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The case for viewing the learner's knowledge of the L2 in terms of variable
competence has already been made in Chapter 4. Here I shall summarize the
Variable Competence theory proposed by Ellis (1984a). This draws on and extends
the work of Tarone (1982; 1983), Widdowson (1979; 1984), and Bialystok (1982).

The Model is based on two distinctions²one of which refers to the process of

language use, and the other to the product. The theory also proposes to account for
SLA within a framework of language use. In other words, it claims that the way a
language is learnt is a reflection the way it is used.

The u
 of language use comprises a continuum of discourse types ranged

from entirely unplanned to entirely planned. The planned-unplanned continuum
has already been discussed in Chapter 4. To summarize briefly, unplanned
discourse is discourse that lacks forethought and preparation. It is associated with
spontaneous communication, e.g. everyday conversation or brainstorming in
writing. Planned discourse is discourse that is thought out prior to expression. It
requires conscious thought and the opportunity to wo rk out content and expression.
Examples are a prepared lecture or careful writing.

The u
of language use is to be understood in terms of the distinction between

linguistic knowledge (or  
and the ability to make use of this knowledge
(procedures). Widdowson (1984) refers to a knowledge of rules as competence and
to a knowledge of the procedures involved in using rules to construct discourse as
u  Widdowson points out that the narrow concept of linguistic competence
has been widened to include appropriate use as well as correct use (i.e.
communicative competence). But he argues that even this broader view of
competence does not account for the language user's ability µto create meanings by
exploiting the potential inherent in the language for continual modificationǦ
(Widdowson 1984: 8). It is for this reason that he adds the term u  The
language user possesses procedures far realizing the meaning potential of rules in
context in other words, the language user makes his knowledge of linguistic rules
work by exploiting them in relationship to both the situational and linguistic
context. He actualizes his abstract knowledge of sentences to create utterances in
discourse.

It follows from this view of the process of language use that the product (i.e. the
different types of discourse) is the result of either or both of the following:

1.?a variable competence, i.e. the user possesses a heterogeneous rule system;

2.?variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse.

The Variable Competence Model of SLA claims that both (1) and (2) occur.
uurthermore, it claims that they are related.

The variability of the learner's rule system is described with reference to

Bialystok's (1982) dual distinction between automatic/non-automatic and
analytic/unanalytic (see Chapter 9). The first distinction concerns the relative
access that the learner has to L2 knowledge. Knowledge that can be retrieved
easily and quickly is automatic. Knowledge that takes time and effort to retrieve is
non-automatic. The second distinction concerns the extent to which the learner
possesses a 'prepositional mental representation which makes clear the structure of
the knowledge and its relationship to other aspects of knowledge¶ (op. cit., 183).
Bialystok points out that unanalysed knowledge is the general form in which we
know most things, in that we are usually not aware of the way in which our
knowledge is structured. Both the automatic/non-automatic and the
analysed/unanalysed distinctions represent continua rather than dichotomies.
There are degrees of automatic and analyzed knowledge.

Procedures for actualizing knowledge are of two types, which Ellis (1984a) refers
to as primary and secondary processes. Each set of processes has an external and
internal representation, referred to as discourse and cognitive processes
respectively. Primary processes are responsible for engaging in unplanned
discourse. They draw on knowledge that is relatively unanalysed and automatic.
Secondary processes come into play in planned discourse and draw on knowledge
towards the analysed end of the continuum. An example of a primary process is
 u 
 (i.e. the omission of dements from a proposition in
production). An example of a secondary process is 

 (i.e. the editing of
language performance). An example of what is meant by discourse and cognitive
processes, semantic amplification can be accounted for as follows:


 u


Simplify the semantic structure of a message by omitting meaning elements that

are communicatively redundant or that can be realized by a non-verbal device (e.g.
mime).


u


(a)? Construct an underlying conceptual structure of a message.

(b)?Compare this structure with the frame of reference shared with an interlocutor.
(c)? Eliminate redundant elements and elements for which no lexical item is
available.

Primary and secondary processes account for how L2 learners actualize their
linguistic knowledge in discourse. They account for the variability of
language-learner language by positing that both different types of knowledge and
different procedures are involved in the construction of different discourse types.
They also account for acquisition. To explain how, it is necessary to return to what
Widdowson has to say about rules and procedures.

Widdowson argues that through using procedures, not only does the language user
utilize his existing linguistic knowledge but he also, potentially at least, creates
new linguistic rules. As Widdowson (1979: 62) puts it:

We draw upon our knowledge of rules to   We do not simply

measure discourse up against our knowledge of pre-existing rules, we create
discourse and commonly bring new rules into existence by so doing. All
competence is transitional in this sense.

In other words, language acquisition is the result of our capacity to make sense.
New rules are created when we endeavour to use existing knowledge in relation to
the linguistic and situational context in order to create shared frames of reference.
A theory of language use is the matrix of a theory of language acquisition.

Ellis (1984a) goes one step further and suggests that SLA follows the sequence that
it does because the processes that the learner calls on to participate in discourse are
themselves developmental. That is, their prominence in SLA coincides with
different stages of development.

Thus, for instance, early SLA is characterized by the heavy use of semantic
simplification, because this is a procedure that requires little L2 knowledge. Later
procedures, such as those used to reduce reliance on shared knowledge and
non-verbal devices, by making explicit the relationship between one proposition
and another and between each proposition and its situational context (see
Widdowson (1984: 67ff), are characteristic of later SLA. Also knowledge that to
begin with is available only for use via secondary processes (because it exists only
in analysed form) can eventually be accessed by means of primary processes and
so used in unplanned as well as planned discourse. To summarize, the Variable
Competence Model proposes:

1? There is a single knowledge store containing variable interlanguage rules

according to how automatic and how analyzed the rules are.
2? The learner possesses a capacity for language use which consists of primary and
secondary discourse and cognitive processes.
3? L2 performance is variable as a result of whether primary processes employing
unanalysed L2 rules are utilized in unplanned discourse, or secondary processes
employing analysed L2 rules are utilized in planned discourse.
4? Development occurs as a result of
(a)? acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of
discourse (i.e. new rules originate in the application of procedural
knowledge);
 (b)?activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non-automatic
unanalysed form or in an analysed form so they can be used in unplanned
discourse.

These proposals are shown in uigure 103.


   
u
 

! 


The Variable Competence Model of SLA attempts to account for (1) the variability
of language-learner language, and (2) the external and internal processes
responsible for SLA. It incorporates within the same framework a theory of
language use and a theory of SLA. As it stands at the moment, the Model is in need
of development in two directions. uirst it needs to provide a more detailed analysis
of the primary and secondary processes responsible for use and acquisition.
Second, it needs to incorporate the role of input into the overall framework.
Learners do not construct discourse in isolation (at least not in face-to-face
interaction), so how input is negotiated must be considered. SLA is the result of the
exchange of linguistic information which occurs in the process of discourse
construction involving both the learner and an interlocutor.