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LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Technological advancement brought us into new era
where by the whole world is now a global village,
electronic component and appliance are not left behind.
So as the need for generating electricity through
“inverter” increase, there are various designs, which
have been carried out in the past to achieve this aim.
But one thing that needs to be stressed here is that the
previous designs have some shortcoming that led to
design of this project whose aim is to eliminate these
shortcomings. The past (previous) designs will be
review and their shortcoming will be clearly explained
in this chapter.
2.2 INVERTER USING 555 TIMER
DC to AC inverter using 555 IC timer is one of the
previous designs. In this project it product a square
wave, but its shortcoming here is, it does not have
battery charging system incorporated in the design.
The square wave produced by this system set the
system to be unsuitable for inductive loads. As seen in
the figure below transistors are used for the switching
aspect.
While the 555 IC timer produces the oscillation pulse
Fig. 2.1: Current diagram of an inverter with 555 timer
µ§
Battery
2
main inverter performs the basic operation of
converting the input DC signal from the battery into an
AC signal. It then amplifiers the AC signal by the use of
transistor / MOSFET drivers and then step-up the signal
to the require power (1000W) by the use of step-up
transformer. The timer unit generates electrical pulse to
produce an up counting sequence which is displayed by
a 7 – segment LED display. This timer sequence
determines the supply and charging time of the
batteries. The switching unit performs automatic
switching between the batteries at ensures that each
battery supply the inverter for batteries. The switching
unit performs automatic switching between the
batteries it ensures that each battery supply the
inverter for approximately 90 minutes and switch over
for 90 min charge to replace it lost energy. The
switching operation is been controlled by the signal
from the timer unit via the logic unit. This, every 90
minutes switching over operation from charging to
supply and vise vase in performed.
2.5 INVERTER USING PIC 16f84a
This project produce a pure sine wave output signal
unlike all the others explained above. The inverter use the
PIC 16F84A as its basic component. PIC which is peripheral.
Interface controller, it is different from integrated circuit (IC)
which are used in the previous design. PIC 16+84A which
belongs to micro controller devices. PIC 1684A is an 18 pin
14 bit embedded micro featuring electronically erasable
programmable read only memory (EEPROM). This program
can be erased using ultraviolet light.
Fig 2.6
Simple inverter circuit with an electromechanical switch and
with a transistor switch.
2.6 BASIC INVERTER DESIGNS: In one simple inverter
circuit, DC powers connected to a transformer through
the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is
rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow
back to the DC source following two alternate paths
through one end of the primary winding and then the
other. The alternation of the direction of current in the
primary winding of the transformer produces alternate
current (AC) in the secondary circuit.
2.7 The electromechanical version of the switching device
includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported
moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact
against one of the stationary contacts and an
electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the
opposite stationary contact. The current in the
electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch
so that the switch continually switching rapidly back
and forth.
This type of electromechanical inverter switch called a
vibrator or a buzzer was once used in vacuum tube
automobile radios (refine). A similar mechanism has
been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns. As
they have become available, transistors and various
other types of semiconductor switches have been
incorporated into inverter circuit designs.
Frequency = 50Hz
Transformer Rating
Required output voltage (V2) =15V
Input voltage (V1) =220v
Primary turns (N1) =300
Secondary turns (N2) =x
N2 =N1V2/V1
=300(15)
220
=20 turns.
Transformer output current = 2V
Output power = 15V x 2A
= 30W
Rectifier
µ§
Fig.3.3 Rectifier circuit
As explained earlier, The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is
shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input
voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is
connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas,
D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series
with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction
as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional
wave.
Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak inverse voltage represents the maximum voltage that the non- conducting diode
must withstand. At the instance the secondary voltage reaches its positive peak value, Vm
the diodes D1 and D3 are conducting, where as D2 and D4 are reverse biased and are
non-conducting. The conducting diodes D1 and D3 have almost zero resistance. Thus the
entire voltage Vm appears across the load resistor RL. The reverse voltage across the non-
conducting diodes D2 (D4) is also Vm. Thus for a Bridge rectifier the peak inverse voltage
is given by µ §
Since transformer output voltage = 15V
VM = 15V
Diode current rating = 2 x transformer current
= 2 x 2A
= 4A
1.1 X 14 = 11.2v
= 15.4v
= 1.8XO.5A
0.9A
= 10.0w
= 10w
Calculating for the capacitor
When Il = 0.9
T = 1/2x60
= 0.325v+ 2.828v
= 0.92
=0.00814891 x 106
1.5 x VDA
= 1.5X11.2
= 16.8V
C = 1000uf 16V.
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor for the Full Wave Rectifier is given by
µ§
The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is
µ§
µ§
µ§
RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is
µ§
µ§
Efficiency
Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power
µ§
µ§
The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.
This unit converts the electrical signal from the heat sensor (thermistor) into an electrical
signal. The basic component of the circuit is LM 741 operational amplifier configured in
The general operational amplifier has two inputs and one output, the
output voltage is a multiple of the difference between the two inputs (one
can be made floating).
value is not critical. Thus picking a 50K ohms resistor, R1 could be seen as
Rb=25K.
v = 9v x (25000/50000 ohms)
V = 9v x 0.5 ohms
V = 4.5v
µ§
magnitude of heat from the transformer. The resistance can vary from
are produce as a result of the variation in resistance. The output from the op-
In order to achieve a good number of turns flux density of 1.531tesla was assume and the
A = (√P/5.58
Where A = Area in square meter (M2), P = power in watts (W) = 3000W and 5.58
is a constant
Φm = BmxA
Primary turn N1
Secondary turns N2
(N1/N2) = (V1/V2)
Primary current I1
I1 = 3000/12 = 250A
I2 = 3000/220 = 13.6364A
CIRCUIT A
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF A MORDEN 3000W DC-AC INVERTER
3.4.3 RESISTOR
3.4.4 TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a µsemiconductor device§, commonly used as an amplifier or
an electrically controlled switch. The transistor is the fundamental building
block of the µcircuitry§ that governs the operation of µcomputers§, µcellular
phones§, and all other modern µelectronics§.
Because of its fast response and accuracy, the transistor may be used in a
wide variety of µdigital§ and µanalog§ functions, including µamplification§,
µswitching§, µvoltage regulation§, signal µmodulation§, and µoscillators§.
Transistors may be packaged individually or as part of an µintegrated
circuit§ chip, which may hold millions of transistors in a very small area.
Modern transistors are divided into two main categories: µbipolar junction
transistors§ (BJTs) and µfield effect transistors§ (FETs). Application of
current in BJTs and voltage in FETs between the input and common
terminals increases the µconductivity§ between the common and output
terminals, thereby controlling current flow between them. The transistor
characteristics depend on their type. See µTransistor models§.
The term "transistor" originally referred to the µpoint contact§ type, but
these only saw very limited commercial application, being replaced by the
much more practical µbipolar junction§ types in the early 1950s. Ironically
both the term "transistor" itself and the µschematic symbol§ most widely
used for it today are the ones that specifically referred to these long-obsolete
devices.µ[1]§ For a short time in the early 1960s, some manufacturers and
publishers of electronics magazines started to replace these with symbols
that more accurately depicted the different construction of the bipolar
transistor, but this idea was soon abandoned.
In µanalog circuits§, transistors are used in µamplifiers§, (direct current
amplifiers, audio amplifiers, radio frequency amplifiers), and linear
µregulated power supplies§. Transistors are also used in µdigital circuits§
where they function as electronic switches, but rarely as discrete devices,
almost always being incorporated in monolithic µIntegrated Circuits§.
Digital circuits include µlogic gates§, µrandom access memory§ (RAM),
µmicroprocessors§, and µdigital signal processors§ (DSPs).
Advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes
Before the development of transistors, µvacuum tubes§ (or in the UK
thermionic valves or just valves) were the main active components in
electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to
replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are:
• Smaller size and lighter (despite continuing miniaturization of vacuum
tubes)
• Highly automated manufacture
• Lower cost (in volume production)
• Lower possible operating voltages (but vacuum tubes can operate at
higher voltages)
• No warm-up period (most vacuum tubes need 10 to 60 seconds to
function correctly)
• Lower power dissipation (no heater power, very low saturation
voltage)
• Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness (although vacuum
tubes are electrically more rugged, and are much more resistant to
µnuclear electromagnetic pulses§ and µelectrostatic discharge§)
• Much longer life (vacuum tube cathodes are eventually exhausted and
the vacuum can become contaminated)
• Complementary devices available (allowing circuits with
complementary-symmetry: vacuum tubes with a polarity equivalent to
PNP BJTs or P type FETs are not available)
• Ability to control large currents (power transistors are available to
control hundreds of amperes, vacuum tubes to control even one
ampere are large and costly)
• Much less µmicrophonic§ (vibration can modulate vacuum tube
characteristics, though this may contribute to the sound of µguitar
amplifiers§)
Types
µµ §§PNPµµ §§P-channelµµ §§NPNµµ §§N-channelBJTJFETBJT and
JFET symbols
Transistors are categorized by:
• Semiconductor material: germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon
carbide
• Structure: µBJT§, µJFET§, IGFET (µMOSFET§), µIGBT§, "other
types"
• Polarity: µNPN§, µPNP§ (BJTs); N-channel, P-channel (FETs)
• Maximum power rating: low, medium, high
• Maximum operating frequency: low, medium, high, µradio
frequency§ (RF), µmicrowave§ (The maximum effective frequency of
a transistor is denoted by the term fT, an abbreviation for "frequency
of transition". The frequency of transition is the frequency at which
the transistor yields unity gain).
• Application: switch, general purpose, audio, high voltage, super-beta,
matched pair
• Physical packaging: µthrough hole§ metal, through hole plastic,
µsurface mount§, ball grid array, power modules
Thus, a particular transistor may be described as: silicon, surface mount,
BJT, NPN, low power, high frequency switch.
Usage
In the early days of transistor circuit design, the µbipolar junction
transistor§, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor. Even after
MOSFETs became available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for
digital and analog circuits because of their ease of manufacture and speed.
However, desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their utility in low-
power devices, have made them the ubiquitous choice for use in digital
circuits and a very common choice for use in analog circuits.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 CONSTRUCTION
This chapter contains the construction work details. It also contains the list
of tools used in the construction work and the testing and result analysis.
The circuit board consists of the vero board and all other components
mounted on it. In its construction, the vero board was cleaned with an iron
brush to remove dirt from its surface which might affect soldering quality.
on the board one after the other and soldered. The IC was not directly
In the soldering process, care was taken to ensure that the soldered joints
have good mechanical and electrical contact. Also great care was taken to
ensure that the components were not damage from excess heat from the
process.
- For the iron to properly conduct heat, the soldering tip was well tinned
(coated with a tin layer of solder). To keep the tip clean, it was wiped
- All component lead and copper fort pads were cleaned and free of
wool.
- While soldering and unsoldering, a safety glass was used to avoid eye
- The top of the soldering iron was firmly was placed against the wire lead
the lead near semi conductor was held with needle nose pliers or tweezers to
prevent the heat from the soldering iron from getting to into the component.
taken not to apply solder directly onto the top of the iron.
- Enough solder was applied to form a tin, smooth coating in all metal part
in the connection.
application of the solder has been stopped. This is to aid the flow of
- Care was taken not tot move the soldered connection until the solder has
connections.
The enclosure was practically made from a sheet of thin metal. Using a
meter rule and pencil, the require shape and size for the enclosure was
marked. The parts were then joined together with special plastic glue to
Using a hand drill with tiny drilling bit, screw holes and other relevant
Factors that were considered before choosing a specific shape and size
4.3 ASSEMBLING
Havng constructed the circuit board and the enclosure and being satisfied
with the functionality of the constructed circuit, the project was assembled.
Assembling was simply fixing the circuit board firmly in the enclosure and
screwing that there was no conducting object like lead ball, nail etc inside
the enclosure and also that enclosure was not to small for the circuit board
since this might cause compression which might result to breakage or the
complicated and demand great care and attention since the use of a lot of
Testing of the project proved satisfactorily. The power cord was connected
to the mains and the power switch toggled on. Using a multimeter, the
voltage levels at various points were taking to ensure that the correct amount
Next, resistance test was carried out. This was to ensure the there was no
open or close circuit within the board strips or the connecting wires.
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The test shows that the system functionality corresponds to design intention.
1- Soldering iron
2- Pair of pliers
3- Side cutter
4- Nails
5- Tweezers
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
write this
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
write this
References
601.
7. µwww.wikipedia.com/machine§
Step-up
Dc-Ac Transform-
Switching Driver
Inverter er
Circuit
Motor
Logic
gate
Pulse 7-segmant
Generator Counter Decoder display