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1. Explain what is meant by nonspecific defense and list the nonspecific lines of defense in the vertebrate body.
Nonspecific defense is a trait of innate immunity, they quickly recognize and respond to a broad range of
microbes regardless of their precise identity. These nonspecific lines of defense include:
External: Skin, Mucous membranes, Secretions
Internal: Phagocytic Cells, Antimicrobial proteins, Inflammatory response, and Natural Killer Cells
2. Distinguish between:
a. innate and acquired immunity
Innate immunity: Is present before any exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth. These
defenses are largely nonspecific, and quickly recognize and respond to a broad range of microbes regardless of
their precise identity. These nonspecific lines of defense include:
External: Skin, Mucous membranes, Secretions
Internal: Phagocytic Cells, Antimicrobial proteins, Inflammatory response, and Natural Killer Cells
Acquired Immunity: develops only after exposure to inducing agents such as microbes, abnormal body cells,
toxins or other foreign substances. They are highly specific, that is they can distinguish one inducing agent from
another, even if they only differ slightly. This is achieved by white blood cells called LYMPHOCYTES, which
produce two general types of immune responses. Humoral (antibodies) and Cell-mediated (cytotoxic
lymphocytes)
b. humoral and cell mediated response
Humoral response: Cells derived from B lymphocytes secrete defensive proteins called ANTIBODIES that bind to
microbes and mark them for elimination.
Cell Mediated response: Cytotoxic lymphocytes directly destroy infected body cells, cancer cells and foreign
tissue.
7. Describe the factors that influence phagocytosis during the inflammation response.
Injured cells put out a call for reinforcements, secreting chemicals that stimulate the release of additional
neutrophils from the bone marrow.
Moderate fevers may facilitate phagocytosis and, by speeding up body reactions hasten the repair of tissues.
8. Explain how the action of natural killer cells differs from the action of phagocytes.
Surface receptors on the NK cell recognize general features on the surface of its targets. Once it is attached to a
virus infected cell or cancer cell, the NK cell releases chemicals that lead to the death of the striken cell by
APOPTOSIS, or programmed cell death.
14. Explain how the particular structure of a lymphocyte’s antigen binding site forms during development. Explain the role of
recombinase in generating the staggering variability of lymphocytes.
--Newly formed lymphocytes are all alike, but later develop into T cells or B cells depending on WHERE they
continue their maturation.
--Lymphocytes that migrate from bone marrow to the THYMUS(a gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart)
develop into T cells
--Lymphocytes that remain in the bone marrow and complete maturation become B cells
--The variable regions at the tip of each antigen receptor chain, which form the antigen binding site, account for
the diversity of lymphocytes. Each person has about 1 million different B cells and 10 million different T cells,
each with a particular antigen binding specificity. Thus can respond to an enormous number of different antigen
receptor chains.
15. Explain why the antigen receptors of lymphocytes are tested for self-reactivity during development. Predict the consequences
that would occur if such testing did not take place.
Because the rearrangements of antigen receptor genes are random, a developing lymphocyte may end up with
antigen receptors that are specific for some of the bodies own molecules. Thus their antigen receptors are
tested for potential self reactivity. If they are, they are either destroyed by apoptosis or rendered nonfunctional.
Failure to eliminate them and maintain SELF TOLERENCE can lead to autoimmune diseases.
16. Describe the mechanism of clonal selection. Distinguish between effector cells and memory cells.
Clonal Selection: Each antigen, by binding to specific receptors, selectively activates a tiny fraction of cells from
the bodys diverse pool of lymphocytes; this relatively small number of selected cells gives rise to clones of
thousands of cells, all specific for and dedicated to eliminating that antigen.
This cloning results in 2 type of cells.
One clone consist of a larger number of short lived EFFECTOR CELLS that combat the same antigen. The other
clone consists of MEMORY CELLS, long lived cells bearing receptors specific for the same inducing antigen.
19.
20. Compare the structures and functions of cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells.
Class 1 MHC molecules displaying bound peptide antigens are recongnized by CYTOTOXIC T Cells
Class 2 MHC molecules including Dendritic, macorphages and B cells known as Antigen presenting cells displayed
internalized antigens to T HELPER CELLS.
The T cell receptor binds with an MHC molecule peptide antigen complex.
21. Compare the production and functions of class I MHC and class II MHC molecules.
Class I MHC: found on almost all nucleated cells of the body, bind peptides derived from foreign antigens that
been synthesized within the cell.
Class 2 MHC: are made by just a few cell types, mainly dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells. In these cells
class 2 MHC bind peptides derived from foreign materials that been internalized and fragmented through
phagocytosis or endocytosis.
Immune Responses
23. Describe the roles of helper T lymphocytes in both humoral and cell-mediated immunity.
When a helper T cell encounters and recognizes a class II MHC molecule-antigen complex on an antigen present
cell, the helper T cell proliferates and differentiates into a clone of activated helper T cells and memory helper T
cells.
--Activated helper T cells secrete several different cytokines that stimulate other lymphocytes, thereby
promoting cell mediated and humoral responses.
--Dendritic cells are particularly effective in presenting antigens to naïve helper T cells, dendritic cells are
important in triggering a primary immune response.
--Macrophages play the key role in initiating a secondary immune response by presenting antigens to memory
helper T cells
--B cells primarily present antigens to helper T cells in the course of the humoral response.
25. Explain how cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells defend against tumors.
Because tumor cells carry distinctive molecules(tumor antigens) not found on normal body cells, they are
identified as foreign by the immune system. Class I MHC molecules on a tumor cell display fragments of tumor
antigens to cytotoxic T cells. NK cells as part of the body’s non specific innate defenses, can induce apoptosis in
virus infected and cancer cells.
27. Explain why macrophages are regarded as the main antigen-presenting cells in the primary response but memory B cells are
the main antigen-presenting cells in the secondary response.
Macrophages are the main antigen presenting cells in the primary response because it is the first time the body
is exposed to the antigen. The body secretes various effecter cells including plasma cells, which mark and
eventually destroy the antigens. Due to clonal selection, during secondary response the long lived clones of
memory B cells produce clones of themselves to fight the antigen faster.
29. Diagram and label the structure of an antibody and explain how this structure allows antibodies to (a) recognize and bind to
antigens, and (b) assist in the destruction and elimination of antigens.
See figure 43.18
30. Distinguish between the variable (V) and constant (C) regions of an antibody molecule.
Variable (V): Are at the tips of the Y(in b cells) are light and heavy chain variable (v) named because their amino
acid sequences vary extensively from one b cell to anoter.
Constant (C): the remainder of the molecule is made up of constant (c) whose amino acid sequences vary little
from cell to cell.
34. Explain how the immune response to Rh factor differs from the response to A and B blood antigens.
Blood group (A, B) antigens and related bacterial epitopes are polysaccharides. Such polysaccharide antigens
induce immune responses in which no memory cells are generated.
Rh factor, as a protein antigen induces immune responses in which memory cells are generated. Later exposure
of these memory cells to the Rh factor leads to production of anti-Rh antibodies that are IgG.
35. Describe the potential problem of Rh incompatibility between a mother and her unborn fetus and explain what precautionary
measures may be taken.
An Rh-negative mother who carries an Rh positive fetus can be dangerous. If small amounts of fetal bloo cross
the placenta, the moth mother mounts a humoral response against the Rh factor. To prevent this the mother is
injected with anti Rh antibodies around the 7th month and again just after delivering an Rh positive baby.
37. Describe an allergic reaction, including the roles of IgE, mast cells, and histamine.
Allergies are exaggerated (hypersensitive) responses to certain antigens called allergens. The most common
allergies involve antibodies of the IgE class. These IgE cells can induce mast cells to release histamine and other
inflammatory agents. Histamine release causes dilation and increase permeability of small blood vessels and
lead to the typical symptoms sneezing, runny nose, tearing eyes and smooth muscle contractions.
38.
39. List three autoimmune disorders and describe possible mechanisms of autoimmunity.
In some individuals the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against cetain molecules of the body
causing one of the many autoimmune diseases.
These include Lupus, arthritis and insulin dependent diabetes.
40.
41. Explain how general health and mental well-being might affect the immune system.
Healthy immune function appears to depend on both the endocrine system and the nervous system. Hormones
secreted by the adrenal glands during stress affect the numbers of white blood cells and may suppress the
immune system in other ways. Likewise in the nervous systems, some neurotransmitters secreted when we are
relaxed and happy may enhance immunity.
42. Describe the infectious agent that causes AIDS and explain how it enters a susceptible cell.
AIDS arises from the loss of helper T cells, both humoral and cell mediated immune responses are impaired. The
loss of helper T cells results from the infection by HIV. HIV gains entry into cells by making use of three proteins
that participate in normal immune responses. The main receptor for HIV on helper T cells is the cell’s CD4
molecule. The virus also infects other cell types such as macrophages and brain cells, that have low levels of
CD4. In addition to CD4, HIV entry requires a second cell surface protein, a co-receptor. One co-receptor called
fusin is present on all the cell types infected by HIV, while a different co receptor is present only on marcophages
and helper T cells.
43. Explain how HIV is transmitted and describe its incidence throughout the world. Note strategies that can reduce a person’s
risk of infection.
Transmission of HIV requires the transfer of body fluids containing infected cells, such as semen or blood from
person to person. Unprotected sex and sharing of needles are the most common forms. 40 million people
worldwide are living with HIV/AIDS. The best approach for slowing the spread of HIV is to educate people about
the practices that transmit the virus such as using a dirty needle or unprotected sex.