Ap bio study guide, chapters 12 and 13

Cell Cycle:

Interphase (90% of cell life)

-G1 phase: cell grows

-S phase: cell copies its DNA and Chromosomes

-G2 phase: cell grows more to prepare for division

M phase

Mitosis:

Important terms:

-mitotic spindle: structure consisting of fibers made of microtubules and proteins which are
attached to the centromeres

-centrosomes: attached to mitotic spindles and “organizes” them

-aster: radical array of mitotic spindles which extends from the centrosome to plasma
membrane

-kinetochores: attached to chromosome’s centromere, face opposite directions and hook onto
mitotic spindles from centrosomes

G2 of interphase:

-nuclear envelop bounds nucleus

-centrosomes replicate

-duplicated chromosomes have yet to condense

Prophase:

-chromosomes coil and become visible

-each duplicated chromosome appears as two sister chromatids bound together

-mitotic spindle forms

-centrosomes move away from each other while releasing microtubules

Prometaphase:

-nuclear envelop dissipates

-microtubules from centrosomes attach to kinetochores on each side of the chromosome

(become kinetochore microtubules)

-non-kinetochore microtubules simply attach to the opposite ones

Metaphase (longest stage of Mitosis):

-centrosomes at opposite ends of cell

-chromosomes align at cell equator (metaphase plate)

-entire apparatus of microtubules is called the spindle because of its shape

Anaphase (shortest stage of Mitosis):

-begins when sister chromatids pull apart

-chromosomes move toward opposite ends of cells, centromeres first

-motor protein on kinetochores pulls chromosomes towards centromeres, disassembles

microtubules into subunits as it advances

-cell elongates as nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen

-ends when each end of the cell has equivalent and complete sets of chromosomes

Telophase:

-two daughter nuclei begin to form in the cell

-nuclear envelopes redevelop

-chromosomes decondense

-mitosis is complete

Cytokinesis:

-division of cytoplasm is underway in Telophase so daughter cells appear shortly after mitosis
concludes

-in animal cells, cleavage furrow pinches cell in two

-in plant cells, vesicles line up at center and form cell plate, cell plate becomes a new cell wall
Binary Fission:

-used in prokaryotes which have one huge chromosome

-chromosome begins replicating at its origin

-each origin moves to an opposing side of the cell

-as it replicates the cell gets much larger

-when replication is finished, the plasma membrane grows inward and two daughter cells result

Mitosis may have evolved from binary fission

Cell Cycle Control System

Checkpoint- a critical control point where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle

-stop signals are employed when a cell is not fully prepared for the next stage

-go-ahead signals indicate the cell is ready for the next phase

-if the cell receives a stop signal at a checkpoint, the cell goes into the G0 phase where it stays
until it is ready for the next stage

-checkpoints located at G1, G2, and M phases

-G1 checkpoint is most important, usually leads to the rest of the cell cycle if passed

Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinases

-protein kinases: enzymes that activate or inactivate by phosphorylating them

-they give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints

-kinases always have a constant concentration in the cell, only activated by cyclins

-cyclin: protein that has a fluctuating concentration

-CDK: a cyclin-dependent kinase activity rises and falls with the cyclin fluctuations

-CDK-cyclin complex called MPF triggers mitosis at the G2 checkpoint

Density-dependent inhibition-cells will stop dividing when growth factors are depleted

Anchorage-dependence: to divide, cells must be attached to a substrate

Cancer

-cancer cells are “immortal” and continuously divide

-grouped cancer cells clump together, forming a tumor

-benign tumors are harmless and can be surgically removed

-malignant tumors interfere with an organ’s function, this is considered cancer

-metastasis: when a cancerous cell enters the blood stream and causes a tumor elsewhere

Growth factors can create cancers

– proto-oncogenes
• normally activates cell division
– growth factor genes
– become oncogenes (cancer-causing) when mutated
• if switched “ON” can cause cancer
• example: RAS (activates cyclins)
– tumor-suppressor genes
• normally inhibits cell division
• if switched “OFF” can cause cancer
• example: p53

• Cancer develops only after a cell experiences

~6 key mutations (“hits”)
– unlimited growth
• turn on growth promoter genes
– ignore checkpoints
• turn off tumor suppressor genes (p53)
– escape apoptosis
• turn off suicide genes
– immortality = unlimited divisions
• turn on chromosome maintenance genes
– promotes blood vessel growth
• turn on blood vessel growth genes
– overcome anchor & density dependence
• turn off touch-sensor gene
CHAPTER 13

Asexual reproduction:

-offspring identical to parent

-budding is a form of asexual reproduction (hydra)

Sexual Reproduction

-offspring have genetic variations

Somatic cells: all cells aside from gametes, contain 2n chromosomes

Autosomes: chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes

Diploid: 2n chromosomes

Haploid: n chromosomes

Three types of sex cycles:

1. Animals and humans: diploid zygote produced by fertilization, grows by mitosis, organism
produces gametes by meiosis, diploid zygote…….etc.
2. Alternation of generations (plants): sporophyte (multi-cell diploid) produces haploid cells
called spores through meiosis. Spore performs mitosis, becomes haploid gametophyte.
Gametophyte then produces gametes though mitosis. Fertilization occurs.
3. Fungi and protists: 2n zygote undergoes meiosis, forming haploid cells. Haploid cells become
adult haploid organisms, later perform mitosis to make gametes, diploid zygote is produced

Meiosis:

Meiosis 1:

Interphase-chromosome & centrosome replication

Prophase 1: chromosomes condense, homologous pairs align, crossing over occurs, synapsis(protein
structure bonds homologous chromosomes), synapsis ends late prophase, tetrads become viewable,
chiasmata-regions where crossing over has occurred, spindle fibers, nuclear envelop breaks apart.

Metaphase 1: tetrads align on metaphase plate, attached by spindle fibers

Anaphase 1: replicated chromosomes are separated from the tetrad, and pulled to opposite sides of the
cell.
Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis: same as in mitosis, except DNA is already replicated and each daughter cell
is haploid

Meiosis 2:

Prophase 2: spindle apparatus forms

Metaphase 2: replicated chromosomes align at metaphase plate, kinetochores are attached by

microtubules

Anaphase 2: centromeres of chromosomes separate, sister chromatids are pulled apart

Telophase and Cytokinesis 2: nuclei form, total of 4 haploid daughter cells all with different genetic info
result.

Genetic variation from meiosis:

Independent assortment- the homologues are distributed randomly to the gametes. Each gamete
usually has a different combination of homologues.

Crossing over- during prophase 1, when tetrads form, Homologous chromosomes exchange equivalent
segments of chromosomes
Chiasmata-areas of crossing-over

Any two parents will produce a zygote with any of about 64 trillion (8 million X8 million) diploid
combinations.