the column labelled ‘grave type’, ‘barrow’ stands for
object. burial in a barrow, ‘flat’ for burial under flat ground,
The column ‘blade’ includes dagger or sword blades of ‘stone cist’ for burial in a Late Neolithic stone cist grave,
different kinds. The number in the column relates to a and ‘mega’ for burial in a megalithic tomb.
specific blade type (see below).
Sources
Blade nr Name and NM archive = Oldtidsarkivet in the National-
sögel type 1 museum in Copenhagen plus the year the report was
probable sögel type 1.5 written.
Wohlde type 2 Name and AUD 19xx= information from Arkæologiske ud-
probable Wohlde type 2.5 gravninger i Danmark and 19xx stands for the year and
Sögel/Wohlde type 3 the following number in the catalogue.
Virringe type 4 B L1:xx = number in the catalogue in (the L stand for
Hajdusamsong type 5 which list and XX for the number in that list) Berg-
Other 6 mann, Joseph. 1970. Die ältere Bronzezeit Nordwestdeut-
Valsømagle type 7 schland. Neue Methoden zur Ethnischen und Historischen
Rastorf-Raum type 8 Interpretation Urgeschichtlicher Quellen. Teil A. N. G.
Kasseler Beiträge zur vor- und Frühgeschichte Vol 2.
The number in the column ‘axes’ relates to a specific axe Elwert Verlag, Marburg.
type (see below). Bokelmann 1977 = Bokelmann, Klaus. 1977. Ein Grabhü-
Axe types nr gel der Stein- und Bronzezeit bei Rastorf, Kreis Plön.
Fritzlar type axe 1 Offa 34:90-99.
Spone shaped axes 2 Bro I:xx = the catalogue nr in Broholm, Hans Christian.
Märgerklingen-Valsømagle 3 1943. Danmarks Bronzealder volume I. Nyt Nordisk For-
Underåre 6 lag, Arnold Busck, Copenhagen.
Fårdrup type 7 Butler 1986 = Butler, Jay J. 1986. Drouwen: End of a
Vandkilde type C2 Hüsby 8 “Nordic” Rainbow? Paleaohistoria 28:133-168.
Oldendorf 9 Ethelberg 1991 Ham jour 1063 = Report by Ethelberg in
Unclassified High-flanged axe 10 Haderslev Museum.
Extreme Oldendorf 11 GSxx = catalogue number in Sudholz, Gisela. 1964. Die
Flanged axe 12 ältere Bronzezeit zwischen Niederrhein und Mittelweser.
Nick-flanged chisel 13 August Lax Verlagsbuchhandlung, Hildesheim.
British type axe 14 Günter 1974 = Günter,Klaus,1974. Eine Frühbronzezeitli-
che Dolchklinge aus Bierde Kreis Minden. In: Alföldi,
The number in the column ‘spearhead’ relates to a A. & Tackenberg, K. (eds.), Festgabe Kurt Tackenberg
specific spearhead type (see below). If more than one zum 75. Geburtstag, 57-67. Rudolf Habelt Verlag GMBH,
number is written in the column it means that more than Bonn.
one spearhead was found in the grave. Haxx = number in the catalogue in Hachmann, Rolf. 1959.
Spearheads nr DiefrüheBronzezeitiwestlichenOstseegebietundihremit-
Valsømagle type 1 tle-undsüdosteuropäischenBeziehungenChronologische
Bagterp type 2 Untersuchungen. Flemmings Verlag, Kartographisches
Close to Bagterp 3 Institute, Hamburg.
Other 4 Håxx = number in the catalogue in Håkansson, Inger.
Possible spearhead 5 1985. Skånes gravfynd från äldre bronsålder som källa till
studiet av social struktur. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia
In the column ‘pin type’ I have chosen to write the Ger- Series in 8°. Nr 14, Lund.
man name for the type excluding ‘nadel’ (pin), i.e. ‘Rollen’ Hansen 1938 = Hansen, Folke. 1938. Skånska bronsålder-
is written for a Rollennadel. Here, as also for the few fibu- shögar. Gleerupska univ.-bokhandeln, Lund.
lae, the word fibula has been written. J-Fxx = catalogue number in Jacob-Friesen, Gernot.
In the column ‘ring’ only the type of ring has been 1967.BronzezeitlicheLanzenspitzenNorddeutschlandund
written, i.e. arm stands for arm-ring, finger for finger- Skandinavien Text & Tafelteil. Veröffentlichungen der
ring, etc. If only ‘spiral/ring’ is written it is a smaller ring
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 159
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Bornholm
Limensgård Åkirkeby Bornholm Denmark 6 2
Søndre
Lynge-
Sigerslevvester Sigerslevvester Frederiksborg Denmark
Frederiksborg
Brændstrup Rødding Frøs Haderslev Denmark 1 1
Tornum Lintrup Frøs Haderslev Denmark fibula
Sommersted Sommersted Gram Haderslev Denmark 9
Over-Jerstal Vedsted Gram Haderslev Denmark 3 1
Kolsnap Nustrup Gram Haderslev Denmark 9
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
barrow Va379
vessel barrow Va515
gold spiral belt hook, weapon? burial Va649 Ke381, J-F 354
belt hook mega Va695, Ke451
gold sheet band 3 buttons tweezers, saw, bronze bits barrow Va 634, Ke 451I
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Mjelby Mark Harridslev Øster-Lisbjerg Randers Denmark 2
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
?barrow Ke4733
K.B. Jensen & C. Fisher NM archive
barrow 1993
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Skelde Broager Nybøl Sønderborg Denmark 6 1
Årup Snedsted Hassing Thisted Denmark 6 1
Øster-Gasse Skærbæk Hviding Tønder Denmark 1
Fjærsted Spandet Hviding Tønder Denmark 1.5
Arnum Hjørup Hviding Tønder Denmark 2
Aschendorf-
Sögel Lower Saxony Germany 1 2 2
Hümmling
Aschendorf-
Sögel Lower Saxony Germany 1 2
Hümmling
Aschendorf-
Wehm Lower Saxony Germany 13
Hümmling
Offensen Heslinge Bremervörde Lower Saxony Germany 1 11
Ehestorf Bremervörde Lower Saxony Germany 6 12 1
Aligse Stadt Lehrte Burgdorf Lower Saxony Germany 1 1
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
barrow B L1:7
spearhead belt hook, razor barrow BL2:22, L4
barrow B L1:15 L (2000)211
BL1:12, L13 B, Ha289a+b, Piesker
spitze sögel blade barrow 1937:120ff
barrow L 38C
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Altenoythe Stadt Friesoythe Cloppenburg Lower Saxony Germany 2
Minden- Nordrhein-
Bierde Germany 1
Lübbecke Westfalen
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 167
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
? B L1:8, Ha 302
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Rollen. M.
Schleswig-
Bosau Eutin Germany Tordiertem
Holstein Schaftobertiel
Schleswig-
Sierhagen Oldenburg Germany Rollen
Holstein
Schleswig-
Rastorf Plön Germany 2 6
Holstein
Schleswig-
Rastorf Plön Germany 8 1
Holstein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Gokels Gokels Germany 1
Eckernförde Holstein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Ohrsee Gokels Germany Lochhalspaarstadl
Eckernförde Holstein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Ohrsee Gokels Germany 4
Eckernförde Holstein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Blocksdorf Langwedel Germany 4 VI
Eckernförde Holstein
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
burial Ke9612
scraper,
sickle, 2 barrow Ke9614B
flakes
2 arm-spirals, 2 2 heart-
19 beads barrow Ha174
Lockenringen shaped
barrow Ke2592G
barrow Ke9015
barrow Ke9049
barrow Ke9054
barrow Ke9059
170
Appendix 1 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Schleswig-
Bunsoh Bunsoh Dithmarchen Germany 1 1 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Frestedt Frestedt Dithmarchen Germany Kugelkopf
Hostein
Schleswig-
Frestedt Frestedt Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Glüsing Glüsing Dithmarchen Germany 9
Hostein
Schleswig-
Glüsing Glüsing Dithmarchen Germany 1 10
Hostein
Schleswig-
Gudendorf Gudendorf Dithmarchen Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Gudendorf Gudendorf Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Krempel Krempel Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Pahlkrug Linden Dithmarchen Germany 13 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Schaftstedt Schaftstedt Dithmarchen Germany 2 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Quickborn Quickborn Dithmarchen Germany 6 13
Hostein
Schleswig-
Lendern Süderdorf Dithmarchen Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Süderhastedt Süderhastedt Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Tensbüttel Tensbüttel-Röst Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Tensbüttel Tensbüttel-Röst Dithmarchen Germany 2 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Windbergen Windbergen Dithmarchen Germany 9
Hostein
Schleswig-
? ? Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
? ? Dithmarchen Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Utersum Utersum Föhr Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Oldersbek Oldersbek Husum Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Homfeld Rendsburg Germany 1 13
Hostein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Bohnert Bohnert Germany 1
Eckernförde Hostein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Bohnert Bohnert Germany 1
Eckernförde Hostein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Bohnert Bohnert Germany 1
Eckernförde Hostein
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 171
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
barrow Ke9109
barrow Ke9117
barrow Ke9138
? Ke9167
possible
strike-a-light1 bead whetstone cremation Ke9226A
burial
barrow Ke9206
barrow Ke9240
barrow Ke9248
barrow Ke9260ID
barrow Ke9283
? Ke9299
? Ke9338
cremationinKe2652A
pommel plate barrow
barrow Ke2825
barrow Ke2485
barrow Ke2486A
barrow Ke2487B
172
Appendix 1 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Schoolbek Kosel Germany 6 Rollen
Eckernförde Hostein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Bargstedt Bargstedt Germany 1 Kugelkopf
Eckernförde Hostein
Rendsburg- Schleswig-
Sönderbyhof Rieseby Germany 1 1 13
Eckernförde Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Flensburg Germany 1
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Flensburg Germany 1 Rollen
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Flensburg Germany 6
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Kleinwolstrup Freienwil Germany
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Sörup Sörup Germany 8
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Sörup Sörup Germany 1
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Sörup Sörup Germany 1
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Steingerholz Steinberg Germany 1
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Hüsby Hüsby Germany 8 Rollen 2
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Berend Neuberend Germany 2.5
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Berend Neuberend Germany 6
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Schuby Schuby Germany 8
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig- Schleswig-
Schuby Schuby Germany 1
Flensburg Hostein
Schleswig-
Hohenaspe Hohenaspe Steinburg Germany 1 1 2
Hostein
Schleswig-
Hohenlockstedt Hohenlockstedt Steinburg Germany 6 frag Rollen
Hostein
Schleswig-
Hohenlockstedt Hohenlockstedt Steinburg Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Hohenlockstedt Hohenlockstedt Steinburg Germany 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Ridders Hohenlockstedt Steinburg Germany Rollen
Hostein
Schleswig-
Itzeho Itzeho Steinburg Germany 2
Hostein
Schleswig-
Lockstedt Lockstedt Steinburg Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Reher Reher Steinburg Germany 8
Hostein
Schleswig-
Reher Reher Steinburg Germany 1
Hostein
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 173
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
barrow Ke2547
barrow Ke 2188 E
barrow Ke2301E
?barrow Ke2304
barrow Ke2310B
barrow Ke9437
barrow Ke9490A
barrow Ke9493
174
Appendix 1 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
strike-a-light
spearhead
axe type
pin type
country
county
district
parish
name
blade
Schleswig-
Reher Reher Steinburg Germany 8
Hostein
Schleswig-
Reher Reher Steinburg Germany 1 1
Hostein
Schleswig-
Kampen Kampen Sylt Germany 13
Hostein
Schleswig-
Keitum Sylt-Ost Sylt Germany
Hostein
Schleswig-
Morsum Sylt-Ost Sylt Germany 6
Hostein
Schleswig-
Tinnum Sylt-Ost Sylt Germany 2
Hostein
Schleswig-
Tinnum Sylt-Ost Sylt Germany pin
Hostein
Schleswig-
Wenningsted Wenningstedt Sylt Germany 6
Hostein
Thierschneck Eisenberg Thüringen Germany 1 1
Etteln Büren Westfalen Germany 2 3 1
Haaren Büren Westfalen Germany 2 13 Schwellhals
Wünnenberg Büren Westfalen Germany 1 3
Wünnenberg Büren Westfalen Germany 1 3
Wünnenberg Büren Westfalen Germany 3 Schwellhals
Wünnenberg Büren Westfalen Germany 6 Nagelkopf
Herstelle Höxter Westfalen Germany 2 4 1
grave type
pendats
source
amber
other
rings
barrow Ke9498
barrow Ke9499
barrow Ke2679
barrow Ke2772
Appendices 2-4:
Material used for the south Scandinavian case studies in chapter 4
Ke378D
Ke366A
Ke372A
source
Ke366B
Ke378C
Ke378B
Ke372B
sents the quantity of this type of object found in the
Ke369
Ke377
Ke379
Ke370
Ke371
Ke375
Ke374
burial.
All of the parishes in appendix 2 are situated in Sokke-
lund district, København County; all of the places in period
appendix 3 are within Hesselager parish, Gudme district,
MBA
MBA
MBA
MBA
? PII
PIII
PIII
PIII
PIII
PII
PII
PII
PII
PII
Svendborg County; and all of the places in appendix 4 are
in the area around Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein.
leather remains
‘Frag’ = fragment or fragmentary. other
Sources
pommel
chape
Freudenberg 2007 = Freudenberg, Mechtild. 2007. Ein
comb
awl
Fürst in der Provinz? Grab und Kultanlage von Hüsby, In:
Freudenberg, M. (ed.), Tod und Jenseits. Totenbrauchtum
1 gold
in Schleswig-Holstein von der Jungsteinzeit bis zur Eisenzeit.
belt hook
inlay
Stiftung Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen Schloß
Gottorf, Schleswig. tutulus
Kexx = number in the Anér and Kersten volumes. An-
8
belt plate
er, Ekkehard & Kersten, Karl. Die Funde der älteren Bronze-
1
ziet des nordischen kreises in Dänemark, Schleswig-Holstein
und Niedersachsen. Volumes 1,3 & 4. Karl Wachholz Ver-
collar
collar
neck collar/ring
lag, Neumünster.
Kersten 1954 = 1954. Untersuchung von fünf Grabhü- finger-ring
geln der jüngeren Stein- und älteren Bronzezeit in Klein 1
Dannewerk, Kr Schleswig. Germania 42:280-286.
Sexx = Sehested, N.F.B. 1884. Archæologiske Under- arm-rings
2 spiral
2 spiral
stike-a-light 1 gold
tweezer
1
razor
1
knife
2
dubblebutton
1
1
pin, fibula
pin/fibula
fibula
bow
pin
1 gold
dagger
inlay
1
1
1
sword
1
1
1
Gladsakse
Gladsakse
Gladsakse
Gladsakse
Gladsakse
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
Gentofte
parish
Charlottenlund
Charlottenlund
Klampenborg
Klampenborg
Smakkegård?
Jægersborg
Jægersborg
Jægersborg
Stolpegård
name
Bagsværd
Bagsværd
Bagsværd
Bagsværd
Buddinge
name
parish
sword
dagger
pin/fibula
dubblebutton
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
Jægersborg
Lynge-Tårbæk 1 PIII Ke400
Dyrehave
177
Appendix 2
Appendix 2 178
name
parish
sword
dagger
pin/fibula
dubblebutton
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
Jægersborg
Lynge-Tårbæk 1 PIII Ke401
Dyrehave
goldsheathbelonging
Vedbæk Søllerød 1 fibula 1 PIII Ke434A
to the sword
name
parish
sword
dagger
pin/fibula
double button
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
Hesselagergård Hesselager 1 2 1 1 gold awl, piece of amber, 1 small golden spiral ring PIII Ke2010E, Se40e
Appendix 4
181
Appendix 4 182
name
sword
dagger
axe
spearhead
pin/fibula
double button
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
2 gold Lockenringen,
Hüsby 1 MBA Freudenberg 2007
part of pommel
gold arm-ring or
Hüsby 1 1 1 pin, fibula 1 1 strike-a-light 1 PII Freudenberg 2007
clothing object
Jagel MBA Ke2368A
Jagel MBA Ke2368B
Berend MBA Ke2385A
Berend MBA Ke2385B
Berend 1 PIB Ke2385C
Berend 1 3 amber beads PIB Ke2385D
Berend MBA Ke2386E
Neuberend 1 textile fragment MBA Ke2387
Füsing 1 gold MBA Ke2392
Füsing dagger slate pendant MBA Ke2393
Moldenit 1 1 1 pommel PII Ke2394
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
name
sword
dagger
axe
spearhead
pin/fibula
double button
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
name
sword
dagger
axe
spearhead
pin/fibula
double button
knife
razor
tweezer
flint objects
arm-rings
finger-ring
neck collar/ring
belt plate
tutulus
belt hook
other
period
source
Appendix 5:
Material used for the Lüneburg case study in chapter 4
Unless otherwise indicated the object is of bronze. FRB Fingerberge (Finger-ring with spiral ends)
FSR finger spiral ring
Min.= minimum number of objects (this generally con- SR Spiral ring
cerns bronze studs and tubes). SAR: X ribbed arm-ring X = number of ribs
SBR: Va Simple ankle-ring variant a
Lü = Lüneburgischen/Lüneburg type. SBR: Vb Simple ankle-ring variant b
The numbers written in the column stand for the number In the column ‘inhumation/cremation’, I = inhumation
of objects of this type that are found in the grave, with burial and C = cremation burial.
the exception of the column ‘fibulae and pins’, where they The last column contains the burials that are dated by
stand for different types of fibulae or pins (see below). Laux (1971) to one of his phases, e.g. MI = male phase I,
and so forth.
Fibulae
1 Haarknotenfibula, fibula placed on the back of the head Sources
2 Fibula BALx:xx = list and number in the catalogue in Bergmann,
3 Fibula pin, same or similar type of pin as the pin in the Joseph. 1970. Die ältere Bronzezeit Nordwestdeutschland.
fibula NeueMethodenzurEthnischenundHistorischenInterpre-
4 Fragments of a fibula tation Urgeschichtlicher Quellen. Teil A. N. G. Kasseler
5 Fibula pin placed at the back of the head Beiträge zur vor- und Frühgeschichte Vol 2. Elwert
Verlag, Marburg.
Pins (there is only one grave with more than one pin) Lxx = number in the catalogue in Laux, Freidrich. 1971.
1 Lüneburger wheel-headed pin version A Die Bronzezeit in der Lüneburger Heide, August Lax Ver-
2 Lüneburger wheel-headed pin version B lagsbuchhandlung, Hildesheim.
3 Lüneburger wheel-headed pin version E Pxx = number in the catalogue in Piesker, Hans. 1958.
4 Lüneburger wheel-headed pin version F Untersuchungen zur Älteren Lüneburgischen Bronzezeit.
5 Lüneburger wheel-headed pin version ? Veröffentlichung des Nordwestdeutschen Verbandes
6 Wheel-headed pin version B für Altertumsforschung und der Urgeschichtlichen
7 Wheel-headed pin version C Sammlung des Landesmuseums Hannover, Lüneburg.
8 Wheel-headed pin version G H.L. Kxx = inventory number in Niedersächsisches Lan-
9 Wheel-headed pin version H desmuseum Hannover
10 Rollennadel
11 Böhmischen disc headed pin
12 Ornamented Lüneburger Disc headed pin
13 Lüneburger disc headed pin
14 Nagel und Plattenkopfnadel
15 Schwergerippte nadel mit kugelkopf
16 Spiral headed pin
17 other + unknown
number of pendants
Appendix 5
neck ring/collars
number of axes
mound group
bronze spirals
types of rings
bronze tubes
bronze studs
Typ of fibula
Lockenring
pin type
mound
name
grave
Bleckmar amKukkucksbusch1 I 17
min.
Bleckmar Kahlberg 3 I yes yes 4 1 1 collar 1 2 AS, 1 BRB
200
Bleckmar Kahlberg 3 II 1
Bleckmar Kahlberg 3 III part of ring
Bleckmar Kahlberg 4 I 1 AS
Bleckmar Kahlberg 4 ? 17 part of ring
Bleckmar Kahlberg 5 I
Bleckmar Kahlberg 5 II 4 11 1 AR: VC1
Bleckmar Kahlberg 6 3
Bleckmar Kahlberg ? I
Bleckmar Kahlberg ? II
Bleckmar Kahlberg ? III
Bleckmar Wittenberg 4 I 2
Bleckmar Wittenberg 4 II 11 1
Bleckmar Wittenberg 8 I 3
ceramic vessel/sherd
nr. flint arrow heads
number of daggers
inhumation/
cremation
disturbed
Laux date
sources
other
textile fragments,
I no P12, L19A, BAL7:48 FIII
organic remains
1 “diadem”, textile
fragments, organic I no P22, L21B, BAL7:49 FIII
remains
number of pendants
Appendix 5
neck ring/collars
number of axes
mound group
bronze spirals
types of rings
bronze tubes
bronze studs
Typ of fibula
Lockenring
pin type
mound
name
grave
Bleckmar Wittenberg 9 II 17 1 AR: VB1
2 ARB, 2 SAR:11, 1
80-
Bleckmar Wittenberg 9 III 2 1 ring 9 FRB, 2 FSR, 1 SBR:
100
Va, 1 BRB
2 smaller rings, 2
Bleckmar Wittenberg 15 16 48 yes 2
SAR:11, 1 SBR: Va
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 3
min.
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 4 I few 2 AS
150
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 5 I 2
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 6
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 7 II
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 7 III
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 7 IV
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 7 V
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 8
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 10 I 1 SAR:11
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 189
ceramic vessel/sherd
nr. flint arrow heads
number of daggers
inhumation/
cremation
disturbed
Laux date
sources
other
7 discs, organic
I no P35, L21G, BAL7:53 FIIb
remains
L.H. K933-34:76
I no P32, L21F FI
I no L57A
I no L57C
2 spirals, 2 buttons,
1 disc, bronze object,
I no P87, L57D, BAL7:75 FIIa
organic remains,
textile fragments
1 disc, 1 hook,
I no P90, L57E, BAL7:76 FIIb
organic remains
1 disc, organic
I no P93, L57E, BAL7:77 FIIb
remains
I yes L57F
number of pendants
Appendix 5
neck ring/collars
number of axes
mound group
bronze spirals
types of rings
bronze tubes
bronze studs
Typ of fibula
Lockenring
pin type
mound
name
grave
Wardböhmen Hengstberg 10 II 2 1, 16 1 AS, 1 SBR: Vb
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 2 II 2
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 2 III 6
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 2 IV
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 2 I
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 3 I
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 3 II
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 4 I
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 4 II
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 5 I 2 gold 2 1 AR: VB1
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 5 II 2 gold 14
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 5 III
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 6 1 SR
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 7 I BR
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 7 II yes
1 SBR: Va, 1 SBR:
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 8 I yes yes yes
Vb
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 8 II 17
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 8 III
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 9 11
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 10 1 1 AR: VC2
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 12 10 1 FSR
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 13 I yes yes 1 6 1 SAR:10
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 14
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 15
2 SAR: 7 & 9, 1 AR:
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 16 I
VB1
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 191
ceramic vessel/sherd
nr. flint arrow heads
number of daggers
inhumation/
cremation
disturbed
Laux date
sources
other
1 “diadem”, 6 discs,
1 double spiral,
1 button, textile I no P102, L58A, BAL7:82 FIIb
fragments, organic
remains
1 flint spearhead, 1
1 7 quartzite strike-a- I no P106, L58C, BAL2:71 MI
light, organic remains
I no L58C
1 2 I yes P107, L58D, BAL2:72
I no L58D
1 organic remains I no P109, L58E, BAL2:73 MIII
1 organic remains I no P110, L58E, BAL2:74 MIII
I no L58E
1 I no P111, L58F, BAL9:30
I no L58G, H.L. K544-45:76
C no L58G, H.L. K543:76
number of pendants
Appendix 5
neck ring/collars
number of axes
mound group
bronze spirals
types of rings
bronze tubes
bronze studs
Typ of fibula
Lockenring
pin type
mound
name
grave
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 16 II 14 1
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 16 III 2 2 SAR:9
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 17 10
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 18 10 1 AR: VC1
Wardböhmen Schafstallberg 19 1 1
Wardböhmen Worbsloh 2 I 10
Wardböhmen Worbsloh 2 II 1 AS
Wardböhmen Worbsloh 2 III 14
1 ring, 2 SAR:9, 1
Wardböhmen Worbsloh 4 I 2
BR:Vb
Wardböhmen Worbsloh 7 II
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 193
ceramic vessel/sherd
nr. flint arrow heads
number of daggers
inhumation/
cremation
disturbed
Laux date
sources
other
1 “diadem”, 1 hook,
1 I no P85, L59D, BAL7:74 FIIa
organic remains
1 I no L58D
194 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Appendices 6-7:
Material used for the south
Scandinavian case studies in chapter 5
source
Ke602A
Ke602E
Appendix 6 comprises finds from Ars district, Holbæk
Ke623
Ke625
Ke621
Ke615
County and appendix 7 finds are from Gram district,
Haderslev County. sex + possible child
Unless otherwise stated all objects are made of
M
M
M
F
bronze, except for the ceramic vessels, which are only
?
noted as ‘vessels’. The numbers in the columns stand for period
the total number of objects of the type specified in the
column head.
II
II
II
II
II
II
In the column ‘burial form’ there is information about
stone cist in
where the burial was found, i.e. in a barrow, under flat burial form
ground, in a stone cist or in a megalithic monument (=
barrow
barrow
barrow
barrow
barrow
mega
mega). Also, ‘cranium’ is noted if only the skull was bur-
ied, and not any other part of the body.
The burial Ke602E is osteologically determined to
male.
Sources
Kexx = number in the Anér and Kersten volumes. Aner, other
Ekkehard & Kersten, Karl. Die Funde der älteren Bron-
bronze tubes
zezietdesnordischenkreisesinDänemark,Schleswig-Hol-
stein und Niedersachsen. Volumes 2 & 7. Karl Wachholz
Verlag, Neumünster.
decoration
knife
1 gold
razor
axes
1
1
double button
tutulus 1
fibula
1
finger-ring
arm-ring
1
belt plate
1
neck collar
dagger
1
sword
Ars 1
Ars 1
district
Ars
Ars
Ars
Ars
Store-Fuglede
Store-Fuglede
Kalundborg
Kalundborg
parish
Rørby
Rørby
grave nr
A
E
Store-Fuglede
Flinterupgård
Kalundborg
Kalundborg
Uggerløse
name
Kjærby
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
name
grave nr
parish
district
sword
dagger
neck collar
belt plate
arm-ring
finger-ring
fibula
tutulus
double button
axes
razor
knife
other
burial form
period
sex + possible child
source
name
grave nr
parish
district
sword
dagger
neck collar
belt plate
arm-ring
finger-ring
fibula
tutulus
double button
axes
razor
knife
other
burial form
period
sex + possible child
source
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
barrow ? ? Ke3404B
flint dagger barrow I M Ke3551A
flint strike-a-light barrow I M Ke3571
1 barrow I M Ke3545IB
chape barrow II ? Ke3444
chape barrow II ? Ke3485
barrow II ? Ke3530F
barrow II ? Ke3590B
barrow II F Ke3452B
barrow II F Ke3516B
2 Lockenringen, 2 spiral
1 barrow II F Ke3521D
tubes
1 barrow II M Ke3529A
1 barrow II M Ke3405
1 1 barrow II M Ke3406
1 spearhead barrow II M Ke3425
2 bronze nails barrow II M Ke3447
1 belt hook barrow II M Ke3450
200 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
1 barrow II M Ke3451
barrow II M Ke3461
barrow II M Ke3480
1 barrow II M Ke3484
pommel barrow II M Ke3491B
barrow II M Ke3497
pommel barrow II M Ke3500A
barrow II M Ke3502
1 barrow II M Ke3505A
barrow II M Ke3526
barrow II M Ke3527B
barrow II M Ke3527C
1 barrow II M Ke3548
barrow II M Ke3554
1 1 1 barrow II M Ke3558A
barrow II M Ke3560
barrow II M Ke3565
barrow II M Ke3566
barrow II M Ke3574
pommel barrow II M Ke3575B
1 barrow II M Ke3581
1 barrow II M Ke3583B
barrow II M Ke3605
pommel grave? II M Ke3404D
mixed in
2 pommels II & III M Ke3538
barrow
1 chape barrow II/III M Ke3572
barrow II? ? Ke3539B
pommel barrow III ? Ke3423
gold spiral-ring barrow III ? Ke3431
pommel, 2 gold
barrow III ? Ke3557B
Lockenringen
chape cre/flat III ? Ke3523
pommel barrow III ? Ke3513E
pommel barrow III ? Ke3585A
barrow III ? Ke3413
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
neck ring
Appendix 7
neck collar/
finger-ring
ankle-ring
belt plate
fibula/nål
arm-ring
grave nr
dagger
tutulus
socken
amber
sword
härad
plats
grave form
period
source
other
razor
knife
axes
Appendix 8:
Female graves with daggers
country
county
district
parish
Unless otherwise stated, all objects are made of bronze,
name
except for the ceramic vessels, which are only noted as
‘vessels’. The numbers in the columns stand for the total
number of objects of the type in the column head. Hohenlockstedt Steinburg Germany
‘Unclear association’ in the column labelled ‘burial
form’ = all the objects were found in one barrow and it is Grimstrup Ølsted Strø Frederiksborg Denmark
unclear if they come from one burial or more. Præstegårdsmark Melby Strø Frederiksborg Denmark
Jels Jels Gram Haderslev Denmark
Sources Lilholt Skrydstrup Gram Haderslev Denmark
160410 sb 60 = information from Det Kulturhistoriske
Centralregister, www.dkconline.dk [20060208].
Skrydstrup Skrydstrup Gram Haderslev Denmark
Bender Jørgensen et al 1984 = Bender Jørgensen, Lise,
Munksgaard, Elisbeth & Stærmose Nielsen, Karen-
Hanne. 1984. Melhøj-fundet. En hidtil upåaget parallel Sønder-Vilstrup Vilstrup Haderslev Haderslev Denmark
til Skydstrup-fundet. Aarbøger 1982:19-57. Svallerup Svallerup Ars Holbæk Denmark
DBI:xx = catalogue nr in Broholm, Hans Christian. 1943.
Danmarks Bronzealder volume I. Nyt Nordisk Forlag, Ordrup Fårevejle Ods Holbæk Denmark
Arnold Busck, Copenhagen.
Ehlers SHx = catalogue nr in Ehlers, Solveig K. 1998. Hønsinge Vig Ods Holbæk Denmark
BronzezeitlicheTextilenausSchleswig-Holstein.EineTech-
nische Analyse und Funktionsbestimmung. Dissertation Audebo Hagsted Tuse Holbæk Denmark
zur Erlandung des Doktorsgrad der Philosophischen
Fakultät der Christian-Albrects-Universität zu Kiel. Løserup Udby Tuse Holbæk Denmark
Håxx = catalogue nr in Håkansson, Inger. 1985. Skånes
gravfynd från äldre bronsålder som källa till studiet av so-
cial struktur. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia Series in 8°. Ølby Højelse Ramsø København Denmark
Nr 14, Lund.
Jensen 1986 = Jensen, Knud B. 1986. Excavation report
Nationalmuseet, Danske Afd., Danmarks Oldtid Brøndbyvester Brøndbyvester Smørum København Denmark
(Beretningsarkiv). Journalnr: RAS P 989/86. National Bagsværd Gladsakse Sokkelund København Denmark
Museum Copenhagen.
Ryegård Rye Volborg København Denmark
Kexx = number in the Anér and Kersten volumes.
Aner, Ekkehard & Kersten, Karl. Die Funde der älteren Maglebrænde Maglebrænde Falster Nørre Maribo Denmark
BronzezietdesnordischenkreisesinDänemark,Schleswig-
Holstein und Niedersachsen. Volume 1-11 & 17-19. Karl
Wachholz Verlag, Neumünster. Ravnsby Birket Lollands Nørre Maribo Denmark
OLxx= catalogue nr in Oldeberg, Andreas. 1974 + 1976.
Martofte Stubberup Bjerge Odense Denmark
Die ältere Metallzeit in Schweden I and II. Stockholm.
Randsborg 1993:71 = Randsborg, Klavs. 1993. Kivik Ar-
chaeology and Iconography. Acta Archaeologica 64(1). Stærup Dreslette Båg Odense Denmark
neck/collar ring
amber beads
glass beads
burial form
finger ring
ankle ring
fibula/pin
belt plate
arm-ring
dagger
tutulus
period
source
other
2 Lockenringen, awl,
1 2 rollheaded pin 12 barrow I Ke9393A
ceramic vessel
1 1 barrow II Ke259
1 collar 1 2 2 1 bronze tubes barrow II Ke 243I
1 ring 1 1? fibula 1 chape barrow II Ke3454
1 1 2 gold rings barrow II Ke3515B
1 1 1 1 barrow II Ke896B
unclear as-
1 1 1 sword II Ke1023A
sociation
unclear as-
1 collar 1 2 1 fibula 4 sword, textile fragments II Ke1744C
sociation
1 1 barrow II Ke1799B
1 1 1 4 fibula vessel barrow II Ke1846B
unclear as-
1 1 sword II Ke1856
sociation
1 1 barrow II Ke1917
1 collar 1 fibula barrow II DBI:759
1 1 ? II DBI:786
country
county
district
parish
name
Legaardlyst Skanderup Hjemslev Skanderborg Denmark
Hanerau- Rendsburg-
Hademarschen Germany
Hademarschen Eckernförde
Schleswig-
Kluesries Harrislee Schleswig Germany
Flensburg
Tinnum Tinnum Sylt Schleswig Germany
Herz Schleswig-
Bröthen Germany
Lauenberg Holstein
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 215
neck/collar ring
amber beads
glass beads
burial form
finger ring
ankle ring
fibula/pin
belt plate
arm-ring
dagger
tutulus
period
source
other
1 1 pin 3 2 rings barrow II DBI:824
2 Lockenringen, spiral
1 collar 1 2 4 fibula 5 barrow II Ke2011B
tubes
1 collar 1 1 bead barrow II Ke2017
1 1 barrow II Ke4955C
1 1 1 gold fibula chape barrow II Ke4993B
1 1 pommel barrow II Ke5039A
1 1 1 pommel, chape barrow II Ke5085
1 1 3 1 barrow II Ke5268B
1 1 barrow II Ke5372
wheel-headed
1 collar 1 3 ‘diadem’ barrow II Ke9005B
pin
1 1 barrow II Ke9120A
wheel-headed
1 1 barrow II Ke9641
pin
1 1 barrow II Ke2744B
Ehlers 1998
1 1 2 1 textile fragments barrow II
SH:8
216
Appendix 8 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
country
county
district
parish
name
Kohlenbek Bokelrehm Steinburg Germany
Studsgård-
Voldsgård Hammerum Ringkøbing Denmark
Havnstrup
Langelands
Hesselbjerg Humble Svendborg Denmark
Sønder
Gammelby Grurup Hassing Thisted Denmark
Schleswig-
Harrislee Harrislee Schleswig Germany
Flensburg
Västra
V. Vemmerlöv nr 23 Skåne Sweden
Vemmerlöv
neck/collar ring
amber beads
glass beads
burial form
finger ring
ankle ring
fibula/pin
belt plate
arm-ring
dagger
tutulus
period
source
other
wheel-headed
1 barrow II Ke9357
pin, fibula
Bender
2 gold ear-rings, chape,
1 ring 1 2 1 pin, fibula 1 barrow III Jørgensen et al
textile fragments
1984
Appendices 9-11:
Material used in the case study in
chapter 6
2350-2010
dix 10 the Middle Bronze Age material and appendix 11 C14
the Late Bronze Age burials.
In the column labelled ‘sex/age’, ‘ad.’ = adult and ‘mat.’ =
BC
mature.
The appendices are based on the following material:
30-35 12-14
sex/age
Håkansson, Inger. 1985. Skånes gravfynd från äldre bron-
sålder som källa till studiet av social struktur. Acta Ar- sex/age
chaeologica Lundensia Series in 8°. Nr 14, Lund.
Strömberg, Märta. 1960. Ein bronzezeitlichs Brandgrab
mit Schmeltztiegelfragmenten bei Löderup in Schonen.
Meddelanden från Lunds universitets Historiska Museum sex/age
20-25
1959:172-178.
- 1975a. Studien zu einem Gräberfield in Löderup (Jungneo-
lithikum bis römische Kaiserzeit) Grabersitte – Kontinuität
– Sozialstruktur. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia series 8º sex/age
nr 10. Habelt, Bonn & Gleerup, Lund.
14-15
Märta Strömbergs reports in ATA, (Antikvarisk-
topografiska arkivet), Stockholm.
adolescent
adolescent
adult?
sex/age
7-8
other
flint blade
ceramic
2 gold
ring
rings
amber bead
slate pendant
2
flint strike-a-light
1
flint flake
5
chisel
scraper
2
flint arrowhead
1
flint axe
type/Lomborg
IA
II
II
flint dagger
1
grav nr
Ingelstorp F110
Ingelstorp F118
Ingelstorp F115
Ingelstorp F117
Ingelstorp F12
Ingelstorp F13
Ingelstorp F14
Ingelstorp F19
Plats
Plats
grav nr
flint dagger
type/Lomborg
flint axe
flint arrowhead
scraper
chisel
flint flake
flint strike-a-light
slate pendant
amber bead
ring
ceramic
other
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
C14
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
male ad. or
Ingelstorp F238 1 II 1 1 1
mat.
Ingelstorp F243 1 1 1 c. 20
Ingelstorp F21944 1 II
quartzite
Ingelstorp F458 1
hammerstone
point of a flint
Ingelstorp F461 1 II 1 1
dagger
Ingelstorp F462 1 II
Plats
grav nr
flint dagger
type/Lomborg
flint axe
flint arrowhead
scraper
chisel
flint flake
flint strike-a-light
slate pendant
amber bead
ring
ceramic
other
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
C14
Löderup 32 1 ? adult ?
Löderup 34 1 copper vessel c. 6
2480-2140
Löderup 35 2 vessel adolescent
BC
Löderup 38 1 ? adult c. 15
Löderup 40 1 8-10
Löderup 44 1 1 adult
2300-1940
Löderup 71 1 spiral adult/ mature
BC
Löderup 72 1
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Plats
grav nr
flint dagger
type/Lomborg
flint axe
flint arrowhead
scraper
chisel
flint flake
flint strike-a-light
slate pendant
amber bead
ring
ceramic
other
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
sex/age
C14
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
1780-1490
Löderup 75 1 adult
BC
Löderup 77 1 1
Löderup 80 2
Löderup 82 1 mature
Löderup 83 1 1 sherd adult
Löderup 90 1 adolescent
Löderup 91 1 1 child
cremated
Löderup 92 2 15 1 sherd human
adullt
Löderup 93 1
2470-2130
Löderup 100 4
BC
Löderup 107 1 1
Löderup 109 1 child
Löderup 37a small child
Löderup 37b 1 flint drill c. 15
221
222 Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
double button
sword/dagger
type of grave
Appendix 10
bronze knife
bronze ring
tweezers
ceramic
pyrite
fibula
razor
grav
flint
awl
ort
Löderup 15 54 cre
Löderup 15 58 cre 1 1 1
Håkansson’s
belt plate
sex/age
dating
other
C14
II
1500-1190 BC
II or III 1420-1110 BC
14-18 III
8 II or III
30-40 III
tutulus II
II
II
20-25 III-IV
25-30 III
probable
60-70 III?
hook
13 hooks, 8 mature or III 1540-1260 BC
frag hooks senile, child 5-6
1610-1310 BC
III
III
LN/MBA
LN/MBA
c. 20 III
III
LN/MBA
slate pendant,
II
piece of amber
III
adult III
or frag neck
adult II el III
collar
adult? LN/MBA
adolescent
remains pig
adult LN/MBA
tooth
leather
MBA?
remains
younger
adult , child than grave
36c
younger
child? than grave
36c
2 pins dog tooth human II
224
place
burial
ceramic sherds
ceramic
flint
bronze knife
bronze ring
awl
razor
tweezers
sword
double button
bronze sickle
bronze pin
fibula
bead
other
sex, age
other bones
C14
Ingelstorp 1 36 26 human
Ingelstorp 1 37 3 human
Ingelstorp 1 65 7 1 ? 20-25
Ingelstorp 1 79 1 17-19 sheep?
Ingelstorp 1 10a vessel 1 40-55
Ingelstorp 2 44 1 1 50-60
Ingelstorp 2 45 1 ? mature-
senile
Ingelstorp 3 48 1 1 1 1 60 sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 3 56 59 young-
mature
Ingelstorp 3 57 vessel, lid ring 1 30-40 sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 3 58 vessel button child 3-8
Ingelstorp 3 59 vessel child 4-5 sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 3 60 vessel 1 1 child 9-10 cattle
pig?, sheep/
Ingelstorp 3 61 vessel, lid ring child 10-11
goat
cattle, sheep/
Ingelstorp 4 3 vessel 1 child 10-12
goat, pig
Ingelstorp 4 7 14 1 mature/
senile
Ingelstorp 4 8 vessel, lid 1 c. 20 sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 4 9 2 vessels 19-25
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
place
burial
ceramic sherds
ceramic
flint
bronze knife
bronze ring
awl
razor
tweezers
sword
double button
bronze sickle
bronze pin
fibula
bead
other
sex, age
other bones
C14
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
Ingelstorp 4 10 47 young?
Ingelstorp 4 12 vessel 1 20-25 sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 4 13 25 young
discrete traits
Ingelstorp 4 15 vessel 20-25 lamb
Ingelstorp 4 16 14 50-60
Ingelstorp 4 17 7
1000-800
Ingelstorp 4 18 7 adult?
BC
Ingelstorp 4 20 20-30
Ingelstorp 4 21 2 vessels 45-55?
Ingelstorp 4 22 vessel ? 50-60
Ingelstorp 4 23 vessel 20-30
Ingelstorp 4 24 65 child
Ingelstorp 4 25 vessel button 40-50
Ingelstorp 4 26 38 45-55
Ingelstorp 4 30 830-510 BC
child 4-5
Ingelstorp 4 35 1 vessel
(girl?)
Ingelstorp 4 37 2 probably
old
Appendix 11
226
place
burial
ceramic sherds
ceramic
flint
bronze knife
bronze ring
awl
razor
tweezers
sword
double button
bronze sickle
bronze pin
fibula
bead
other
sex, age
other bones
C14
Ingelstorp 4 46 4 infant
mature or
Ingelstorp 4 56 107
senilie
Ingelstorp 4 57 1 vessel young?
Ingelstorp 4 67 ? older?
25-30,
Ingelstorp 4 69 vessel ring infant/
neonate
Ingelstorp 4 70 vessel
Ingelstorp 4 71 1 adult
Ingelstorp 4 72 vessel mature sheep/goat
Ingelstorp 4 75 1 12-13
Ingelstorp 4 76 vessel human bird
Ingelstorp 4 77 14 old
quartzite
Ingelstorp 4 78 3 miniature hammer ?human sheep/goat
stone
young or
Ingelstorp 4 82 126 blade
mature
young or
Ingelstorp 4 83 resin
mature
adolescent or
Ingelstorp 4 84 36
adult
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
place
burial
ceramic sherds
ceramic
flint
bronze knife
bronze ring
awl
razor
tweezers
sword
double button
bronze sickle
bronze pin
fibula
bead
other
sex, age
other bones
C14
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007.
Löderup 15 4 1 sheep
Löderup 15 6 vessel 1 human sheep
child or
Löderup 15 26 vessel
adolescent
Löderup 15 27 1 adult
227
Appendix 11
228
place
burial
ceramic sherds
ceramic
flint
bronze knife
bronze ring
awl
razor
tweezers
sword
double button
bronze sickle
bronze pin
fibula
bead
other
sex, age
other bones
C14
Löderup 15 28 2 vessels miniature adult
?
Löderup 15 30 strike-a-light adolescent horse jaw
or adult
Löderup 15 31 vessel adult sheep
Löderup 15 88 1 adult
Löderup 15 89 1 ?human
Löderup 15 94 bronze mature
burnt
cattle sheep/
Löderup 15 96 5 flakes hazelnut ?human
goat
shell
Löderup 15 97 sickle cattle, pig
sheep/goat,
Löderup 15 98 2 flakes
pig, ?
Löderup 15 99 3 2 flakes ?
Löderup 15 101 3 adult
Löderup 15 102 9 adult
Löderup 15 104 2
Löderup 15 105 1 1 flake ? mature
fire-cracked
Löderup 15 108 117 ?human
stone
vessels
229
Appendix 11
230
ratory
Petra Molnar
Measurements:
Stockholm University
Appendix 12
mm
ports the age estimation.
mm (possibly male)
morphology (with some ambivalence).
years
659:76 Wardböhmen, Schafstallberg 4 I Fragment of rib and possibly long bone
660:76 Wardböhmen, Schafstallberg 4 I Fragment of rib
928:76 Bleckmar, Wittenberg 15 Fragment of long bone
929:76 Bleckmar, Wittenberg 15 Fragment of coxa, part of the incisura ischiadica major female
930:76 Bleckmar, Wittenberg 15 Fragment of a long bone (femur, tibia or humerus)
931:76 Bleckmar, Wittenberg 15 Fragment of radius and ulna (middle part of diaphysis)
932:76 Bleckmar, Wittenberg 15 Four fragments of cranial vault with open sutures female Young adult
(incl. external occipital protuberance)
Bronze Age Identities: Costume, Conflict and Contact in Northern Europe 1600–1300 BC
Sophie Bergerbrant 2007. 231
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ISSN 0349-4128