Ocean, cot Management i ELSEVIER Ovean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 —— wow.elsevier comflocatefocecoaman TBT contamination of an artisanal subsistence fishery in Suva harbour, Fiji M.T. Davis**, P.F. Newell’, NJ. Quin: 605 N. Sampson St., Ellensburg, WA 98926, USA *Biology Department, Unitersity of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji “Biology Department, University of Papo New Gainea, P.O. Box 320, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea Abstract The intertidal zone around the Suva Peninsula, Fiji, supports separate finfish and invert- ebrate subsistence fisheries. This important source of fresh marine Jood for many Jow-income families around metropolitan Suva is under threat from foreshore reclamation projects and from anthropogenic biochemical pollution. Damage to or loss of this invertebrate intertidal fishery would remove a significant area where ucban dwellers can pursue this traditional (non-cash) means of seafood acquisition. In 1996, Suva Peninsula was considered for the development of a marina, hotel, aquarium, roads, walls, and other structures. There is also increasing evidence of a serious anthropogenic TBT (tributyltin) pollution threat to the local invertebrate fishery. Although this substance is well known to have ecologically deleterious effects, its use is unregulated in Fiji. The inputs are likely to be large commercial vessels, and in particular the shipyards around the west side of Suva Harbour, where TBT antifouing coatings are both applied and removed, the old paint debris being allowed to wash into the harbour. Inputs from small boats are probably less important as there are relatively few ( < 150 boats) but uses of TBT, as a Wood treatment chemical, for example, may lead to other inputs (but these have not been investigated). Samples of Anadara antiquata and Gafarium tumidum contained high levels of TBT ranging from <50ng TBT gm~' to 240ng TBT gm~'. Samples of the edible bivalve G. tumidwn taken from the Lami Dump intertidal zone had accumulated 10,500 ng TBT gm‘. The values of TBT in Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay sediments have reached levels that are among the highest in the world and indicate that these sediments are functioning as geochemical sinks for this toxic organotin substance, © 1999 Elsevier Science Lid. All rights reserved. Keywords: Actisanal fishery: Anadara antiquaia, Modiolus agripetus; TBY; Organotins; Pollution * Corresponding author, Tel: 001-509-925.9400. Exaail address: davisb@eburg.com (M.T. Davis) 0964-5691 /99/S-see front matter PH: $0.964-5691(99)00035 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 6592 M.T. Davis et al. | Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 Table 1 Fijian, English and Latin names of invertebrates collected from the Suva Peninsula intertidal fisheries (adapted from Quine and Davis [1}) Classification Fijian name English name Latin name phylum MOLLUSCA ~ class Gastropoda Drevula Moon snail Polincies flemingiamus (R, 1844) Lasawa Turban shell Turbo chrystostomus (Linnaeus, 1758) Gera, Golea Stromb shell Strombus gibberulus gibbosus {R, 1798} Siei Trochus Trochus niloticus (Linnaeus, 1767) Tivikea Rec-lipped stromb ——Sirombus lunuanas (Linnaeus, 1758) —subelass Opisthobranchia — Veata Green sea hare Dotabella auvicularia (Lightfoot, 1786) ~ class Bivalvia Kaidawa Hard shell clam Periglypta puerpera (Linnaeus, 1771) Kaikoso Ark shell Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) Kaivadra Littleneck clam Tapes leterata (Linnaeus, 1758} Keke Mangrove mussel Modiolus agripetus (Lamarck, 1801) eye, Qaya. Kaikatadivi Venus shell Gafrarium tanidwan (R, 1798) Serulu, Rukus Pinna sp. phylum CRUSTACEA = class Malacostraca Qari immer erab Thalamita sp. Qari Green mangrove crab Seylla spp. phyium BRACHIOPODA —elass Inarticufata Ieoce Lamp shell Lingula sp. phylum ECHINODERMATA — class Holothuroides Dairo Sandfish Holothuria fuscopun- ctara (Saeger, 1833) Mudra Sea cucumber Stichopus variegatus (Semper, 1868) Pula Brown sandfish Bohadschia mamorata (Jaeger, 1833) 1. Introduction Recreational fishing and invertebrate collecting are common activities around the Suva Peninsula, Fiji (Table 1), Systematic surveys of women fishers, working duringM.T. Davis et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 593 daylight hours, within the Suva Peninsula intertidal areas were conducted in Suly 1996 and repeated in December of 1996 [1]. This study of a women’s traditional fishery included specific catch statistics and discussion of seasonal variation in catches. Field observations, taken in different seasons, showed that Kaikoso (Anadara antiquata (L..1758]) and Kuku (Modiolus agripetus (Iredale, 1939) were the dominant and subdominant shellfish catch. Kabatia (Lethrinus harak (Forssk), 1775}) was the most common finfish caught by hand line followed by Matu (Gerres oyenana [Forssk], 1775]) and Qitawa (Therapon jarbua [Forsskl, 1775]). Nuga (Siganus vermiculatus [Valenciennes, 1835]) was shown to be the most common finfish caught using hand net or by hand. The intertidal area around the tip of the Suva Peninsula consists primarily of soft sediment mudflats. These flats support a daytime fishery of 70 women supporting an estimated 300-500 people each week [1]. At a market value of F$2.Skg~! for A. antiquata the catch per unit effort (CPUE)is estimated to be about F$2.68 h~ '. This is higher than the usual hourly wage of unskilled labour in Suva. The loss of this fishery would remove a significant opportunity for low-income urban dwellers to pursue a traditional (non-cash) means of seafood acquisition. Suva Peninsula is located in south east Viti Levu (18° 8'S, and 178° 27’E) between Suva Harbour on the west side and the Laucala Bay on the east, Suva Harbour has semi-diurnal tides with a range of 0.9 m at neap tides and 1.3m at spring tides. Typically, the Suva Peninsula flats are exposed during daylight for 3-Sh. The mangrove communities that once lined much of the shore have been reduced [2]. A channel separates the sand flat from an intertidal coral reef community and the open sea. A boat is required to traverse the channel, and consequently gleaners use the reef less frequently. The reef flat has been documented as sustaining an important sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla, Linnaeus, 1758) [3] and sea cucumber fishery (Echinoder- mata. Holothuroidea). The width of the sand flat ranges from 100 to 350m for a distance of approximately 4.5 km from Suva City centre around the tip of the peninsula to Laucala Bay. The coastal biota of the Suva Peninsula intertidal area is known to be rich and diverse [4,5]. The sand flats of this region support a subsistence invertebrate fishery that is an important source of fresh marine food for many low-income families around metro- politan Suva. Quinn and Davis [1] consider this invertebrate fishery to be distinct from fin fishing activities and devised a methodology to calculate the catch-per-unit- effort (CPUE) for the primary catch invertebrate species, as well as to calculate a monetary value for the time invested in procuring that catch. This fishery, now documented as distinct and of economic value, is considered to be under threat. As recently as 1996 Suva Peninsula was selected as the location of another Suva nearshore development scheme. This last proposal involved the build- ing of a marina, lagoon, hotel, aquarium, roads, walls, and other structures [6] Such a nearshore development project would destroy major parts of the intertidal fishery as much of it would be at the point of land reclamation but also increased sedimentation would physically disrupt other intertidal areas killing off whole invertebrate communities. Historically, feasibility studies and environmental impact statements of Suva Peninsula nearshore development schemes [6,7] place little594 M.T. Davis et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 value on the intertidal fishery because, on a national scale, it is of low economic value. Tributyltin (TBT) is a highly efficient biocide that is greatly favoured as an active anti-fouling substance in marine paints. Although this substance has long since been found to have serious environmental deleterious effects, the use on small boats is unregulated in Fiji, unlike many other countries, such as Australia, USA and the coastal states in Europe [8-10]. However, the numbers of small boats in Suva Harbour is modest ( < 150 boats) compared to many harbours and marinas in New Zealand, Australia, or Noumea, New Caledonia, and so that mode of contribution to sediment and water column loading is likely to be minor. The major inputs of TBT are likely to come from the shipbuilding and repair yards along the west side of the harbour where new antifouling coatings are applied and the debris from old ones allowed to escape into the water. Tributyltin in Suva Harbour sediments had reached the highest recorded levels in the world by 1991 [10]. Maata [11] found the TBT pollution levels to have since increased to a maximal concentration of 360g 27! around the slipways of Walu Bay (Suva Harbour), Maata [11] also determined the half-life of TBT in the sediments to be 122 d for fine sediments, silts and clays, and 39 d for sands. This project explored and searched for evidence of a TBT pollution threat to the Suva Peninsula invertebrate fishery. 2. Methods To determine whether TBT had encroached into the invertebrate fishery, the primary catch species Anadara antiquata were chosen as the subject of an exploratory set of samples for TBT analysis in shellfish tissue. Five study sites around the Suva Peninsula were delineated (see Fig. 1: Map of Study Sites), Four of the sites were the same as Quinn and Davis [1] and the fifth was added at the area known as Maunivatu. Maunivatu (also called “Suva Point”) was the subject of a study of A, antiquata by Maybin [12]. As a control site two composite samples of A. antiquata were collected from the intertidal of the Ucunivanua village (Verata Tikina) and assayed. Ucunivanua was selected because of its relative isolation and lack of industry; the intertidal mudflat was believed to be free of sources of biochemical pollution, and organotins in particular. Samples from Study Site I included two large individuals that were considered large enough (60.2 and 63.5mm) to provide sufficient tissue to be processed as single samples. One individual was male with a large quantity of sperm and the other individual was female with eggs. The other two samples for Study Site I were composite samples of five small 4. antiguata individuals minced together as one sample. Samples from every other site included composite samples exclusively. At each site a random point was chosen, a GPS reading taken at that location, and a collection of A. antiquata gathered from an estimated 100 m radius around the GPS reference point. Samples were frozen immediately after collection. All of theM.T. Davis et al. { Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 595 _ L _- Lami Dump 6. url 10800 ng TTI Control site 245 Km to NE \eurivaua Vitae otra A. antigua] « 50 ng TBTHng (b)<0%9 78Ting Sediments S40 ng 181M {8 song teri Study Site — A atquta 0) 24009 TOTIG {e) 8009 T8TImo {a Nong 18m {6} 900g ToT Acantiquai fa} 709 Bs | “ara 11009 TET {i ng T8TImg 6. tmeun < 50.09 TBting Sediments < 10 T8Ting Sediments < 109g TATing study Sie { A. antigua fa 200 99 TET/mg Susy al ween) hese N Sediments < 10ng TBTImg (0) Song T3ting Sie eo ad Sesiments <0 ng T8img Fig. 1. Map of Suva Peninsula Study Sites. A. antiquata specimens were collected on the same day. Processing procedures included thawing, carefully dissecting out the digestive tract, and then finely mincing the animal. All glassware and instruments involved in sample processing were either sterile or acid washed and rinsed with distilled and then deionised water. It was decided that, for comparison, a tissue sample collected from a known polluted area [13] would be included in the study. The Lami Dump intertidal was therefore searched for live A. antiquata. No live Anadara, nor any evidence of any recently alive, was found. This intertidal was notably void of much of the expected intertidal flora and fauna. The only living bivalve species found in the Lami Dump intertidal was Gafarium twmidum (Venus shell), a small bivalve that is eaten within Fiji. A 45 min search by two people covering a roughly 350 m? area of intertidal revealed 13 small living G. aunidwm. These bivalves were frozen for storage. The digestive tracts were not removed because of the small size of the animal. All bivalve tissue samples were minced with sterile instruments and then placed into acid washed pre-weighed beakers. The tissue samples were then freeze-dried at the USP Institute of Applied Sciences, the resulting dry tissue weighed, placed into acid596 M.T. Davis et al. { Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 391-601 washed vials, and shipped to R. J. Hill Labs in Hamilton, New Zealand, for butyltin analysis. The analytical methodology used by R. J. Hill Labs included microwave extraction, ethylation, and GC-MS analysis based on the published techniques of Shawky et al. [14] and Szpunaret al. [15]. The extraction efficiency, and accuracy of quantification, for the GC-MS procedure was monitored through the addition of a surrogate compound (triphenyl tin) before extraction, The triphenyl tin recovery fell within acceptable limits (75-120%). Additionally, scdiment samples were re-analyzed using certified reference material ({CRM)-PACS-1 as well as spike recoveries on samples. Two biota samples were re-analyzed using CRM-NIES 11. The results for both the CRM-NIES I! and subsequent biota material spike recoveries agreed well with sample analysis, The sediment sample/PACS-1 results however were less than acceptable; degradation of the certified reference material used is the suspected cause. The acceptable results of spike recoveries on all samples, performed independent of analysis of CRM, acted as further confirmation of results. 3. Results The results of tissue and sediment assays are associated with geographical location of field sites in Fig. 1 (Map of Study Sites) and also listed in Table 2 (table of analytical results). All results are of TBT g ! of dry weight sample. The samples of 4. antiquata analyzed for TBT content clearly indicate bioaccumulation of TBT in the shellfish tissue. Tissuc levels from around the Suva Peninsula ranged from a low of < 50 ng TRT g ! toa high of 240 ng TBT g~!. A valuc of <50ng TBT g~! represents the lower end of instrument sensitivity for tissue samples. Both of the contro] tissue samples (Ucunivanua village, not shown on Fig. 1) returned values of < 50 ng TBT g7!. The values returned from the G. tumidum tissue (composite sample of 11 individuals), taken from the Lami Dump intertidal zone, were surprisingly high. This tissue had bioaccumulated TBT to a level of 10,500 ng TBT g~!. We have not been able to find in the literature any similarly high value of TBT in mollusc tissue. Soil samples taken from each Suva Peninsula study sites returned a value of <10ngg~' of dried soil sample. This same minimal value was returned from samples taken at the control site (Ucunivanua village). No soil samples from Lami Dump were submitted for analysis, iscussion The Anadara antiquata fishery currently appears to be sustainable. There is a sub- tidal community of A. antiquata which consists of individuals larger than any collected in the intertidal region. It was not uncommon to find a subtidal individual in theTable 2 MT. Davis et al. { Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 597 Analytical Results for Bivalve Tissue Samples Study site Species ng TBT/g-! Sample composition Sample freeze dried total location (tissue dry weight (g) weight) Lami dump —— Gafariun tumidum 10,500 Composite of tissue 0.7778 from I individuals Study site 1 Anadara antiquaia 240 Composite of tissue 2.1711 Nasese from 4 individuals A. antiquata 80 Tissue of one large male, with sperm 1.6571 A. antiquata 110 Tissue of one targe 0.8600 female, with eggs A. antiquata 90 Composite of tissue 2.2671 from 4 individuals Study site A. anviguata 200 Composite of tissue 1.6143 Suva Grammar from 6 individuals A. antiquata 120 Composite of tissue 1.188 from 5 individuals Study site IITA. antiguata 170 Composite of tissue 1.1625 CT. School from 5 individuals A. antigquata 60 Composite of tissue 1.4856 from 5 individuals Study site LV G. tumidum < 50 Composite of tissue L104 Pony Club from 14 individuals A, antiguata 110 Composite of tissue 1.093 from $ individuals A. antiguata < 50 Composite of tissue 0.8378 from 5 individuals Study site Vt, anviguana 70 Composite of tissue 1.0398 Maunivatu from 5 individuals (Suva Point) A. antiquata 90 Composite of tissue 1.2977 from 5 individuals Control A, amtiguata <50 Composite of tissue 26176 Ucunivanua from 5 individuals A. antiquata < 50 Composite of tissue 2.2576 from 5 individuals 70-80 mm length range, whereas the A. antiquata found in the intertidal only occa- sionally reached over 50 mm in length. This size difference reflects fishery related selection of larger individuals by bivalve collectors. Because the artisan fishers collecting Anadara restrict their activity to the intertidal stock the population of subtidal, unexploited, nd larger A. antiquata probably acts as a breeding stock, and thus by broadcasting larvae over the entire lagoon, helps to maintain the intertidal fishery.598 MT. Davis et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 TBT was found in North America 1 leach from TBT-treated fish rearing cages and found in general to be a significant pollutant in the vicinities of input sources such as marinas, merchant ports, and heavy maritime traffic areas {16]. Laucala Bay does not fit into any of these categories and therefore the sediment, and tissue levels of TBT, would be expected to be at undetectable levels. Maata [11] however, has shown that Laucala Bay, previously believed to be unpolluted by organotin compounds, has sediments heavily laden with TBT and that Suva Harbour sediments are now reflecting a TBT contamination an order of magnitude higher than anything published. The source of TBT into Laucala Bay is not obvious as the current flow is out of the bay and into Suva Harbour and not the reverse. Clearly, the water column regularly covering the Suva Peninsula intertidal must be considered as a source of TBY to filter-feeding organisms, A more thorough assess- ment of this intertidal community and water and sediment TBT level up the Lami River would be an obvious continuation of this initial work. Further research into the bioaccumulation by area phytoplankton/zooplankton might provide some evidence as to whether the TBT from the Lami Dump/Suva Harbour waters are being cycled into other areas via planktonic communities. Lami Dump has long been known to be a major pollution site [13]. The A. antiquata TBT value ranged from lows on the Laucala Bay side of the Suva Peninsula ( < 50ngg_ ')to highs of 240 ng g~' in study sites closest to Suva Harbour (see map on Fig. 1). Some researchers would characterize the higher end levels as “very high” values of TBT in animal tissue [17]. The values of TBT found in the Lami Dump sample of G. tumidum tissue (10,500 ng g~ +) are unprecedented. Stewart and de Mora [10] assayed tissue of Crassostrea mordax taken from Suva Harbour and found values only up to 3.18 ng TBT-Sn g7! (dry wt) The lipophilic nature of TBT and its discovery in the blubber of marine mammals such as dolphins and whales [18] suggests that organotins biomagnify through the aquatic food web and is considered an “alarming” development by some [9]. The effects on humans of long-term consumption of TBT in sublethal concentrations have not been well documented ([19] WHO, 1990). More mammalian studies have been called for (1990) by the World Health Organiza- tion. In this light the above TBT results may indicate a need for epidemiological studies on the human population most frequently consuming Suva Peninsula shellfish. Dredging can resuspend TBT material and increase its availability to bioac- cumulating organisms. Research [11] has shown that Laucala Bay sediments are now acting as geochemical sinks for the toxic TBT. Considering that the Laucala Bay sediments are laden with TBT, any near shore development plans involving dredging must be carefully assessed and evaluated in any relevant environmental impact statement. Conventional economic insight would not assign the protection of a subsistence fishery as a vital national concern. It is lamentable that the future of a no-cash-cost natural fishery for a population of low-income urban dwellers may be balanced against the stakes involved with such plans as 5-star hotels, marinas, and/or casinos.M.T. Davis et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 599) Because of known environmental damage and injury to shell-fisheries, the use of TBT on boats of less than 25 m length has been banned throughout North America, Australia, New Zealand, and much of Europe [9]. Seven years after this restriction was enacted in Ireland, areas of high boat density in Cork Harbour are still exhibiting damaged and depressed whelk and bivalve populations [8]. The ban has not halted TBT from continuing to leach into water from paint on hulls of vessels and from scrapings when hulls are cleaned. The International Maritime Organization proposed increasing the scope of the ban to all vessels less than 50m [20] but Minchon (1994) feels that molluscs will show serious and quantifiable effects from TBT until there is a complete ban on organtin use in marine paints. The continual uncontrolled industrial and marine use of TBT contributes to Suva Harbour and Laucala Bay organotin sediment loading. Clearly there is a TBT pollution crisis developing in the Suva region as the use of TBT continues without regulation. A clearer understanding of the situation is necessary. Questions which require atten- tion include the following: @ What is the route by which TBT enters into the Lacuala Bay fisheries and sediments and how many species of seafood are bioaccumulating this toxic organotin? Do the values of TBT aceamulated in Suva Peninsula shellfish represent an early snapshot in a long- term bioaccumulation event? What is the TBT value in the subtidal Anadara population? What is the value of TBT within the water column? Is TBT being transported via estuarine bacteria and phytoplankton (both well known bioaccumulators of organotins)? Is TBT pollution affecting the structure of the intertidal community? Sewage sludge from treatment plant effluents has been found to contain butyltins [19,21] and so, can the discharge from the Kinoya sewage treatment facility be acting as a source of Lacaula Bay TBT pollution? The original theme of this work was one of concern for an intertidal artisan fishery; a natural resource being enveloped by a growing urban zone. Clearly this natural asset of indigenous Fijians is in need of protection. It is hoped that any further study of TBT pollution within this fishery be done as a means to that end. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr M. Maata for many helpful discussions and for his kind permission to quote from his thesis in this work. We also thank the staff at the University of the South Pacific Institute of Applied Science for their time and use of analytical facilities. This study was made possible through the support of the University of the South Pacific Research Committee and the School600 MT. Davis et al, | Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 of Pure and Applied Sciences Research Committee with Research grant # 6288-1311- 70766-15. References [1] Davis MT. Quinn NJ. Potential threats to an urban woman’s subsistence fishery off Suva Peninsula, Fiji, Presentation: VIII Pacific Science Inter-Congress, The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, 197. [2] Naidu S, Aalbersberg WL, Brodie JE, Fuavo VA, Maata M, Nagasima M, Whippy P, Morrison RI. Water quality studies on selected South Pacific lagoons. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No, 136, UNEP, Nairobi, 1991, p. 99. [3] Gounder N, The reproductive biology of the sea urchit Thesis. University of the South Pacific, 1995. p. 144. [4] Morton J. The shore ecology of the tropical Pacific. UNESCO Regional Office for Science and Technology — East Asia, Jakarta, Indonesia, 1990, p. 282 + vii [5] Zann LP. The status of coral reefs in south western Pacific iskands, Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994;29:52-61 [6] Biological Consultants, Le Grand Recif, Aquatic Park Village. An Environmental Impact Assessment commissioned by the company “Le Grand Recif” The Department of the Environment, Suva, Fiji, 1996, submitted for publication (7] Green GG. Suva lagoon. Proposal and feasibility study. Dept. of Water & Sewerage for the Government of Fiji, 1988. [8] Minchin D, Stroben E, Ochlmann J, Bauer B, Duggan CB, Keatinge M. Biological indicators used to map organotin contamination in Cork Harbour. Ireland, Marine Pollution Bulletin 1996;32(2):188-9. [9] Stewart C. The efficacy of legislation in controlling tributyltin in the marine environment, In: deMora SI, editor. Tributyltin: ease study of an envizonmental contaminant. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cam- bridge, 1996. p. 265-97. [10] Stewart C, de Mora SJ. Elevated tri(n-batyl)tin concentrations in shellfish and sediments from Suva Harbour Fiji, Applied Organometallic Chemistry 1992:6:507-12. [11] Maata M. The decomposition of Tributyltin (TBT) in tropical marine sediments. Ph.D. Thesis. University of the South Pacific, 1997, [12] Maybin JA, Ecological and taxonomic aspects of Anadira (Mollusca: Bivalvia) in Fiji and some neighbouring islands groups. M.Sc. Thesis. University of the South Pacific, Suva, 1989, pp. 88. [13] Naidu $, Morrison RI. Contamination of Suva Harbour, Fiji, Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994:29(1-3)126-13, [14] Shawky S, Emons H, Durbeck HW. Analytical Communications 1996;33:107-10. [15] Szpunar JV, Schmitt O, Lobinski R, Monod JL. Rapid speciation of butyltin compounds in sediments and biomaterials by capillary gas chromstography-microwave-induced plasma atomic emission spectrometry after microwave-assisted leaching/digestion. Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometsy 19962:193-9. [16] Alzicu C. Biological effects of tributyltin on marine organisms. In: deMora SJ, editor. Tributyltin case study of an environmental contaminant, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ, Press, 1996. p. 169-211 [U7] Short JW, Thrower FP, Tri-n-butyltin caused mortality of chinook salmon, Oncorhyt tshawytscha on transfer to a TBT-treated marine net pen. In Proceedings of the Organotin Sy posium, Oceans °86 Conference, Washington. September 23-25, 1986. p. 4. 1202-5. [18] Iwata H. Tanabe $. Miyazaki N, Tatsukawa R. Detection of butyltin compound residues in the blubber of marine mammals. Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994:28(10):607~12. [19] de Mora SJ, editor. Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1996. p. 312. Tripneustes gratilla (Linnaeus) in Fiji. MSc.MT. Davis et al. | Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 591-601 601 [20] Anon. TBT on the way out, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 1994;28:519, [21] Maguire RJ. The occurrence, fate and toxicity of tributyltin and its degradation products in fresh water environments. in: deMora SJ, editor. Tributyltin: case study of an environmental contaminant, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1996. p, 95-137