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August 2004
Environmental Impact Assessment for
Proposed Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project
Sponsor
Palk Strait
INDIA
PALK BAY
Tamil Nadu
Mandapam
Mandapam Rameshwaram
Keelakkarai
LANKA
Valinokkam
Terkmukkaiyur
Vembar
Vaipar
SRI
Tuticorin
GULF OF MANNAR
August 2004
Contents
Item Page
No.
List of Figures vi
List of Tables xi
List of Plates xv
List of Drawings xvi
1. Introduction 1.1-1. 25
1.1 Preamble 1.1
1.2 Earlier Studies Involving Creation of Canal 1.3
1.3 Project Region 1.7
1.4 Geomorphology of Study Region 1.9
1.5 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 1.14
1.5.1 Objectives of EIA Study 1.15
1.5.2 Scope of the Study 1.15
1.5.3 Plan of Work 1.16
1.5.4 Components included in the Study 1.17
1.5.4.1 Coastal Waster Environment 1.17
1.5.4.2 Marine Environment 1.17
1.5.4.3 Land Environment 1.18
1.5.4.4 Biological Environment 1.18
1.5.4.5 Socio-Economic and Health Environment 1.19
1.5.4.6 Ecological Risks 1.19
1.5.5 Environmental Management Plan 1.20
1.6 Techno-economic Viability 1.20
1.6.1 Traffic Potential 1.20
1.6.2 Alignment of Canal 1.20
1.6.3 Dredging and Disposal Areas 1.21
1.6.4 Cost Estimates and Economic Viability 1.21
1.7 Permits and Approvals 1.21
Figures 1.1-1.3 1.22-1.24
Table 2.1 1.25
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No.
Item Page
No.
Item Page
No.
8. Bibliography 8.1-8.7
List of Figures
3.8 Location of Corals in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay 3.99
3.9 Coral Reef and Seagrass Areas around the Islands of
Gulf of Mannar 3.100
3.10 Maximum Diversity Index values of Corals in 21 Islands of
Gulf of Mannar 3.101
3.11 Locations of Pearl Banks in the Gulf of Mannar 3.102
3.12 Chank Habitats in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay 3.103
3.13 Habitats of Sea Cow (Dugong-dugong) in the Gulf of Mannar
and the Palk Bay 3.104
3.14 Habitats of Sea Weed, Sea Grass and Holothuria in the
Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay 3.105
3.15 Maximum Diversity Index values of Seagrass in 21 Islands of
Gulf of Mannar 3.106
3.16 Maximum Diversity Index values of Mangroves in 21 Islands of
Gulf of Mannar 3.107
3.17 Locations of Mangroves in Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay 3.108
3.18 Maximum Diversity Index values of Corals, Mangroves and
Seagrass in 21 islands of Gulf of Mannar 3.109
6 .1 Environmental Impact Network - Construction Phase 6.23
6.2 Environmental Impact Network - Post-Construction/
Operation Phase 6.24
6.3 Study Area for Route Alignment in Adam’s Bridge Area 6.25
6.4 Borehole Data in Adam’s Bridge Area 6.26
6.5 Bathymetry Along Line 1 6.27
6.6 Bathymetry Along Line 2 6.28
6.7 Bathymetry Along Line 3 6.29
6.8 Bathymetry Along Line 4 6.30
6.9 Bathymetry Along Line 5 6.31
6.10 Quantity Dredged Material along Various Tracks in Adam’s Bridge 6.32
6.11 The Alignment of the Proposed Channel 6.33
6.12 Bathymetry along the Proposed Channel 6.34
4.3 Land Use/Land Cover Status in Pamban Island based on IRS 1D 4.12
(LISS III + PAN), May, 2002
4.4 Merged Data (PAN + LISS III) depicting degraded land, selected
for dumping dredged material in Pamban Island 4.13
List of Drawings
It is, however, unfortunate that despite having such a coastline India does not
have, within her own territorial waters, a continuous navigable sea route around the
peninsula from the Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay and vice-versa due to the presence of
shallow (about 3 m) sand-stone reef called 'Adam's Bridge' at Pamban near
Rameswaram between the south-eastern coast of India and Talaimann on the western
coast of Sri Lanka. Consequently, the entire coastal traffic from the east coast of the
country to the west and vice-versa has to go around Sri Lanka entailing an additional
distance of more than 254-424 nautical miles and 21-36 hours of sailing time. The
shipping routes and savings are shown in Fig. 1.1.
The Gulf of Mannar, an inlet to the Indian Ocean between south-eastern India
and western Sri Lanka, is bounded on the north-east by the island of Rameswaram,
Adam's Bridge and Mannar. The Gulf is about 130-275 km wide and 160 km in length.
The Palk Bay on the north of Gulf of Mannar is about
64-137 km wide and 137 km long and includes many islands of Sri Lanka.
Furthermore, Adam's Bridge is a chain of shoals, nearly seven in all, located between
India and Sri Lanka separating Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar. It is about 30 km long
and the sea across this portion is shallow with a depth of about
3-3.5 m only during high tides.
Various committees that have deliberated the subject have observed that a
shorter route through the Palk Bay is an important necessity to save time and foreign
exchange spent on import of fuel for Indian ships, also the country can stand to gain
revenue in foreign currency due to toll collections from International ships.
The creation of a channel called "Sethusamudram Ship Channel ", now under
consideration of the Ministry of Shipping, Government of India, envisages construction
of channel in stages and of varying lengths to suit different drafts ranging from 9.15 m
to 12.8 m through dredging / excavation across the Adam's Bridge. It is proposed to
study different alignments for the proposed channel in the light of representations from
the public, the fisherman, the pilgrims and above all its techno-economic viability. The
channel will originate from Tuticorin Harbour, extend north-east upto south of Pamban
island, cut through Adams Bridge and proceed parallel to medial line of fishing
between Sri Lanka and India before joining the Bay of Bengal channel. The width of
channel will vary between 200 and 500 m and will require dredging to arrive at desired
depth in the Adams Bridge and Palk Bay area. In GOM navigation depths will be used
hence no dredging is required. The area engulfing the Adam’s Bridge known as
‘Sethusamudram’ has been derived from the Kings of Jaffna who were called
'Sethukavalar,' meaning protectors of Adam's Bridge and the Southern sea that
surrounds the region. The Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay/Palk Strait separated by
Adam's Bridge are shown in Fig. 1.2.
• The project will further enable direct movement of Indian naval fleet between
the east and west coast of the country instead of going around Sri Lanka.
• The project opens up minor ports all along Tamil Nadu coastline upto the
major port of Tuticorin and further west upto Colachal.
The Tuticorin Port Trust, the nodal agency identified by the Ministry of
Shipping for the implementation of the proposal has retained in July 2002 the National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur to conduct
Environmental Impact Assessment studies followed by the Techno-Economic Viability
for the proposed "Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project".
The committee was of the view that the two projects namely the
Sethusamudram Ship Canal and Tuticorin Harbour were closely inter-related and
should be taken up and executed as part of the same project. After evaluating the
costs and benefits, the project was found to be feasible and viable and the committee,
therefore, proposed an initial capital outlay of Rs. 998 lakhs for the integrated
Sethusamudram-cum-Tuticorin Port Scheme. Thereafter, series of studies were
undertaken for the project, and many of those recommended for increase in draught
from the original 26 ft. proposed by the Ramaswamy Mudaliar Committee. These
studies also led to revision of the Project cost, as also to the expected savings in
navigable distance resulting from the canal which ranged from 260 to 425 kilometres.
Finally, the Tuticorin Harbour project was sanctioned in 1963 and the Government of
India continued to study the various aspects of the Sethusamudram Ship Canal
Project.
Apart from the construction of proposed canal, which constituted the major
component of project, creation of number of other infrastructural facilities as listed
below were envisaged :
• Construction of a "lock"
• Navigational aids
- Lighted beacons/buoys
- Racons
- Satellite based differential global system
- Improvements to Pamban light house
• Flotilla
- Harbour tugs
- Pilot, mooring, survey-cum-lighting launches
- Despatch vessels
• Shore facilities
- Two service jetties
- Slipways
- Buoy yard
- Repair workshop
The canal proposed had two legs, one near the Point Calimere called
the Bay of Bengal Channel and another across the narrow Danushkody Peninsula
near Kodandaramasamy Temple. The Bay of Bengal Channel traverses the Palk Bay
wherein the sea-bed is mostly soft to hard clayey-sand in nature and not corals or
rock. The channel proposed was 19.3 km away from Point Calimere and Kanakesan
Thurai where the coast consists of only clayey-sand. The second leg of the canal 802
m long would have crossed the narrow Danushkody Peninsula through the land
portion. The entire coast of Danushkody Peninsula on the North and the South is all
sandy. In the North Approach Channel, soft sand-stone was met with below 12 m
depth and cutting this sand-stone was not necessary even in the ultimate stage of the
canal. The canal would have, however, cut the road connecting Rameswaram and
Danushkody. This road is being used by the Rameswaram fisherman to go to
Danushkody for daily fishing as there is no habitation at Danushkody. The project
envisaged a high-level or a swinging bridge at the crossing point to enable the traffic to
go through. Tracer studies conducted at two places along the 'K' alignment
established that the pattern of movement of sea-bed silt would almost be in the same
direction as that of the proposed canal, and that the chances of siltation would be very
minimal.
The cost estimates for the proposed canal project were worked out by PTCS
Ltd. based on the same quantities of dredging as in the 1983 report but with updated
rates for the year 1996. The costs of dredging for various segments of channel for
three different drafts viz. 30, 31 and 35 feet were worked out alongwith cost estimates
for other components of the project including those of navigational aids and floating
crafts. The construction period for 31 feet draft was estimated as four years with a
capital expenditure of Rs. 760 crores. The operation and maintenance cost was
estimated by PTCS Ltd. at Rs. 4.52 crores per year.
The traffic potential through the canal at various draughts projected by both
the studies for 2000 AD were as follows :
The islands have luxurient growth of mangroves in their shores and swampy
regions. The coral reef of fringing and patch type are present around the 21 islands
from Rameshwaram to Tuticorin covering a distance of 140 km. However, a major part
of the reef is fringing type arising from shallow sea floor of not more than 5 m in depth.
About 3600 species of flora and fauna have been recorded in this area. Fringing type
of reef is present in Palk Bay.
The hydrography data shows that there are two circulations of water masses
in the region, the clockwise circulation of south-west monsoon and the counter
clockwise circulation of north-east monsoon. The reported current velocities in the Palk
Bay and the Gulf of Mannar are as mild as 0.2 - 0.4 m/sec except on few days during
south-west monsoon when it rises upto 0.7 m/sec. The directions of currents follow the
directions of predominant winds.
There are 87 fish landing stations between the south of Point Calimere and
Pamban in the Palk Bay, and 40 stations in the Gulf of Mannar between Pamban and
Tuticorin. Out of over 600 varieties of fishes recorded in this area, 72 are commercially
important. During 1992-2001, the fish production has increased gradually from 55,300
tonnes in 1992 to 2,05,700 tonnes in 2001. Non-conventional fishing in the region is
represented by pearl, chank, sea weeds, ornamental shells and holothurians.
Rare and endangered species of sea turtle, dolphin, sea cow and whale are
recorded in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay. The sea cow inhabitates the shallow
shore regions where grasses occur, while other endangered animals mostly prefer
deep sea.
Several species of green algae, brown algae, red algae, blue-green algae and
sea grasses are recorded in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay. A few of the islands
are reported to possess patches of mangroves predominated by Avicennia sp. and
Rhizophora sp.
Most of the habitats of the sensitive biota, viz., corals, pearl oysters, chanks,
dugong, holothuroids and marine algae are along the coast and around the islands.
Along the coast in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay there are 138 villages
and towns spread over 5 districts.
The coastline near Tuticorin is extensively used due to the presence of major
port. Beach is very flat and narrow between Tuticorin and Sippikulam. Offshore islands
viz; Pandyan Tivu, Van Tivu, kasuvari Tivu, Vilangu Shuli Tivu and Kariya Shuli tivu
are present within 5 km distance from the coast line along this segment and offer
protection from wave action. The backshore of this costal segment largely consists of
salt pans. The Viappar river joins Gulf of Mannar near Sippikulam. An extensive
coastal low land is seen between Sippikulam and Vembar (Loveson, 1994).
The coastal segment between Sippikulam and Naripaiyur is open without any
offshore islands or submerged coral banks and is exposed to direct action of waves
both during southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon. The coastline near
Kannirajapuram is found with large extent of beach rocks with pear luster (Loveson,
1994). Wide and flat sandy beach with numerous small dunes are seen between
Naripaiyur and Mukkaiyur .
The formation of sand island off Tuticorin indicates this region as sediment
sinks with progressive accumulation of sand. The large beach storage of sand
between Manppad and Tiruchendur, Vembar and Valinokkam and Rameswaram
Island is an indication of depositional features of littoral sediments.
Gundar river joins the sea near Mukkaiyur. The presence of offshore islands
are once again noticed from Mukkaiyur till Mandapam. There are 16 islands noticed
along this coastal segment viz., Uppu Tivu, Shalli Tivu, Nalla Tanni Tivu, Anaipar Tivu,
Palliyarmunai Tivu, Puvarasanpatti Tivu, Appa Tivu, Talairi Tivu, Valai Tivu, Muli Tivu,
Musal Tivu, Manali Tivu, Pumorichan Tivu, Kursadi Tivu, Kovi Tivu, and Shingle Tivu.
The beaches between Mukkaiyur and Valinokkam are very wide with elevated dunes.
Extensively developed beach is seen at Kilamundal. Flat rocky shorelines are noticed
near Valinokkam (Loveson, 1994). Extensive spread of rocky shore with hard sand
stone platform is seen off Valinokkam. There is a Bay formation immediately on the
northern side of Valinokkam.
No beach is present especially during high tide Kilakarai. A narrow and flat
beach is noticed near Sethukarai with the abundance of algae along the coastline.
Loveson and Rajamanickam (1987, 1989) have identified a spit growth near
Pariyapattinam. They described well-developed hooked nature spit extending
southeast and connecting the main land in southwest direction. This formation of spit
extending southeast and connecting the main land in southwest direction indicated
seaward progradation of the coast between Tuticorin and Mandapam.
Wave cut cliff is seen at places like Valinokkam, Sethukarai and Mandapam.
Very low and narrow sandy beach is noticed between Kalimangundu and Vedalai
(loveson, 1994). Sea is found to be very calm in this region. Wave cut platform is once
again noticed along the coast of Vedalai. A patch of rocks is observed along the coast
between Mandapam camp and Mandapam tip. Agrawal (1988) observed that the area
between Mandapam tip and Pamban Island is attributed to a sand spit later emerging
as a high water land. The coastline between Mukkaiyur and Mandapam is totally
protected from northeast monsoon waves. Chandrasekar et al. (1993) indicated
reversal trend in the direction of sediment transport between Mandapam and Cape
Comorin due to change in the coastal configuration, deposition as the formation of
numerous spits along this coast that too, in a region where fluvial activities are
negligible. The presence of three offshore islands viz., Pumorichan Tivu, Kursadi Tivu,
Shingle Tivu are noticed off Rameswaram Island in Gulf of Mannar. The stretch of
shoreline around Rameswaram Island exhibits distinct variation (Loveson, 1994).
The coastal process between Arimunai (India) and Talaimannar (Sri Lanka),
i.e. along Adman’s Bridge is quite complex which predominantly control the exchange
of sediment between Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Adam’s Bridge is formation of
submerged sand shoals and there are around 17 islands present with bushes and
plants. The average length of these islands vary between 0.8 km to 3 km. This is
exposed to complex current pattern with the presence of quicksand. The currents near
Adam’s Bridge and Pamban Pass are found to be more seasonal. Submerged sand
shoals are seen shifting south of Arimunai and remain quasi-steady.
Loveson et.al. (1990) classified the coastal zone of Palk Bay into 3 groups; (i)
uplands/highlands with scantly vegetation, comprised of Cuddalore sandstone
formations, (ii) along the lower elevations sedimented Cuddalore sand stones, and (iii)
coastal lands mainly of microdeltas, swamps, and beach ridges based on the
geomorphological features. A large amount of sediments from those pediments are
removed constantly by rainfall and minor rivers. Because the pediments are placed
over the substratum which is appreciably sloping towards the sea, the erosion is found
to be intensive along the coastal islands. The eroded sediments brought to the littoral
zone are dumped in Palk Bay. As Palk Bay is shallow and protected from the high
waves and currents, the materials brought by these minor rivers is deposited in the
mouth of each river/stream, leading to the formation of micro-deltas in due course,
encouraging the formation of new shorelines.
Palk Bay is very shallow and is largely occupied by sand banks and shoals
(Agrawal, 1988). Abundant growth of corals, oysters, sponges, and other sea bottom
communities flourish in the relatively calm waters of Gulf of Mannar.
Sea level variations along the Tamilnadu coast were studied by Loveson et.al., (1990)
using satellite imageries and photographs. About 300 sediment samples were
collected along the central Tamilnadu coast by Chandrasekhar and Rajaminckham
(1993) and suggested to possibility of the supply from ultrabasic, pegmatitic and
granitic source of material to the depositional basic.
Vellar estuary also comes under Palk Bay (lat. 11029'N ; long. 79046'E).
Sediment in estuarine region are rich in organic carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen and
finally finds its way into Palk Bay. The nutrient rich water (due to settling of unified feed
particle) discharges periodically from the shrimp farms however did not show influence
on nutrients content of sediment in estuary.
The detailed lithological observation of cores reveals that the sediments have
been depositing in phases and that there has been pulsating supply of fine sediments
onto the tidal flats and estuaries. Sediment in the cores show very heterogeneous
mixture of quartz sand, biogenic carbonate and clay. Geomorphologic observations
reveal that the coarse sand in the tidal zones reflect ample sediment supply during the
Northeast monsoons. A number of different types of topographical features are found
in the study area, such as continental shelves, deep sea basins, troughs, trenches and
continental slopes.
Sediments are moderately well stored and slightly well skewed. Kurtosis
value of 0.3 shows less sorting in grain size distribution. Clay is absent and sediments
are made of detritus. Different grain size sediment show variable levels of heavy metal
(Fe, Mn, Cr, Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd & Hg) concentration (Table 1.1).
During the construction phase there will be considerable increase in rail and
road traffic to and from the island for transportation of men, material, machinery and
equipment. Also, the land access, now available to the local fisher folks, to
Dhanushkody area for traditional fishing may be hindered unless alternative
arrangements are made. The potential sites for dredging and disposal of dredged
material are to be decided as also shipping operations will have to be regulated so as
to cause minimum disturbance to the normal fishing activities.
During the operation phase of the channel, the potential sources of marine
pollution are spillage of oil and grease, marine litter, jetsam and floatsam including
plastic bags, discarded articles of human use from the sea-borne vessels hence
impacts due to such wastes are to be assessed.
The channel may facilitate the movement of fishes and other biota from the
Bay of Bengal to the Indian Ocean and vice versa. By this way, the entry of oceanic
and alien species into the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, as also the disposal of
endemic species outside the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar may occur.
The rapid environmental impact assessment study report was prepared incorporating
primary data collected for the region and also available secondary data, environmental impact
statement based on identification, prediction and evaluation of impacts, ranking of
environmentally viable alternatives and environmental management plan for the acceptable
route. The comprehensive EIA report was prepared later based on the primary data collection
for region.The area for Environmental Impact Assessment Study is shown in Fig. 1.3.
i. Assessment of the present status of coastal water, marine, land, biological and
socio-economic components of environment including parameters of human
interest along the proposed ship canal route
vi. Short-listing of viable routes for the proposed shipping canal based on
technical requirements, and delineation of acceptable canal route for shipping
based on environmental considerations
• Archeological Department
Palk strait 64 4 32 --
The stability of the study area along the alignment is influenced by number of
environmental factors, primarily due to geological, biological, meteorological and
oceanographical parameters, which distinctly vary from one sector of the coast to
another. The most influencing factors in coastal waters are the tides, waves and
currents, and they interact each other to produce an energy input, which shapes and
modifies the shore. Any attempt to study these problems require a thorough
understanding of the factors and processes involved in the coastal geomorphological
system, the pattern of sediment transport in the littoral zone, the volume of exchange
of littoral drift from one region to another, the monthly and seasonal variation, and the
intermittent oceanographic factors acting on the system.
2.2.1 Waves
The winds blowing over the ocean surface has the direct effect on wave
generation as it is related to wind speed, extent of fetch and wind duration. Pilot (1953)
gives a detailed account of the southern part of the Bay of Bengal. The oceanographic
pattern along the Indian coast is mainly governed by the monsoons. The southwest
monsoon influences this pattern from June to September. The average speed of the
wind during southwest monsoon period is about 35 km per hour frequently rising up to
45-55 km per hour. The average speed of the wind during northeast monsoon
(October to January) prevails around
20 km per hour. Tropical storms known as cyclones frequently occur in the Bay of
Bengal during October to January.
In eastern coast, the wave activity is significant both during southwest and
northeast monsoons.
2.2.1.1 Wave Measurement
The observations on wave measurement show that significant wave height
varied from 0.46 to 1.12 m in March, 0.33 to 1.18 m in April, 0.46 to 1.74 m in May,
0.71 to 1.78 m in June, 0.68 to 1.6 m in July, 0.68 to 1.49 in August, 0.64 to 1.76 m in
September, 0.54 to 1.35 m in October, 0.40 to 1.13 m in November, 0.40 to 1.12 m in
December, 0.35 to 1.03 m in January and 0.35 to 1.23 m in February. Measured
significant wave height is given in Fig. 2.1
The maximum wave height varied from 0.67 to 1.78 m in March, 0.44 to 1.73
m in April, 0.66 to 2.81 m in May, 0.98 to 2.72 m in June, 0.91 to 2.45 m in July, 0.89
to 2.48 in August, 0.89 to 2.96 m in September, 0.66 to 2.94 m in October, 0.59 to
1.60m in November, 0.48 to 1.73 m in December, 0.47 to 1.68 m in January and 0.45
to 1.79 m in Febraury. Wave heights are relatively higher during southwest monsoon.
Measured maximum wave height is depicted in Fig. 2.2.
The wave direction (with respect to north) mostly prevailed 140O to 230O in
southwest monsoon (June to September), 85O to 150O during northeast monsoon
(October to January), and 90O – 200O during fair weather period (February to May).
The wave direction is highly variable in January and May. The zero crossing wave
period predominantly varied 3-8 s in December to April, 4-10 s in May and 4-9 s during
rest of the year.
The wave heights recorded in west and east coast offshore area of India are
compared. In west coast the wave heights off Mumbai are in between 2.0-6.0 m in
southwest monsoon, 2.0-3.0 in north east monsoon, and 1.0-2.5 m in fair weather
period. Off Goa the wave heights are between 0.8-5.1 m in southwest monsoon. Off
Mangalore wave heights are around 3.2 m in southwest monsoon and 0.8 m in fair
weather period. Off Trivandrum the wave heights are 2-4.3 m in southwest monsoon
and 1-2.0 m in fair weather period. Off Cochin the wave heights are between 0.9-2.0 in
southwest monsoon. In east coast off Chennai the wave heights are 2.5 m in
southwest monsoon and 1 m in northeast monsoon. Off Visakhapatnam coast these
heights are between 0.8-3.9 m in southwest monsoon 0.6-2.9 m in northeast monsoon
and 0.5-3.8 m in fair weather period. Off Orissa the wave heights are between 1.0-2.5
m in southwest monsoon and 0.8-2.5 m in northeast monsoon, and around 1-2.2 m in
fair weather period.
The wave climate reported in the literature indicates that the wave activity in
the study region remains relatively low compared to the rest of Indian coast.
Arimunai to Vedarnyam
This segment of the coastline lies in Palk Bay and waves propagating from
south (during southwest monsoon and fair weather period) do not enter in this region.
Studies are indicating that even during the northeast monsoon, waves are found not
entering the bay and get attenuated across the shoals of middle banks and south
banks between Vedaranyam (India) and Matakal (Sri Lanka). Part of wave energy with
less magnitude enters the bay through Pedro Channel and reach the coast between
Puduvalasai and Gopalpatnam. Wave refraction between Arimunai and Vedaranyam
during NE Monsoon is shown in Fig. 2.6 respectively.
2.2.1.3 Wave Period
During southwest monsoon, the wave period predominantly persisted 9 –10 s
between Vembar and Keelamunadal, and 6 – 8 s between Uthalai and Dhanushkodi.
During the northeast monsoon, it predominantly persisted 5 –10 s between Vembar
and Keelamundal, and 5 –8 s between Uthalai and Dhanushkodi east. In fair weather
period, it remained 6 –10 s along Vembar to Keelamundal, and 9 –10 s along Uthalai
to Dhanushkodi. The study shows that the waves approaching the coastline consist of
both seas and swells.
The tides in this region are semidiurnal. The various important tide heights
with respect to chart datum near Pamban pass are as follows.
It shows that the average spring tidal range is about 0.64 m and the neap tidal
range is about 0.16 m. The tidal range is relatively low compared to the northern part
of the Indian coast, which inturn would restrict the influence of tidal currents.
Although the Pamban Pass, connecting Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar break
the continuity of longshore current between the mainland and Rameswaram Island,
the magnitude of the current on either side of Pamban Pass is found to be very weak.
This reduces the volume of littoral sediments approaching the Pamban Pass which
inturn reduces the quantity of sediment passing through Pamban Pass from Gulf of
Mannar to Palk Bay.
shoals is supplied back to the littoral system for the mainland, when the longshore
currents move towards south during the ensuing northeast monsoon.
Although the longshore current was extremely weak along the sand spit
facing Palk Bay, it tends to be easterly during southwest monsoon/fair weather period
and westerly during northeast monsoon. Similarly, at Ariyaman, the longshore current
direction was southerly during southwest monsoon/fair weather period and northerly
during northeast monsoon, indicating just opposite to the phenomenon observed in
Gulf of Mannar. Such processes once again indicate the accumulation of littoral drift
on either side of Rameswaram Island during southwest monsoon and removal during
northeast monsoon, making this region as a sediment storage reservoir.
At Uthalai (stn. C2) in Gulf of Mannar, the average current prevailed around
0.1 m/s with the maximum and minimum of 0.2 m/s and 0.05 m/s respectively (Fig.
2.10). Similar to stn. C1, the bottom current was seen responding to tides flowing east
over one tidal cycle and west during the subsequent tidal cycle. The direction of flow
was predominant in southeasterly direction for larger tidal range and northwesterly
direction for small tidal range. The shore parallel component of currents indicates that
the flow shifted in southeast and northwest both at surface and bottom. The shore
perpendicular component of currents indicates that the flow shifts towards northeast
and southwest both at surface and remains consistently northeast at bottom. The
component of currents near surface and bottom off Rameswaram during southwest
monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.11 and Fig. 2.12 respectively.
The variation of currents at surface measured near Pamban Pass (stn. C3) is
shown in Fig. 2.13. The current speed was found to be strong showing an average of
0.5 m/s, with the maximum of 1 m/s and minimum of 0.1 m/s. Current direction
remained consistently northeast flowing from Gulf of Mannar into Palk Bay. Variation
of current speed shows that the magnitude of the current speed was more during flood
and less during ebb tide indicating the influence of tides over the seasonal
unidirectional flow. The shore parallel component of currents indicates that the flow is
into Palk Bay with high speed during flood tide and low speed during ebb tide. The
shore perpendicular component of currents indicates that the flow is across the
Pamban Pass towards Rameswaram Island. The component of currents near surface
off Pamban Pass during southwest monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.14.
At Tharuvai (stn. C4), the average current speed of 0.2 m/s with the maximum
of 0.3 m/s and minimum of 0.1 m/s were observed both at surface and bottom (Fig.
2.15). The flow was unidirectional towards southeast but the current speed varied with
tidal phase. Current speed was high during flood tide and low during ebb tide
indicating the strong influence of seasonal circulation current towards northeast during
southwest monsoon period. The shore parallel component of currents indicates that
the flow was towards southeast at surface and bottom. The shore perpendicular
component of currents indicates the flow was towards northeast both at surface and
bottom. The component of currents near bottom off Tharuvai during southwest
monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.16.
The measurement shows that during southwest monsoon when the tidal
range is large, the opposite direction of flow prevail between Adam’s Bridge (stn. C1)
and Uthalai (stn. C2) would cause the water mass to flow from Gulf of Mannar to Palk
Bay. This flow would transport sediments into Palk Bay from Gulf of Mannar. On the
other hand, when the range is small, the divergence of flow occurring near Adams’s
Bridge (stn. C1) and Uthalai (stn. C2) would initiate a flow from Palk Bay into Gulf of
Mannar through Adam’s Bridge. Thus the sediment exchange taken place into Palk
Bay during large tidal range day would return back to Gulf of Mannar.
near surface and bottom off Rameswaram during northeast monsoon is depicted in
Fig. 2.21 and Fig. 2.22 respectively.
The currents at Pamban Pass (stn. C3) prevailed strong with the average of 1
m/s, maximum of 1.4 m/s and minimum of 0.5 m/s (Fig. 2.23). Currents remained
consistently unidirectional around 2250. The change in tidal phase caused the variation
in current speed showing stronger currents during ebb tide and reduction in current
speed during flood tide. It indicates that the flood tide propagates from Gulf of Mannar
to Palk Bay and vice versa. The shore parallel component indicates that the flow was
consistently from Palk Bay into Gulf of Mannar during ebb tide and flood tide. The
shore perpendicular component of currents indicates the flow was across the Pamban
Pass from Rameswaram to Mandapam. The component of currents near surface off
Pamban Pass during northeast monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.24 respectively.
The current was found to be weak off Tharuvai at Palk Bay (stn. C4) showing
the average speed of 0.1 m/s, maximum of 0.13 m/s and minimum of 0.04 m/s (Fig.
2.25). Similar to stn. C3, the current flow was unidirectional towards 250O, but the
speed was high during ebb tide and low during flood tide. The shore parallel
component of currents indicates that the flow was towards northwest both at surface
and bottom. The shore perpendicular component of currents indicates that the flow
was towards southwest both at surface and bottom. The component of currents near
surface and bottom off Tharivai during northeast monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.26 and
Fig. 2.27 respectively.
The observation during northeast monsoon indicates that the current flow was
more influenced by seasonal flow than by tides. Stronger currents were observed
during ebb tides flowing from Palk Bay into Gulf of Mannar through Pamban Pass. The
currents were generally weak in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (stns. C2 and C4).
Significant flow from Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar was observed through Adam’s Bridge
also. Such current pattern during northeast monsoon can transport and exchange the
sediments from Palk Bay into Gulf of Mannar.
At Gulf of Mannar (stn. C2), the current was weak with average of 0.1 m/s,
maximum of 0.2 m/s and minimum of 0.04 m/s (Fig. 2.31). The flow remained
unidirectional consistently towards 305O, but the current speed varied randomly
between 0.04 and 0.12 m/s. The shore parallel component of currents indicates that
the flow was towards northwest both at surface and bottom. The shore perpendicular
component of currents indicates the flow changed the direction from northeast to
southwest both at surface bottom. The component of currents near surface and
bottom off Rameswaram during fair weather is depicted in Fig. 2.32 and Fig. 2.33
respectively.
The flow through the Pamban Pass (stn. C3) was quite distinct, showing the
average speed of 0.3 m/s, maximum of 0.6 m/s and minimum of 0.04 m/s. The varition
of currents off Pamban Pass at surface and bottom are shown in Fig. 2.34.Current
flow was noticed towards 45°, i.e., into Palk Bay during flood tide and towards 225°,
i.e., into Gulf of Mannar during ebb tide. The shore parallel component of currents
indicates that the flow was into Palk Bay during flood tide and into Gulf of Mannar
during ebb tide. The shore perpendicular component of currents indicates the flow was
changing its direction across the Pamban Pass between Mandapam and
Rameswaram. The component of currents near surface off Pamban Pass during
southwest monsoon is depicted in Fig. 2.35.
During fair weather period, the change in current direction was observed over
the tidal phases at Pamban Pass. The study shows that the current flows mostly
parallel to the coast. The general circulation of current in northwesterly direction
dominates the tide induced current. This would help the sediments to move by tide
induced currents from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay prevailing through Pamban Pass
and to some extent through Adam’s Bridge.
2.2.3 Sediment Transport
The formation of sand islands off Tuticorin region indicates this region acts as
a sediment sink with progressive accumulation of sand. The large beach storage of
sand between Manppad and Tiruchendur, Vembar and Valinokkam and Rameswaram
Island indicates the depositional features of littoral sediments.
Rameswaram Island, the geological formation of coral atoll with huge sand
cover between India and Srilanka plays a vital role on the processes of exchange of
littoral drift between east coast and west coast. It separates the sea in the north by
Palk Bay and south by Gulf of Mannar. The wave sheltering effect due to Sri Lanka
Island, the large siltation in Palk Bay, the presence of numerous offshore islands in
Gulf of Mannar, the growing sand spit along Dhanushkodi and the shallow reef
(Adam’s Bridge) between Arimunai (India) and Thalaimannar (Sri Lanka) largely
modify the sediment movement. It is strongly evident that the coastal processes taking
place around the Rameswaram Island and the exchange of the littoral drift between
Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay significantly determine the supply of sediments to the
rest of the east coast and in turn the stability of the region.
Sippikulam
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.06-0.84 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.05-2.14 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.03-0.09 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 5.0 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport was 1.4 x 103 m3/year towards south.
Vember
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.35-3.84 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.53-20.28 x 103 m3/
month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and 0.02-1.9 x 103 m3/month in fair
weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate was 34.0 x 103
m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 9.6 x 103 m3/year towards south.
Kannirajapuram
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 3.7-23.94 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 1.98-23.37 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.02-2.21 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 97 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 25.6 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Naripaiyur
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 2.3-29.29 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.06-14.46 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.02-2.47 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 66 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 22.6 x 10 3 m3/year towards
south.
Keelamundal
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.01-0.9 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.55-17.46 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.14-5.73 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 36 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 3.1 x 103 m3/year towards
south.
Valinokkam
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.01-0.06 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.01-1.06 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-1.76 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 3.0 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 3.0 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Kalimangundu
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.01-0.68 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.01-0.03 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-0.11 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 1 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 0.5 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Vedalai
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.02-0.88 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.01 x 103 m3/month
in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-0.05 x 103 m3/month in
fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate was 1 x 103
m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 1 x 103 m3/year towards north.
Kondugal
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.88-14.96x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.12-1.22 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.02-1.85 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 25 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 10.2 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Uthalai West
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 6.88-48.7 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.25-4.61 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 2.28-27.0 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 140x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 72.6 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Uthalai East
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 9.12-44.97 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.18-19.64 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between
3 3
1.76-24.84 x 10 m /month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross
transport rate was 190x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 48.9x103
m3/year towards north.
Mukkuperiyar West
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 5.16-44.96x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.26-6.02 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 2.64-20.83 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 120x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 5.6 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Mukkuperiyar East
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 1.78-28.65x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.02-17.98 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 1.98-20.10 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 110x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 79 x 10 3
m3/year towards
north.
Dhanushkodi West
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 2.31-17.05x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.04-5.16 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 1.32-28.35 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 83 x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 22.1 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Dhanushkodi Mid
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 1.76-14.0 x 103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.02-0.90 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 8.59-29.35 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 96.0x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 32.0 x 103 m3/year towards
north.
Dhanushkodi East
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 1.20-19.28x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.06-13.75 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 2.43-31.73 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 125x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 80.0x10 3
m3/year towards
north.
Arimunai West
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 1.05-27.77x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.07-0.44 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 1.06-8.99 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 65.0x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 43.7x103 m3/year towards
north.
Arimunai East
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.90-35.97x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.01-2.18 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.53-8.99 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 73.0x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 36.4x10 3
m3/year towards
north.
Villuvandithirtham
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.01-0.03x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.02-1.47 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-0.05 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 2.0x 103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 1.6x10 3
m3/year towards
north.
Light House
The longshore sediment transport rate was 0.01 x 103 m3/month in southwest
monsoon (June to September), between 0.01-0.02 x 103 m3/month in northeast
monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-0.07 x 103 m3/month in fair weather
period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate was 1.0 x 103 m3/year. The
annual net transport rate was 0.1 X 103 m3/year towards north.
Ariyaman
The longshore sediment transport rate varied between 0.01-0.06x103
m3/month in southwest monsoon (June to September), between 0.02-5.29 x 103
m3/month in northeast monsoon (October to January) and between 0.01-0.07 x 103
m3/month in fair weather period (February to May). The annual gross transport rate
was 23.0x103 m3/year. The annual net transport rate was 23.0x10 3
m3/year towards
north.
In fair weather period, the longshore sediment transport was low along the
spit facing Gulf of Mannar and also Palk Bay. The transport direction was observed to
be westerly near the tip facing Gulf of Mannar. It shows that in February, April and May
the sediment drifts from Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar and the net quantity is found to be
8000m3, 6000 m3, 20000 m3 respectively. Consequently, in March, June, July, August
and September, it drifts from Gulf of Mannar towards Palk Bay and the respective
quantities are 8000 m3, 35000 m3, 10000 m3, 4000 m3 and 1000 m3 respectively.
There was no significant movement of sediment observed during October to January.
It means that during southwest monsoon, the sediments move from Gulf of Mannar to
Palk Bay and during fair weather period from Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar. No
noticeable exchange due to wave induced longshore transport takes place in
northeast monsoon. It is noticed that over a period of one year, a net volume of 24000
m3 sediments as a wave induced longshore transport move from Gulf of Mannar to
Palk Bay around Adam’s Bridge.
The study indicates that, in general, the entire study region between Tuticorin
and Ariyaman including the Rameswaram Island experiences very low sediment
transport rate compared to the rest of Indian east coast. The east coast between
6
Chennai and Paradeep experiences a gross transport rate of more than 1x10
m3/year. On the otherhand, along the study region, it remained always less than
0.1x106 m3/year, which shows only 10 percent of the rest of the Indian east coast.
During the northeast monsoon, the sediment transport rate was very low
moving in southerly direction between Tuticorin and Valinokkam and it was negligible
between Valinokkam and Mandapam. Between Kondugal and Arimunai, the transport
was relatively low in westerly direction. It implies that there will be a deposition of
littoral drift in the vicinity of Pamban Pass. Due to low littoral drift taking place during
northeast monsoon, the quantity of sediments entering Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay
will be much lower than the quantity moving from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay during
southwest monsoon.
During fair weather monsoon, the sediment transport rate along the entire
study region except between Uthalai and Arimunai remains negligible. The sediment
transport between Uthalai and Arimunai exists relatively low in westerly direction for
which the source of sediment is expected from Palk Bay though Adam’s Bridge.
Due to low sediment transport rate prevailing in the study region, which
comprises of about 10 percent compared to the rest of Indian east coast, the volume
of sediment exchange is expected to be low. During southwest monsoon, the sizeable
portion of littoral drift from west coast passing around Kanyakumari is seen getting
deposited before reaching Tuticorin. This deposited sediment is supplied back for the
westerly transport during northeast monsoon. Such deposition is evidenced from the
occurrence of large beach deposition is evidenced from the occurrence of large beach
deposits and elevated dunes along Tiruchendur – Manapad region. Similarly, the
southerly transport along the east coast during northeast monsoon gets deposited
between Vedaranyam and Manmelkudi in Palk Bay, which is supplied back to the
littoral drift cycle during southwest monsoon.
Thus the study indicates that there is a break in the chain of littoral drift at
Tuticorin on the south and Vedaranyam is relatively low and there exits limited quantity
of exchange through Pamban Pass and Adam’s Bridge.
It signifies that the region around Adam’s Bridge forms as significant sink for
the littoral drift. The prolonged accumulation may lead to the emergence of new
islands. In case of occurrence of cyclones in Gulf of Mannar, such prolonged
deposition of sediments move north and enter in Palk Bay through Pamban Pass and
Adam’s Bridge. Once the sediments enter Palk Bay, the environment favours
immediate deposition. Hence the occurrence of cyclones in Gulf of Mannar and the
associated high northerly waves might exchange more sediments from the southern
part of Peninsular India to northern part of east coast. Similarly any cyclones moving in
Palk Bay, would generate large southerly waves and transport sizeable amount of
deposited sediments into Gulf of Mannar. In the event of absence of cyclones, the
deposition will increase causing the enlargement of sand
spit and shoaling across Adam’s Bridge, but the order of sediment exchange will be
limited.
2.2.3.2 Spit Configuration
The numerical modelling study for the region around Rameswaram indicates
that due to tidal currents, in southwest monsoon (june-september), the sediment
transport is 6000 m3 and 30000 m3 through pamban pass and Arimunai respectively
moving from Gulf of Mannar to palk Bay. The same phenomenon continued in fair
weather period (February- May) indicating 3000 m3 and 16500 m3 through pambam
Pass and Arimunai respectively moving from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay.
The annual gross longshore sediment transport rate along the study region
remained less than 0.1 x 106 m3 /year, which shows only 10 percent of the rest of the
Indian east coast.
In February, April and May the wave induced littoral drift is taking place from
Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar and the net quantity is found to be 8000 m3, 6000 m3, 2000
m3, respectively. Consequently, in March, june July, August and September , it drifts
from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay and the quantity is 8000 m3, 35000 m3, 10000 m3,
4000 m3, and 1000 m3, respectively. There was no significant movement of sediment
between October and January. Over a period of one year, a net volume of 24000 m3, /
year sediments moves from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay. Adam’s Bridge forms as
noticeable sink for the littoral drift. The prolonged accumulation leads to the
emergence of new islands.
The modelling study indicates that over an annual cycle, the net volume of
sediment exchange due to tidal current is 6000 m3, form Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar
through pamban pass and 25500 m3, from Gulf of Manar to Palk Bay through
Arimunai.
The satellite imageries show that the spit gets deflected towards palk Bay
during southwest monsoon indicating erosion on Gulf of Mannar side and deposition
on Palk Bay side. During northeast monsoon, the spit gets deposited on Gulf of
Mannar side and eroded in Palk Bay side, but the over all length increased by 150 m
towards Adam’s Bridge.
The sand spit extended 455 m in seven years indicating an average growth of
65 m in a year. the width increased 200 m at 1 km distance from the tip.
NSDRC with the help of M/s Indomer Coastal Hydraulics Pvt. Ltd, has taken
up jet probe drilling operations on the sea floor to identify the type of geological strata
along the navigational canal.
Scope
i) to carry out wash boring at 3 locations at 2m , 3m and 5m water depths along
the proposed navigational route,
ii) to carry out drilling upto 12 m penetration into the sea floor or till reaching the
hard strata whichever is minimum,
Methodology
Drilling jet probe was constructed on board a vessel with 5 HP pumps driven
by diesel generator. The outlet of 75-mm diameter pipe was connected to 30 m long
hose. To the other end of the hose, a drilling jet, having a tapered mechanism varying
from 75 mm to 40 mm diameter was attached. During the operation of pump at full
capacity, the jet velocity remained about 10 m/s. The jet was capable of penetrating
into sea floor up to a depth of 12 m in case of sandy bed. The jet drilling was carried
out at 3 points in each location to confirm the type of strata. During the last attempt of
jet drilling, divers collected sediment samples. These sediment samples were
analyzed for grain size distribution using sieve shaker with sieves of different mesh
sizes.
The locations of the jet probes are shown in Fig.2.41. The details of the
locations are given in the table below:
Bathymetry Mapping
Any changes in sea floor may be the result of sea-level variation or to a
change in the elevation of land surface. Changes in absolute water-surface levels are
worldwide due to the interconnectivity of the oceans and are termed eustatic changes.
Changes in the absolute level of the land are localized. They may be due to tectonic
adjustments or due to adjustments caused by their distribution of weight on the land
surface. As and when sedimentation or ice build-up occurs, such changes are known
as isostatic. A rise in the sea level or down warping of land would involve the opposite
movements of sea and land. Synonymous with positive and negative changes are the
forms of sea-level transgression and regression, although in many cases these terms
also refer to the horizontal movement of the shoreline associated with vertical changes
of sea level. Recent depth contour map of 1999 has been compared with bathymetry
map of 1975; it reflects that the seafloor level has decreased along the coastal areas
and around the islands in the study area. It may be either due to emergence of land or
lowering of sea level (due to tectonism) and sediment deposit. In very few places,
particularly at river mouths and in island areas, the sea floor level has increased,
which may be due to erosion caused by anthropogenic activities.
The average depth reduction of seafloor along the coast of the study area has
been estimated as 0.51m over a period of 24 years. The average decrease and
increase of depth around the islands in the study area have been calculated as 0.56m
and 0.38m respectively. Assuming that the rate of change of depth of sea floor is
uniform over a year, the rate of decrease of depth is estimated as 0.021m/year along
the coast and 0.023 m/year around the island, and also the rate of increase of depth
as 0.015 m/year around the island. The annual sediment deposit on Gulf of Mannar
sea floor is about 0.001m/year (Basanta Kumar Jena 1997), or 0.024m for a period of
24 years. As found from the present study, the decrease of depth for the period of 24
years (1975 to 1999) is about 0.51m. Sedimentation accounts for about 0.024m in the
total of 0.5 from clearance depth. The remaining 0.486 m reduction in depth may be
due to emerging of land or lowering of sea level (by tectonic activities). Based on the
above data, the rate of emerging of land or lowering of sea level can be estimated as
0.02m/year. Bathymetry maps of Gulf of Mannar (1975) and Bathymetry Map of
Tuticorin Coastal Region is given in Figs. 2.45-2.46 respectively. The general
bathymetry in Palk Bay area is shown in Drawing 2.1.
The bathymetry survey of 4 km x 4 km. area also has been undertaken and
completed during the second phase of the survey work. The bathymetry is shown in
Drawing 2.12.
Site survey Line Pattern
Bathymetry and shallow seismic survey conducted in 4 kms x 20 kms area
along the proposed ship canal longitudinal lines spaced at 1 km intervals. Lines run in
000O /180O direction. Echosounder, sub bottom profiler has run on all survey lines up
to the safe navigation limit.
Bathymetry
For study propose 5 imaginary lines separated by 1 km distance have been
considered to explain bathymetry pattern across Adam’s Bridge covering 20 km
length. Thus each line is 20 km long stretching north-south across the Adam’s Bridge
as shown in Fig. 2.48. Line no. one is boundary of box facing Pamban island where
line 5 is boundary towards medial line for fishing.
a) Line No. 1
The bathymetry along the line no.1 reveals that the seabed from the North
end of the survey line to the South end gradually increases with depths ranging from
0.8 m to 11.8m. The bathymetry is presented in Drawing 2.2.
b) Line No. 2
The bathymetry along the second line reveals gradual fall in the seabed with
depths varying between 1.4m at the North end and 12.7 m on the South end of the
line. The bathymetry of this route is presented in Drawing 2.3.
c) Line No.3
The bathymetry along the 3rd line reveals gradual fall in the seabed with
depths varying between 2.4m at the North end and 11.7 m on the South end of the
line. The bathymetry of this route is presented in Drawing 2.4.
d) Line No.4
The bathymetry along the line no.4 reveals gradual fall in the seabed with
depths varying between 2.9m at the North end and 11.8 m on the South end of the
line.
The bathymetry of line no.4 is presented in Drawing 2.5.
e) Line No. 5
The bathymetry of line no.5 is presented in Drawing 2.6.
The bathymetry along the line no.5 reveals gradual fall in the seabed with
depths varying between 3.8m at the North end and 7.9 m on the South end of the line.
Shallow Stratigraphy
a) Line No. 1
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.2.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially four units.
The shallow seismic survey could not be carried out in less than 5m depth as
it was not feasible to take the survey boat in that area due to depth limitation and
presence of heavy breakers in the area. The note to that effect is shown in the
geological profile panel on the chart
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the surveyed corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.5 m sub-seabed.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with high
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as medium to low density
sand. The thickness of this layer varies between 2m to 4m.
b) Line No. 2
Information regarding shallow geological conditions on line no.2 is presented
in Drawing 2.3. The shallow geological successions within the window examined by
the digital data along this route can be differentiated into essentially four units.
The shallow seismic survey could not be carried out in less than 5m depth as
it was not feasible to take the survey boat in that area due to depth limitation and
presence of heavy breakers in the area. The note to that effect is shown in the
geological profile panel on the chart.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.3 m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising completely
of very high density sands.Thickness of this unit varies from 1.0m to 2.5m.
Underlying Unit C is Unit D which can be identified from records with low
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising low density
loose sands. Thickness of this unit varies from 0.5m to 2m
c) Line No. 3
Information regarding shallow geological conditions of line no.3 is presented
in Drawing 2.4.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
The shallow seismic survey could not be carried out in less than 5m depths
as it was not feasible to take the survey boat in that area due to depth limitation and
presence of heavy breakers in the area. The note to that effect is shown in the
geological profile panel on the chart.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Thickeners
of this unit along the line is 0.40 m sub seabed.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising
medium to low density loose sands. Thickness of this unit varies from 0.5m to 1.5m.
d) Line No. 4
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.5.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
The shallow seismic survey could not be carried out in less than 5m depths
as it was not feasible to take the survey boat in that area due to depth limitation and
presence of heavy breakers in the area. The note to that effect is shown in the
geological profile panel on the chart.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. The
maximum thickness of this unit along the line is 0.30 m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of
medium to low density sands. The thickness of this unit along the line varies between
2.5 m to 3.5 m.
Underlying Unit C is Unit D which can be identified from records with low
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of low
density sands. The thickness of this unit along the line varies between 2 m to 3 m.
e) Line No. 5
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.6.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
The shallow seismic survey could not be carried out in less than 5m depth as
it was not feasible to take the survey boat in that area due to depth limitation and
presence of heavy breakers in the area. The note to that effect is shown in the
geological profile panel on the chart
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.50 m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C, which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of
medium density sands. The thickness of this unit along the line varies between 2m to
3m.
The Bathymetry and shallow seismic survey of 4 km x 10 km (five lines) on
north side of Adam’s bridge
a) Line No. 1
The bathymetry of the rout is presented in Drawing 2.7. The bathymetry
along the line no.1 reveals that seabed from the north end of the survey line to the
south end gradually falls with depths from 7.0 m to 1.4 m.
b) Line No. 2
The bathymetry of the route is presented in Drawing 2.8. The bathymetry
along the second line reveals gradual fall in the seabed with depths varying between
9.1 m at the North end and 2.1 m on the south end of the line.
c) Line No. 3
The bathymetry of line no. 3 is presented in Drawing 2.9. The bathymetry
along the 3rd line reveals gradual fall in the seabed with depths varying between 9.5m
at the North end and 2.5 m on the South end of the line.
d) Line No. 4
The bathymetry of line no.4 is presented in Drawing 2.10. The bathymetry
along the line no. 4 reveals gradual fall in the seabed with depths varying between
10.1 m at the North end and 2.8 m on the South end of the line.
e) Line No. 5
The bathymetry of line no. 5 is presented in Drawing 2.11. The bathymetry
along the line no. 5 reveals graduals fall in the seabed with depths varying between
10.1 m at the North end and 2.8 m on the south end of the line.
Shallow Stratigraphy
a) Line No. 1
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.7. The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially four units.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the surveyed corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.5 m sub-seabed.
Underlying unit A is Unit B. This unit is characterised by chaotic reflection
configuration. The surface and internal reflectors show medium acoustic impedance to
the seismic energy indicating more strength of material. This unit is interpreted as
comprising very high density to high density sands. Thickness of this layer varies
between 1m to 4m.
Underlying unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with high
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as medium to low density
sand. The thickness of this layer varies between 1 m to 3 m.
Underlying unit C is D which can be identified from records with low acoustic
reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as low density loose sand. The
thickness of this layer varies between 1 m to 2m.
b) Line No. 2
Information regarding shallow geological conditions online in Drawing 2.8.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital data
along this route can be differentiated into essentially four units.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.5 m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising medium to
low density sands. Thickness of this unit varies from 1 m to 3 m.
Underlying Unit C is Unit D which can be identified from records with low
acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising low density
loose sands. Thickness of this unit varies from 1 m to 2 m.
c) Line No.3
Information regarding shallow geological conditions of line in Drawing 2.9.
The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital data
along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined
internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Thickness of this unit
along the line 0.50 m sub seabed.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising
medium to low density loose sands. Thickness of this unit varies from 3 m to 5 m.
d) Line No.4
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.10. The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. The
maximum thickness of this unit along the line is 0.50m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of
medium to low density sands. The thickness of this unit along the line varies between
1 m to 3m.
Underlying Unit C is D which can be identified from records with low acoustic
reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of low density sands.
The thickness of this along the line varies between 1m to 3m.
e) Line No. 5
Information regarding shallow geological conditions is presented in Drawing
2.11. The shallow geological successions within the window examined by the digital
data along this route can be differentiated into essentially three units.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the survey corridor. The high acoustic transparency of this unit without any well-
defined internal reflectors indicates that it is comprised of soft sediments. Maximum
thickness of this unit along the proposed route is 0.50 m.
Underlying Unit B is Unit C, which can be identified from records with medium
to low acoustic reflectivity from the surface. This unit is interpreted as comprising of
medium density sands. The thickness of this unit along the line varies between 2 m to
3 m.
Under lying unit C is unit D which can be identified from records with low
acoustic reflectivity form the surface. The unit is interpreted as comprising of low
density loose sand. The thickness of this unit is 1 m to 1.5 m.
The bathymetry survey of the proposed five survey lines across the Adam’s
Bridge reveals that the seabed has gradual slope from North towards south and also
East to West with depths between 11.3 m at the North East corner of the survey area
and 1.4 m at the south west corner of the survey area and 9.0m at North west corner
to 4.4m at South East corner of the survey area. The seabed is thus seen deepening
from southwest corner of the survey area to North East corner of the survey area.
Unit A is the uppermost of the sedimentary sequence and recorded all along
the surveyed corridor and comprised of soft sediments. Unit B is interpreted as
comprising completely to moderately with very high density sand to medium density
sand. Underlying Unit B is Unit C which is interpreted as low density sand. No
anomalies associated with any type of rock is evident from the records up to the
penetration of about 6 to 7m.
In view of very high density sands lying below a very thin layer of soft
sediments in the entire area of survey the penetration of the seismic system has been
restricted to that in the sand to a maximum depth of about six to seven meters,
however, no rocky strata was observed in the entire survey area up to the depth of
penetration.
A shallow patch showing strip of exposed land area runs from North West
corner of the survey area in approximately towards the South East corner of the
survey area. This stretch of the area has all along heavy breakers breaking almost all
the times from the South West as well as from the North East directions making it
extremely difficult to negotiate the area.
2.2.5.3 Bathymetry and Seismic Survey along the Channel in Palk Bay Area
Hydrographic survey along the proposed channel in Palk Bay area was
undertaken by National Hydrographic Office (NHO) during January 25-February 18,
2004. The survey was carried out 250 m on either side of the line joining points
indicated in Drawing 2.13 detailed below :
C 9O21′26″N 79O21′37″E
D 9O40′30″N 79O25′30″E
E 9O58′20″N 79O33′30″E
F 10O11′30″N 80O12′30″E
The seabed of the complete area comprise sand and mud with few broken
shells. The depth contours in the area are in agreement with those depicted on the
existing navigation Chart 358 (Drawing 2.1). The area between point C to E (refer
Drawing 2.13) has depth more than 12 m and thus no dredging will be required.
However area north of point E and south of point C will require to be dredged to 12 m
depth. Since the sea bed is mud and sand capital dredging would not be difficult
proposal. Sub bottom profiler indicates that there is some hard strata under the soft
sediment (Figs. 2.49-2.50).
The tides in this area are variable. Both semidiurnal and diurnal tides were
observed. The range of tide varied from 0.4 to 0.7 m at the spring. Current in the area
is along N-S direction and speed varied from 0.1 m/sec to 1.0 m/sec.
The area for navigation route in Adam’s Bridge area was selected keeping in
view the proximity to international Medial line for fishing as well as national park
boundary. The purpose of selecting the stretch under study was to avoid / minimize
impacts on marine national park. The selected area is approximately 10 km away from
Arimunai tip and about 20 km away from Sringle island which is a part of national park.
The bathymetry data collected in this stretch was used to identify possible alignment of
route within the block. Zeroing down on to the option of 10.7 m draft and 300 m width
of channel availability or creation of 12 m deep channel with minimum dredging
requirement was considered as a critical parameter to arrive at alignment across the
Adam’s Bridge. From the assessed bathymetry, line 2 was considered as route for
navigation as dredging requirement will be minimum. This line is also at least 4 km
away from medial line. The details on quantity and quality of dredged spoil likely to be
generated by dredging in this route is discussed under chapter on environmental
impacts.
The ships after traveling through the channel in Adam’s Bridge area will tread
through available navigation depth in Palk Bay.
It could be seen that channel further needs to be created in Palk Strait area
where the bathymetry varies from 7.0 m to 10.8 m. Based on the available chart the
exercise for computing of dredging requirement to attain 12.0 m depth has been taken
up and is explained in chapter on Environmental Impacts. The
selection of route is guided by minimum dredging requirement and distance from
medial line. The proposed channel alignment with its bathymetry is shown in
Fig. 2.51.
Based on bathymetry data, quantity of dredged spoil with 12 m depth and 300
m with for a proposed channel is about 38x106 m3 in Adam’s Bridge Area and is about
44x106 m3 for Palk strait area. Thus total capital dredging required for
continuous navigation channel of 12 m depth will be of the order of 82 million m3. The
quality of dredged spoil in Adam’s Bridge area is mostly sand with small percentage of
silt and clay. The quality of dredged spoil in Palk strait area also comprise clay and
sand upto 12 m as per data collected by NHO Dehradun.
The sea coast stretching along the proposed canal project region is broken by
a few minor rivers like Agniar, Ambuliar, Vellar, Koluvanaru, Pambar, Manimukta nadi,
Kottangarai aru and Vaigai draining vast areas of irrigated lands. In the Gulf of Mannar
along the coast there are 21 islands (Table 2.6) which have been declared as National
Marine Park by the Tamilnadu Forest Department and the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India.
The Palk Bay (PB) and the Gulf of Mannar (GOM) are considered biologically
rich and are rated among the highly productive seas of the world. The Gulf of Mannar
harbours one of the richest biodiversity of living resources which have evolved in the
past millennia. Primarily due to its semi enclosed nature, seclusion, shallowness, and
having more or less stable temperature regimen, presence of multiple niches,
recycling and enrichment of nutrients amply derived from land drainage by the rich
variety of coastal, sedimentary, medowan, reef and paar biota, the Gulf of Mannar has
acquired ecological uniqueness, biodiversity, pluralism alongwith endemism. It is a
natural heritage, and is often called the 'Biologist's Paradise'. Through an executive
communication from the Secretary to the Government of India, Ministry of
Environment & Forests to the Chief Secretary, Government of Tamilnadu, the Gulf of
Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve (GOMMBRE) has been notified in 1989. There is,
however, no legislation as yet on the biosphere reserve either at the national or at the
state level.
There are no hills on any of the islands, most of which are less than three
metres above the level of the high water springs. The islands are irregular in shape,
with spits and partially enclosed bays. Sandy beaches are located on many of the
islands and along the mainland coast. Fringing and patch coral reefs are located in the
Gulf of Mannar. The eastern side of the islands has the greatest expanse of living
coral reefs, because human exploitation of the reefs is concentrated on the northern
and western sides. The vegetation on the islands is not uniformly spread and generally
consists of thorny shrubs. Mangroves are located on Shingle, Krusadai, Pullivasl,
Poomarichan, Manoli and Manoliputti islands. Tree species such as palmyra,
casuarina, coconut, and tamarind grow on Shingle, Krusadai, Hare and Nallathanni
islands. Most of the islands have been significantly deforested. Some reforestation is
also taking place.
Supporting the Gulf's biodiversity are its extensive and diverse assemblage of
seagrass. Six of the world's twelve seagrass genera and eleven of the world's fifty
species, occur in the Gulf. The Gulf harbours the highest concentration of seagrass
species along India's 7,500 km of coastline. These seagrass beds are some of the
largest remaining feeding grounds for the globally endangered dugong (Dugong
dugon). The seagrass beds also provide feeding areas for all the five species of
marine turtles, the Green (Chelonia mydas), the Loggerhead (Caretta caretta). Okive
Ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea). Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricate) and Leather
backs (Dermochelys coriacea). Many species of crustaceans, molluscs, gastropods
and fishes have been observed to inhabit the seagrass beds.
Both the reserve area and the adjacent coastline have been degraded to
some extent by overuse and pollution as evidenced by the declining catch/effort ratios
in the fisheries, the absence of significant numbers of herbivorous fish on coral reef
areas, low coral cover and widespread growth of green marine algae in coraline areas
and absence of large vegetation on many parts of the islands. Some areas of the
coast also show visible effects of pollution, most of it emanating from the mainland.
In Palk Bay area, there are ecologically sensitive coastal areas harboring
mangrove forests, marshlands etc. Point calimere a wild life and bird sanctuary is in
coastal areas adjoining palk strait. This sanctuary is situated at southern end of
Nagapattinam district at 100 17’ - 100 22’ N and 790 25’- 79052’ E. The sanctuary may
be divided into three divisions: the point calimere forest; the GVS which includes the
mangrove forests at Muthupet and the mangroves of TRF. It is the breeding ground or
nursery for many species of marine fishes which are vital to the fisheries of the coast.
It is a marine-coastal wetland with a wide diversity of habitats and ecological features,
including: intertidal salt marshes, forested wetlands, mangroves and brackish to saline
lagoons. The sanctuary has been designated as a Ramsar site in November 2002.
• The GVS is one of the largest waterbodies and major wintering ground
for water birds in southern India. The forests of point Calimere are also
rich in both resident and migratory species of forest birds. A total of 257
species of birds have been recorded from the Sanctuary of which 119
are waterbirds and 138 forestbirds.
Fauna
Some of the major waterbird species are the greater flamingo and the lesser
flamingo, spot- billed pelican, spoonbilled sandpiper, Asian dowitcher, whitebellied
seaeagle, brahminy kite and osprey. Landbirds include paradise flycatcher, Indian
pitta, Rosy starling, Blyth reed warbler, crested serpent eagle and brown shrike.
Fourteen species of mammals have been reported from the Sanctuary. The larger
mammals are the blackbuck, spotted deer, wild boar and jackal. The flying fox resides
in large groups on trees in the point Calimere forest and the mangrove forest at
Muthupet. The blackbuck of point Calimere represents one of the three isolated
populations of blackbuck existing in Tamil Nadu with the other populations in the
Guindy National Park and near Satyamangalam.
Apart from primary data, secondary data was collected from various
government departments like Department of Ocean Development, Central Marine
Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI), Central Electro-chemical Research Institute
(CECRI), Forest Department, Fisheries Department, Wildlife Department, Non-
Governmental Organisation (NGO), Project Authority etc.
Marine Water
The samples were collected 20 cm below the water level to assess physico-
chemical quality of marine water. The physico-chemical characteristics of marine
water at various locations along the route are presented in Tables 3.2 and 3.3. The
pH of sea water is alkaline and ranges between 8.0 to 8.2.
All living organisms are dependent upon oxygen in one form or another to
maintain the metabolic processes that produce energy for growth and reproduction.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) plays an important role in precipitation and dissolution of
inorganic substances in water and it is in the range from 3.2 to
5.7 mg/L.
The concentration of heavy metals viz. iron, selenium, chromium, zinc, lead,
cadmium, nickel, boron, manganese and copper in marine water samples are below
detectable limits except for iron, boron and arsenic. The concentration of boron is in
the range of 2.29 mg/L - 3.06 mg/L. High concentrations of arsenic (0.07-0.13 mg/L)
are observed at locations near Tuticorin port area that may be attributed to arsenic
used in making wood preservatives/ paints for ships.
It is well known that diatoms and other organisms deplete silicate from the
lighted zone of the sea, and that, on the death of the organisms, the silicate may
either re-enter in solution or may reach the bottom. The silicate content in the marine
water varies from 0.003 mg/L to 0.017 mg/L. No significant variation in salinity is
observed in surface and bottom samples (Fig. 3.2). An inverse relationship between
salinity and silicate is found to exist at some of the locations (Fig. 3.3). The nitrate
concentration varies from 0.78 mg/L to 1.1. mg/L.
Sediments
The organic carbon content of the sediment ranges from 0.06% to 0.09%.
The total Kjeldahl nitrogen (N), total phosphorus (P2O5) and sulphates (SO4) are in
the range of 0.02% to 0.11%, 0.02% to 0.84% and 0.06% to 0.75% respectively. Oil
and grease are present at all locations in the sediments. Concentrations of heavy
metals such as iron and arsenic are high in sediments. Cadmium and cobalt are also
detected in sediments.
Many animals that live buried in sediment are selective deposit feeders,
lifting and sucking food particles out of the mud; and others feed unselectively on
sediment deposits. These include different molluscs, sea cucumbers and many
worms. Fine muds, easily suspended by bottom currents, are generally not a
satisfactory substrate for filter feeders. Muds and clays, however, are well suited to
organisms that feed unselectively by ingesting sediments because the smaller
particles normally contain more organic matter. Such detritus supports bacteria and
meiofauna that are food for deposit feeders.
Excess organic material in the sediment may cause oxygen depletion in the
near-bottom waters that is intolerable to most benthic animals. About 3% of organic
matter in the sediment appears to be optimal for deposit-feeding bivalves. Predatory
forms, such as brittle stars, are more abundant where organic carbon content is
higher (Gross, 1982). In areas of red clay deposits, where sediment accumulation is
slow and deposits contain less than 0.25% of organic carbon, filter feeders are
conspicuous.
Primary Productivity
The gross primary productivity values varied from 143 to 472 gC/m3/day
between the stations. The mean values of 205 and 223 mgC/m3/day for the Palk Bay
and the Gulf of Mannar respectively are comparable. Literature reveals that in the
Gulf of Mannar off Mandapam there are two peaks of production - one in April-May
and another in October. During a study period of two years, the primary productivity
was found to range from 77 mgC/m3/day in April with an average of 200 mgC/m3/day
(Prasad and Nair 1963). Thus, the mean value of primary productivity in the Gulf of
Mannar has not been altered significantly during a span of over two decades.
It is further reported that in the near shore areas where the euphotic zone
used to be about 6 m due to turbidity, the productivity was 1.2-1.5 gC/m2/day which
is equal to the annual gross productivity of about 450 gC/m2. While further inside the
sea where the euphotic zone is deeper (upto 15-40 m), the average daily productivity
used to be 3-5 gC/m2 (Nair 1970). The average primary productivity values in central
ocean basins and coastal zones of the world were estimated at 50 and 100 gC/m2/yr
respectively (Ryther 1969). Thus, the shallow regions of the Gulf of Mannar and the
Palk Bay constitute one of the most productive regions of the world. This means it is
clear that turbidity adversely affects primary productivity.
Marine Organisms
However, the biodiversity in Gulf of Mannar is now under severe threat due
to destruction of sensitive ecosystems like corals and seagrass through
indiscriminate and intensive trawling, coral mining, dynamite fishing, commercial
fishing of specific fauna such as sea fans, chanks, sea cucumber, sea horse and
endangered species like dugongs and turtles. The similar cases are of gargonids in
the Gulf of Mannar and the sacred chanks and the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata
along south-east coast, the sping lobsters Panulirus sp. and deep sea lobsters off
south-east coast (Dehadrai et al., 1994). A survey of 20 islands in Gulf of Mannar
during 1977-81 revealed the extensive destruction of fauna and flora by human
interference and require immediate action for flora and fauna (Mahadevan & Nayar,
1983). These activities have depleted the resources and reduce the biological wealth
of this region. The status of the biota of Gulf of Mannar is depicted in Table 3.7.
In the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar the phytoplankton peaks do not
seem to follow monsoons strictly as do zooplankton. In general, in a year 2 to 3
phytoplankton peaks have been recorded in the earlier years, mostly in January
(prominent), April-May and October-November. At times during July-August too, a
minor peak had been observed (Prasad, 1954, 1956). Blooming or swarming of
unicellular biota, observed in these studies, were Trichodesmium theibauti,
T. erythraeum, Noctiluca, Ceratium, Gymodinium and rarely Gonyaulax. The studies
had further revealed considerable variation from year to year in abundance,
composition and succession in phytoplanktons.
Zooplankton : This is a very important group in the aquatic ecosystem, acting as the
primary consumer and ultimately serving as the natural food sources for many
aquatic organisms including fishes. Depending on the season, the plankton
community shows pronounced variation in its character and composition. This is
because many are planktonic throughout their life, while others are so only during
part of their life.
In the present survey, the diversity and various groups of organisms present
at different locations are presented in Tables 3.14 and 3.15. While copepoda form
the most prominent group, the diversity index varies between 2.67 and 4.24. The
stations which are close to the shore usually exhibit low index values. The data
indicates higher diversity among zooplankton in the offshore waters. In the Palk Bay
and the Gulf of Mannar the zooplankton have been observed to show a bimodal
cycle, with a minor peak between January and March, and a primary peak during
September - October due to the monsoon conditions (Krishna Kartha 1959).
Copepods and chaetognaths reach their maximum when the salinity was low. But
there were few copepods and lucifor when molluscan larvae and fish eggs
constituted high percentages (Marichany, Siraimeetan , 1979).
Benthos : The organisms which inhabit the bottom of an aquatic body are called
benthos. Many of them are sessile, some creep over a burrow in mud. The quality
and quantity of animals found at the bottom are not only related to the nature of
substrate but also to the depth, and the kind and quality of the other associated
aquatic biota. Their number and distribution also depend upon physico-chemical and
biological characteristics of water. Benthic organisms of different groups have been
recorded from Gulf of Mannar. (GOI, DOD and ICMAMPD, 2001) (Table 3.17).
The sediment samples collected from different stations in the Gulf of Mannar
and the Palk Bay were passed through 500 µ mesh sieve and again through 45 µ
sieve for segregation of macrobenthos and meiobenthos respectively, as described
below.
Macrobenthos : The details of biota observed along with the sedimentary conditions
of benthos at various locations are presented in Tables 3.18 and 3.19. Some of the
locations are rich in flora and fauna. The diversity index values are observed to be
above 3. In general, contrary to the zooplankton, the near shore stations exhibited
higher diversity indices than those of offshore. Most of the offshore stations have
indices around 1.0. Altogether 78 varieties of macrobenthos from 14 groups have
been recorded. Details of the major groups of macrobenthos recorded in the study
area are presented hereunder.
On analysis of data on corals in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay,
solitary coral at each of 3 locations, 1 & 2 have been observed, locations 2 and 1
possess only 1 and 3 types of macrofauna respectively. Smaller size and poor
density of coral might be the principal factors for not attracting other flora and fauna
in these locations. In general, the presence of corals along the proposed alignment
of Sethusamudram ship canal appears to be negligible.
The reefs of Gulf of Mannar are fringing or patchy thriving in shallow waters
(0.2-5.0m) around almost all islands. Most of the framework of coral reef is made up
of dead or semi fossilised Porites spp. Literature survey indicates that about 128 (42
endemic) species of corals have been recorded (Pillai, 1986 and CMFRI, 1998) and
the coral reefs lying on the southern side of the island are more dense and exhibit
greater species diversity than the reefs on northern side. The dominant genera are
Pocillopora, Porites, Acropora, Montipora, Favia, Favites, Goniopora, Goniastrea,
Platygyra, Echinopora, Galacea, Turbinaria, Leptoria, Poavona and Pochyseris. The
details of distribution pattern of corals and live coral percentage is presented in
Table 3.21 and Figs. 3.8-3.9.
Gorgonids are observed in the Palk Bay while in the Gulf of Mannar these
are recorded only near the islands. Gorgonid community is popularly known as
“Flowers of underwater gardens”. Fourteen species of gorgonids were recorded
(Tomas and George, 1987). The dominant genera were Subergorgia, Plexauroides,
Muricella, Echinomuriceae, Echinogorgia, Thesea, Heterogorgia, Junceela and
Gorgonella.
For diversity, density and distribution of corals in the Palk Bay and the Gulf
of Mannar, the available information is debatable and needs detailed systematic
investigation. While Gopinadha Pillai (1969, 1971) listed 20 and 94 species of corals
in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar respectively, Asir Ramesh and Kannupandi
(1997) recorded 25 species of corals from a specific area like Vellaperukkumunai
reef in the Palk Bay. Santhanam and Venkataramanujam (1996) identified 18
species of stony corals only at Tuticorin (Gulf of Mannar), and Petterson Edward and
Asir Ramesh (1996) reported 32 species of corals from Pulli island alone in the Gulf
of Mannar. However, studies carried out by Zoological Survey of India (Anonymous,
1998) revealed only 21 species of corals in the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere
Reserve.
Quarrying of corals for various purposes has been in vogue in the Gulf of
Mannar and the Palk Bay for a long time. Three factories in Tirunelveli district were
using corals as a raw material for their products. Mandapam and Tuticorin were the
two important bases for the collection and stacking of the coral stones. While (Patel
and Bhaskaran, 1978), it has been stopped totally at Mandapam after establishment
of the National Marine Park Authority. However, in Tuticorin area quarrying of corals
still goes on, and the landing has been estimated at 5000 t/yr (Anonymous 1998).
The areas wherein live coral reefs are prominent are shown in Fig. 3.9. It is
believed that inspite of large scale removal of corals, still there may be areas
wherein the endemic corals are available. As per earlier records, there were 53
species of endemic stony corals inhabiting this area. The reefs of Manauli area
appear to be very important. It has been postulated by Stoddart (1973) that the
modern reef growth in the region began about 5000 years ago.
Sea fan (Coelenterata) : The Sea fan is yet another colonial form, but it branches
only in one plane and the branches may fuse with each other to form a 'fan'. White or
cream-coloured polyps may grow on a base of contrasting maroon colour, attached
to stones by a broad disc-like holdfast. The colourful sea fans have long been
objects of attraction to man.
Sponges (Porifera) : 275 species (31 endemic) of sponges were reported from Gulf
of Mannar and Palk Bay (Thomas, 1986).
Sponges, although at a casual glance look like plants, are animals, living
singly or in colonies. They have no fixed shape, and form flat encrustations on
stones in the region of strong waves. In the crevices, these sponges are found
associated with many animals, ranging from tiny crabs and brittle star to bivalve
molluscs. Sponges show commensalism as several crustaceans, worms, molluscs
and fishes live in the internal cavities of sponges for protection against enemies, and
also act as a shelter bed.
Regarding macrobenthos, altogether 77 sponges comprising 11 genus have
been recorded in the region. The density is higher (3333 ha-1) in Tuticorin area,
followed by 533 and 440 ha-1 in the Palk Bay and northern side of the Gulf of Mannar
respectively. The estimated sponges along the proposed alignment of
-1
Sethusamudram canal are 1050 ha . Upreti and Shanmugaraj (1997) recorded 275
species of sponges inhabiting the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar area. Sponges
prefer both the island biosphere as also the open sea-ward areas, preferably upon
30 metre depth (CMFRI 1998).
Boring sponges form the major group among the marine organisms causing
considerable destruction to the reef system. The 'bores' left by the sponges weaken
the reef making it more susceptible to wear and tear caused by the waves and the
associated impact. There are altogether 20 known species of boring sponges in the
Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay.
Polychaeta : 75 species were recorded (CMFRI, 1998). The dominant genera were
Iphione, Harmothoes, Eurythoe, Chloeia, Eulalia, Syllis, Ceratonereis, Perinereis,
Eunice, Marphysa, Onuphis and malacoceros.
Crustacea : The crustaceans rank second in the diversity of fauna in the coaral reef
ecosystem and many of them are exploited for commercial purpose. The knowledge
about marine crustaceans in incomplete. They consist of crabs, lobster, prawns, and
shrimps.
Planktonic and Larval forms
– The sacred chank (Xancus pyrum) are much in demand for the
manufacture of bangles, ornamental and decorative materials.
– Oyster shell is used to produce lime for poultry and other uses.
– Molluscs absorb CO2 and convert it into CaCO3, thus reducing the
level of CO2 in the global environment.
Information on the two important groups of molluscs, viz. pearl oyster and
chank outlined hereunder.
Pearl oysters : Pearl oysters are available in large numbers from 24 groups of 87
paars in the Gulf of Mannar. Pinctada fucata yields gem quality pearls for which the
Gulf of Mannar is famous from time immorial. The other species found are P.
chemnitzii, P. anomioides, P. atropurpura, and P. margaretifera. Of the 24 groups of
pearls, 14 occur between the shore and proposed canal in the Gulf of Mannar (Fig.
3.11). The proposed alignment of sethusamudram canal passes through the groups
I, VIII, XI, XII and XIII. Out of 14 paars in these five groups, the maximum number of
seven is in group XI which is located close to Tuticorin. However, five specimens of
P. fucata in 25 m2 area are found far away from the proposed alignment of the canal
and close to the island at the northern side of the Gulf of Mannar.
Hemichordata : The limited publications on this group has indicated the occurrence
of the only species Ptychotera fava (balanoglossus) in the Gulf of Mannar (Upreti
and Shanmugaraj, 1997). Balanoglossus in the Gulf of Mannar is in a very much
restricted area, viz. Kunthugal in the Pamban island and Kurusadai island. The
presence of the animal is discernibel by the characteristic iodoform odour present in
the mud. Balanoglossus are zoologically a very interesting group from evolutionary
point of view and their importance is enhanced by their rarity.
Fisheries
Marine capture fishery is the major economic activity of Gulf of Mannar. The
total area of Gulf of Mannar under Indian Exclusive Economic Zone is about
15000 sq. km. and commercial fishing is done in about 5500 sq. km. within 50 m
depth. Both mechanized and non-mechanized fishing units are mainly responsible
for exploitation of sea fish resources in Gulf of Mannar (Kasim and Hamsa, 1987).
Fishing in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar is multigear, multispecies
and is carried out throughout the coast of mainland and the Pamban island. Within
the study area, there are 87 fish landing centres between the south of Point Calimere
and Pamban in the Palk Bay, and 40 centres in the Gulf of Mannar from Pamban to
Tuticorin Harbour (Table 3.23).
Fishes : The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay with their peculiar topography are
noted for their faunal diversity and richness. Mahadevan and Nayar (1967) made
detailed observations on the rock bottom of this area and described its faunal
diversity. Gulf of Mannar is one of the best regions in the Indian subcontinent in fish
biodiversity richness. The Shannon Weaver Diversity Index (H’ values) for the
ornamental fishes around each island in the Gulf of Mannar exceeds 2.5 in 2/3 of the
islands. The variation in its value with species richness and density is depicted in
Table 3.24. Although over 600 species of fishes, crustaceans and molluscs (out of
which no. of fish species is 441) are reported (Anonymous 1998), to support the
fishery in these regions, the commercially important species (200 species out of total
441 fish sp.) (Table 3.25) are limited in number.
The chief fisheries are the pelagic sardines, seer fish, tunas, mackerel,
sharks, caranids, barracudas, wolf herring, full and half beaks, the demersal perches
such as sweetlips, groupers, rock-cods, snappers, goat fishes, croakers, sharks,
rays, skates, coral fishes, threadfin, breams, silverbellies, the shell fishes like
chanks, squids, cuttlefish shrimps, crabs and lobsters. Most of these resources are
commercially exploited by mechanised trawlers.
There was overfishing of silverbellies in 1973-74 and 1974-75 when the
effort far exceeded the optimum level. (Venkataraman et.al., 1981). Pair trawling
carried out in Palk Bay yielded large catches of Rainbow sardines (Dussumieria) and
pomfrets (Pampus argenteus). (Pillai, Sathiadhas, 1982). Fishery of the swimming
crab Portunus pelagicus Linnaeus is done on large scale along the Palk Bay and
Gulf of Mannar. Vedalai is found to be the most productive centre for crabs (Hamsa,
KMSA, 1978).
Shore seines, boat seines, trawl nets and hooks and lines are the principal
gear operated. The shore seines are of two types namely Kara valai and Olavalai.
The former is operated with the help of vallam fitted with out board engines and is
mainly used for capturing small pelagic fishes while the latter is operated with the
help of nonmechanised vallam craft for capturing small shrimps and small pelagic
fishes. Boat seines are operated using vallam with inboard engine. Specialised gears
are also used such as chala valai for small pelagic fishes, paru valai for perches and
tunas, thirukkai valai for rays, nandu valai for crabs and lobster etc. Traps are used
to catch reef dwellers such as groupers, snappers, lobsters,shrimps etc. Shrimp and
fish trawl nets are operated to capture a variety of demersal fishes such as
silverbellies, carangids, perches, pomfrets, ogatfishes, rays, prawns etc. Among
hooks and lines, longolines are used for hooking perches, catfish, sharks etc. and
troll lines for scombroids, fishes, sharks, carangids etc. Depending on the tide and
fishing season kalamkatti valai is operated at night on the shores of the islands for
catching shore fishes and mullets.
Capture Fishes : 441 species (Dorairaj, 1997) were reported in the following orders,
namely Lamniformes, Squaliformes, Torpediniformes, Elopiformes, Anguilliformes,
Clupeiformes, Aulopiformes Gadiformes Ophidiiformes, Batracoidiformes,
Lophiiformes, Cyprinodontiformes, Atheriniformes, Bercyciformes, Pegasiformes,
Syngnathiformes, Scorpaeniformes, Perciformes and Pleuronectiformes.
Ornamental Fishes : About 100 species (Murthy, 1969) have been recorded. The
dominant genera were Chaetodon, amphiprion, Abudefduf, Holocentrum, Upeneus
Parupeneus, Pomacanthodes, Acanthurus and Lactoria.
Crafts and gears : Fishing is carried out in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar
almost through out the day. The various gears operating in the Palk Bay and the Gulf
of Mannar are listed in Table 3.26. Primarily, various types of gill nets and seine nets
are used for pelagic fishing, while trawlers are used for harvesting demersal fishes.
Thangal (stay put) fishing which lasts for 5 to 7 days is also being practised by the
fishermen of Mandapam and Pamban island. Catamarans, dug-out canoes, plank
built Tuticorin type of thony/vallam, stitched masula boats are the traditional crafts in
use. The Tuticorin type of boats are operated either undersail or with inbuilt diesel
engine or in combination. Often catamarans and canoes too are used with outboard
engines.
The changing trend in fishing gears and crafts in this region is remarkable.
In early fifties, while 55% of the catch was made by boat seines operated from
catamarans, 34% came in gill nets operated from Tuticorin type of traditional crafts.
In late fifties, nylon nets were introduced and the harvest increased by 30%. Post
1970 period marked a revolution in fishing with the introduction of mechanised
trawlers and emergence of prawn fishery and an increase of over 40% in the total
fish catch. During 1980's in Tuticorin around 20,000 tonnes of fishes were landed by
trawlers and 10,000 tonnes by traditional fishing units.
Fishing Limits : Mechanised trawl fishing is being conducted usually upto 50 m (20
fathom) depth, while during November - February the fishermen go upto 180 metres
(100 fathom) for harvesting deep sea prawns. For collection of gorgonids, trawl nets
are operated beyond 50 metres depth. Non-mechanised units usually operate within
a depth of 36 metres (20 fathom).
Fishing in Mandapam and Rameswaram : Fishing units in the Palk Bay and the
Gulf of Mannar operate from Rameswaram. During the south-west monsoon period
(June - September), as the Gulf of Mannar side gets rough, fishing is carried out
mostly in the Palk Bay. During north-east monsoon (October - February), the fishing
shifts to the Gulf of Mannar which becomes calmer than the Palk Bay. The trawl
landings are concentrated at Mandapam, Pamban and Rameswaram. The most
important catch in the Mandapam area is silver bellies (48%), rays, croakers,
clupeids, goatfishes, perches, catfishes, lizardfishes and carangids. At Rameswaram
also, silver bellies dominate (51%), followed by rays (13%), croakers (9.5%) and
penaeid shrimps (9.4%), goatfishes, carangids, catfishes, flat fishes, clupeids,
cephalopods and crabs. Mackerel and carangids dominate the catch by the
indigenous gears. Anchovies and seerfishes also support a seasonal fishery. During
the lean inshore fishing season the fishermen of this area resort to 'Thangal fishing'.
Fish Production : The marine fish landings in the Gulf of Mannar can broadly be
classified into four groups, viz. pelagic, demersal, crustaceans and molluscs. During
1992 - 1996, the production has increased gradually from 55,325 tonnes in 1992 to
1,02,897 tonnes in 1996 (Table 3.27). In general, contribution of pelagic varieties is
maximum (54%) followed by demersal (35%), crustaceans (6%) and molluscs (5%).
While the harvest in the Gulf of Mannar is 20% of the total production in
Tamilnadu, it is estimated that exploitation in this area is 800 tonnes in excess of
sustainable yield, and the production rate is 14 tonnes km-2.
The major varieties contributing to fish production in this area are sardines,
carangids, silver bellies, perches, rays, penaeid prawns and cephalopods (Table
3.28). Higher salinity conditions and the temperate range 27.8-29.4OC favor the
Sardinella fishery at Tuticorin, Gulf of Mannar (Nalluchinnappan, et. al., 1982). Water
temperature and salinity appeared to influence the distribution of major finfishes
compared to dissolved oxygen. Groups such as threadfin breams were found
preferring cooler waters of wadge Bank area, while Barracudas appear to occupy
warmer waters of Gulf of Mannar (Balachandran, Agadi, 1996). While other sardines
dominated the catch in all the years between 1992 and 1996, the subdominant
varieties were cephalopods in 1992 and silver bellief during 1993 to 1996. Sardines
and Cephalopods are usually harvested by different gears in pelagic region.
However, the demersal varieties like silver bellies, penaeid prawns, rays, thryssa,
corakers etc. are primarily exploited by trawlers (Table 3.29). The catch through
trawlers further indicates that certain varieties like silver bellies, rays, croakers,
crabs, sardines, goat fishes and catfishes prefer the northern side of the Gulf of
Mannar, that is, Pamban and Rameswaram; while thryssa, carangids, stolephorus
and seer fishes are predominantly caught in the southern side, that is, Tuticorin
(Table 3.30).
The oil sardine, Sardinella longiceps fishery in the canal zone is a new
event. Even a few years ago this variety was rarely found in this area. During 1996
its catch was 1419 tonnnes. In the area adjoining Pamban island, its eggs and larvae
have been observed, indicating that the fish stock has become localised and breeds
in this area. Another important change is the unusual increase in mackerel
Rastrelliger kanagurta harvest. In 1992 the mackeral fishery was only 213 tonnes
and in 1996 it was 3711 tonnes. Sand lobster Thenus orientalis fishery of Tuticorin is
another newly emerging minor fishery.
The green tiger prawns Penaeus semisulcatus, contributes to over 50% of the
total prawns catch landed along the Palk Bay coast. Intense fishing for juvenile
prawns, which inhabit the seagrass ecosystem near the shore, is taking place all along
the coast. The results of a survey carried out on this exploitation pattern are reported.
The prawn catch, the bulk of which is composed of juvenile P. seisulcatus, is found to
vary from 2 kg to 10 kg per unit per day. The size of the exploited P. semisulcatus
ranges from 31 mm to 100 mm total length with the dominant size group at 45-70 mm.
(Rao, 1988).
Non-conventional fishery : The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay support select non-
conventional fishery resources. A historical pearl fishery exists here and the pearl oysters are
the property of the Tamilnadu Government. The areas where pearl oysters are found from
near shore region to the canal zone are shown in Fig. 3.11 and Table 3.31. The pearl oysters
settle and grow on hard rocky substrata called 'Paars' found abundantly from Pamban in the
north to Manapad in the south over a stretch of 160 km where 83 well known 'Paars' exist.
The beautiful natural pearls produced by these oysters are of high economic importance. The
Tamilnadu Pearl and Chank Fisheries Rules, 1978 under the Indian Fisheries Act 1897,
prohibit harvesting of pearl oysters and chanks in specified areas except with a licence
granted under the rules.
The natural production a pearl oysters in the pearls banks of the Gulf of
Mannar is Characterised by very wide fluctuations. Therefore, ability of producing pearl
oyster seed through hatcheries is of great importance for the development of pearl
culture industry in India. The barnacle Balanus amphitrite variegates was the major
fouling organism and Polychaete Polydora ciliata and the sponge (Clions vastifica)
were the main boring organisms responsible for heavy loading on the pearl systems.
(Symposium on coastal aquaculture, 1983).
In the vicinity of the pearl culture farm located off Veppalodai in the Gulf of
Mannar, the salinity remains high during the period of the south-west monsoon and
low during the north-east monsoon. There was not much variation in pH values and
dissolved oxygen content. The water was studied during the most part of the year, with
higher dissolved oxygen content. (Symposium on coastal aquaculture, 1983).
Breeding ground : There is not specific locality identifiable as breeding ground for
fishes. The fishes breed throughout the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar and almost
through out the year. Fish eggs have been observed in the Gulf of Mannar
throughout the year with a peak in March and minor peaks in May, September and
November. In the Palk Bay also maximum number of fish eggs were collected in
March. The eggs were identified as belonging to clupeoids, carangids, Cynoglossus
and muraenids. There exists a minor fishery for juvenile fishes in the Pamban island
and in Theedai area during January-March, in which mostly baby sardines are
caught by torch (Choondu) fishing during night hours. At Kunthukal Point (Pamban)
very good quantities of juvenil milk fish (Chanos chanos) are caught during April-
June and September for use as seed stock for fish farming in various parts of
Tamilnadu and Kerala.
Spawning takes place in areas between 20m and 60 m depth in the northern
Gulf of Mannar. The spent adults migrate to the central Gulf of Mannar coast by
November – December. Spawning takes place around the full moon period.
The fry and fingerlings of the Indian sand whiting, Sillago sihama (Forskal),
which can serve as seed, have been found to occur in the coastal waters of the Palk
Bay throughout the year with at least three months of peak abundances in January,
May and October. The overall abundance was highest during full moon period, while a
direct relationship of the abundance of the fry and fingerlings could be noticed with the
increase in temperature and dissolved oxygen content (James, 1984).
A potential ground for milkfish (Chanos chanos) seed collection has been
located at Manoli Island in the Gulf of Mannar, where eggs and fingerlings of the
species congregate in large numbers in the tidal pools under the dense shades of the
mangrove bushes in April-May (Dorairaj et al., 1984). Juveniles of Penaeus
semisulcatus are found in large concentrations in the shallow inshore sea, between
Pattannamarudar and Tuticorin along the Tinnerelly coast in Tamilnadu and they are
fished throughout the year by an indigenous gear known as ‘Ola Valai’ operated in the
waters within 2 m depth. (Manisseri, 1982).
Turtles : Marine turtles are mainly omnivorous and often consume algae. For the purpose of
respiration they periodically surface like the marine mammals. The turtles migrate to the
shore for egg laying and prefer to come to the same site where they themselves once had
hatched out. Their nesting migration is during September - January. Five species of marine
turtles were recorded in the Gulf of Mannar and little is known about their distribution under
water. There are Chelonia mydas (green turtle), Hepidochelys olivacea (olive ridley), Caretta
caretta (loggerheads turtle), Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawk bill turtle), Dermochelys
coriacea (leather bask turtle). All are endangered species as per Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972. A soft shelled turtle P. bibroni from Palk Bay can tolerate the marine environment, as
against the belief that it is purely a freshwater form (Nair and Badrudeen, 1975). Prior to
about 40 years, turtles used to lay eggs in the sandy beaches throughout the Gulf of Mannar
coast, both in the main lands and also in the islands including Sri Lanka. However, due to
increased human activity, presently they avoid Indian mainland coast but they do continue to
visit the Sri Lankan coast and the islands. Though their number is low in the Gulf of Mannar,
all the 5 species still lay eggs in these islands. Presently, capturing turtles is prohibited.
Mammals : 11 species have been recorded (Jamer and Lal Mohan, 1987, CMFRI, 1998)
including 6 species of whales, 4 species of dolphins and 1 species of dugong. All are
endangered species (Wildlife Protection Act, 1972). The cetacea (whales and dolphins) and
sirenia (sea cow) represent the main groups of marine mammals in the Gulf of Mannar.
Marine mammals have a layer of dermal fat or blubber. This acts as a stored reserve food for
future use in case of deficiency of food. The sirenia (sea cow) graze with their well developed
lips, in consequence, their teeth are little used and are greatly reduced in size. In cetacea,
whales and dolphins are mostly carnivorous and feed on crustaceans, squids, and fishes. In
sirenia, sea cow is herbivorous and feeds mainly on sea grasses.
A total of 187 species of shore birds including wadors, terns and gulls were
recorded in the Gulf of Mannar, of which 84 were of aquatic species and the remaining
terrestrial. The uncommon waders to India such as knot Calidris canuta, eastern knot
C. tenuirostris, Numenius arquata, whimbrel N. phaeophus and bar-tailed gotuit
Limosa lapponica were recorded as regular winter visitors to this area (Balachandran,
1995).
Dolphins and Whales : The dolphins found in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay
are oceanic and roam about in the area. It is most likely that only the frail and the
infirm whales move towards this area as known from standings of whales. So far no
mass standing of whales has been observed in the canal area. A male sperm whale P.
macrocephalus Linnaeus is rarely found on the southern side of Krusadai Island (Gulf
of Mannar), (James and Soundararajan, 1979). The dolphins Stenella longirostris and
Tursiops truncatus are often caught in various nets and the ones thus caught and
injured (probably) are clandestinely butchered for food. However, capture or harming
of the sea mammals is prohibited by law.
Sea Cow : Unlike dolphins and whales, sea cow (Dugong dugon) inhabits
the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar preferably within 10 m depth limit not far from
the shore (1-3 km). Usually sea cows move in groups of 5-7 among the seagrass
Cymodocea, which is their chief diet. Their habitat extends from Adiramapattinam in
the Palk Bay to Taliyari island in the Gulf of Mannar (Fig. 3.13). The dugong which
grows to over 300 kg measuring 1-1.5 m in length, is harmless and sluggish in
nature. Its gestation period lasts for 13-14 months and gives birth to a single calf at a
time. Though young male adults compete among themselves for female, once they
have paired, they remain paired for the whole life. Their attachment to the partner
and calf is such that if one of the partners or calf gets caught the rest also shall
follow; thus becoming easy victims. They have no natural enemies except the
civilised man. The exact number of sea cows living in the Gulf of Mannar & the Palk
Bay is not known. Due to uncontrolled fishing carried out till recently and also due to
reduction in their grazing area and Cymodocea, their numbers have gone down
drastically. During 1980's, about 200 sea cows were killed per year. Now they are
protected by the Wildlife (Protection) Act, and are under threatened status.
Occasionally, marine mammals and turtles have been observed to get washed
ashore, and on examination it is found that the death was often due to propeller
cutus or eating of floatsam.
Marine Macroflora : Seaweeds or marine algae are primitive plants without any
root, stem and leaves. They grow in the intertidal and subtidal areas of the sea and
flourish wherever rocky, coral or any other suitable substrates are available for their
attachment. Based on the type of pigments, external and internal structures,
seaweeds, are divided into green, brown, red and blue-green algae. Seaweeds
constitute one of the commercially important marine living and renewable resources.
They contain more than 60 trace elements, minerals, protein, iodine, bromine,
vitamin and many bioactive substances.
Four seaweeds that are commercially collected along the coast of the Gulf
of Mannar are – Gracilaria edulis, Gelidiella acerosa, Sargassum wrightii and
Turbinaria sp. and these are one of the main sources of income in the concerned
villages. In the Hindu villages these also give the women one of their few fast
income. But now there is lack of sufficient quality and quantity of these sea weeds
(Uusitalo, 1987).
– Seagrass is the main feed for the sea cow Dugong dugon
(endangered marine mammal). The organic matter in the detritus
and in decaying roots initiates sulfate reduction and maintains an
active sulfur cycle.
A total of 42 species of green algae, 31 species of brown algae,
69 species of red algae, 5 species of blue-green algae and 13 species of grasses
were recorded in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar (CSMCRI, 1978,
Parthasarthy, et al., 1991). The area covered from Athankarai to Rameswaram (45
km coastline) in the Palk Bay and from Mandapam to Welamidalam (413 km
coastline) including 21 islands of the Gulf of Mannar possess higher density of algal
distribution. Standing crop of the macroalgae from the total area of 17,125 ha (above
said area) is 22,044 tonnes (wet wt.), consisting of 1,709 tonnes of agarophyses,
10,266 tonnes of alginophyses and 10,069 tonnes of other seaweeds. The
commercially important species, viz., Gelidiella acerosa Gracillaria sp., Hypnea sp.,
Sargassum sp. and Turbinaria sp. contribute
74, 974, 798, 9381 and 714 tonnes respectively (Kalimuthu et al. 1990).
Mangrove : Mangroves are salt tolerant forest eco-systems found in select islands
and also at certain intertidal regions. These are exposed at low tides and partially
submerged during the high tides. The plants comprise the true mangroves as well as
other flora which are associated with the mangroves to form the 'Mangrove
community'. The significance of mangroves is as follows :
– Mangroves help to prevent coastal erosion and built land from the
sea.
It is believed that mangroves along the main land coast and river mouths of
the canal zone have been reduced or replaced by habitation and saltpans.
Mangroves and the associated vegetations in the islands are said to be under
constant pressure. Although detailed studies have not been carried out, the islands
like Krusadai, Shingle, New Manauli and Poomarichan islands possess patches of
mangroves (Stoddart & Fosberg, 1972). The genera Avicennia and Rhizophora are
predominant in these islands. The Pamban Islands also have dense mangrove forest
cover with several species, which are degraded due to human activities like grazing
by domestic cattle & firewood exploitation by rural poor people.
The coastal mangrove has little value & occupy very narrow strip of few
meter widths along the coast or lagoon. The mangrove formation around
Rameshwaram is discontinuous & about 100 years old (Venkatesan, 1986). From
the seacoast of Rameshwaram island, Rhizophora apiculata, Ceriops tagal,
Aricennia alba, Bruguiera, Gymnorhiza are identified. Stoddart & Fosberg (1972)
have reported minor patch of mangroves near Rameshwaram. The species of
mangroves found in the estuarine coast of Palk Bay and deltaic ecosystem of Gulf of
Mannar are given in Table 3.35.
The 21 islands of Gulf of Mannar are divided into four groups namely
Mandapam, Keezhakarai, Vembar and Tuticorin due to the proximity of islands to
these locations.
There are seven islands present in Mandapam group covering an area 262.3
ha. It is nearest group of island to the proposed project site.
Seven islands present in this region are biologically very rich. Krusadai island
is the “Biologist’s Paradise”, as it holds maximum genetic diversity. Patch reefs are
found on the southern and northern side of the islands. Fringing reefs occur along the
southern side at a distance of about 1 to 5 km. Dugong foraging grounds are
extensive. 35 species of corals, 12 species of seagrasses and
9 species of mangroves are found in this group.
Coral reefs were surveyed during low tide times. They were observed at
different zones in exposed areas. Some of the islands were small with an area less
than 5 to 7 km2. Around Muyal theevu (Hare Island) coral reefs were noticed along the
entire southern portion as a stretch and into the sea for about 2 km. On the northeast it
extended to a distance of about 1 km in width. Manoli and Manoliputti islands have
coral reefs occupying an area of about 8 km2, in the shallow region. Pullivasal and
Shingle region could be seen clearly during low tide. Krusadai Island had coral reefs
on the eastern side, which was about 200 meters wide and ran to about 1-km length
on the southwest direction. The common coral fauna found around the Mandapam
group of island is given in Table 3.38.
Corals are mostly found upto 5m depths. More number of live coral points
exists around Manoli and Manoliputti islands. Coral reef area around the islands is
about 41 sq.km. Seagrass covers an area of about 23 sq.km around the islands.
Fringing reefs were found from 100 to 500 meters away from the shore
around the islands. They were not continuous but were broken here and there. They
occurred mostly abound all the islands. Underwater survey of coral reefs yielded
information on the various species of corals found surrounding the Mandapam group
of islands in the Gulf of Mannar and are given in Table 3.38. There was a rich variety
of coral fauna. There were more than 31 species of
7 genera of coral fauna. Of this 7 species belonging to 7 genera were hermatypic.
Seaweeds occur in the intertidal, shallow and deep water of the sea upto 180
m depth and also in estuaries and backwater. They grow on dead corals, rocks,
stones, pebbles and other substrate and as epiphyte on sea grasses. Several species
of green, brown and red algae with luxuriant growth are observed in this area.
The giant sea anemone, Stoichaetis giganteum (Forsk), was found to grow
both on sandy areas as well as on rocky bottom. Often many clown fishes such as,
Amphiprion spp. and damselfishes such as, Dascyllus trimaculatus (Ruppells) were
found swimming over the anemones. Sacred chanks (Xancus pyrum Linnaeus) were
found in shoreward areas, shallow waters and also at greater depths of 10 meters and
above. Other invertebrates are found Clypeaster humilis, Salmacis bicolor, and Murex
tribulus. Sea cucumber (Holothuria atra) and (Holothuria scabra) were also found.
Dense growth of Echinolampus spp., Clypeaster humilis, and some Astropecten spp.,
was also observed. Alcyonarians, Pennatulids, and filamentous green algae were also
found at deeper areas. Lobsters, sea fans, sea horses, echinoderms, ornamental
shells like cowries and tiger shells and a number of species of crabs including edible
and non-edible ones were also found.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass is distributed all around the island covering an area of about 0.21
sq.km. 11 species have been recorded. They are Cymodocea rotundata,
C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila
ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila
beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
The swamp in the island possesses mangroves. Six species of mangroves
and 5 associated species are recorded. The recorded species are Avicennia marina,
Rhzophora mucronata, Ceripos tagal, Bruguiera cylindrica, Lumnitzers racemosa,
Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica, Pandanus sp, Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp and
Thespesia populnea.
The Krusadai group of islands, serve as windbreaks and help to prevent soil
erosion. The Krusadai island, is 125 acres rectangular and somewhat (inverted) boat-
shaped, it is separated by 250 m of sea from the nearest point of Rameshwaram
Island. For protection of Krusadai Island, the proper mangrove vegetation and its
proper management is necessary. (Lakshmanan, K.K.; Rajeswari, M.; Jayalakshmi,
R., 1984).
Coral distribution
Continuous fringing reefs on the southern side extends upto 500 m. Coral
reefs cover an area of about 1.5 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about 33%. 19 species
have been recorded in the current study.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass is distributed all around the island covering an area of about 3 sq.
km. About 12 species have been recorded and the species are Cymodocea rotundata,
C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis acidula, Halophola ovalis,
Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila stipulaceae, H.
decipiens, H. beccarii and Halodule pinifolla.
Mangrove vegetation
Mangroves are located in the peripheral region along the northern side of the
island. Seven species of mangroves and 6 associated species are recorded. They are
Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceripos tagal, Brugiera cylindrical, Pemphis
acidula, Exoecaria aggallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Salvadora persica, Pandanus
sp., Sesuvium sp., Scaevola sp, Suaeda sp. and Thespesia populnea.
Coral Distribution
Fringing reefs occur at a distance of 400 m in the southern side and patch
reef occurs beyond the muddy area in the northern side of Pullivasal Island. Coral
patches close to the island are exposed during low tide.
Coral reefs are found in the western and eastern side of the Poomarichan
Island at a distance of 150 m from the shore. On the southern side continuous reef
exists close to the shore.
Coral reefs cover an area of about 4 sq.km. Live coral coverage is about
14% (includes area around both the islands). Sixteen species of corals are recorded
around the Pullivasal island in the current study. The recorded species are Montipora
digitata, M. foliosa, Echinopora lamellosa, Favia pallida, Goniastrea, G. retiformis,
Leptastrea transversa, Pocillopora damicornis, Porites solida, P. lichen,
Psammocora contigua, Symphyllia radians, Acropora hyacinthus, A. humilis, A.
formosa and A. abdita.
Twelve species of corals are recorded around the Poomarichan island in the
current study. The species recorded are Acropora corvmbosa,
A. plantaginea, A. valenciennesi, Montipora digitata, M. divaricata, M. divaricata,
Favia pallida, F. valenciennesi, Favites abdita, Goniastrea pectinata,
G. retiformis, Pocillopora damicornis and Porites mannarensis.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass is distributed all around both the islands and covers an area of
about 5 sq. km. Twelve species are recorded and the dominant species are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides,
Halophila stipulaceas, Halophila decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Dense mangrove vegetation observed along the periphery region of the both
islands. Seven species of mangroves and 5-associated sp. are recorded. They are
Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Lumnitzera racemosa,
Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera cylindrica, Pemphis acidula, Salvadora percisa, Pandanus
sp, Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp and Tespesia populnea.
Coral distribution
Massive corals are observed along the northern portion of the island. On the
southern side fringing reefs extend far outside upto a distance of 1.25 km from the
shore. Coral reefs cover an area of about 15 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about
25% (includes area around both the islands). Thirteen species of corals are recorded
around Manoliputti island and they are Montipora digitata, M. divaricata, M.foliosa,
Echinopora lamellosa, Favia pallida, Favities abdita, Goniastrea pectinata, G.
retiformis, Platygyra lamellina, Pocillopora damicornis, Porities lichen, P. lutea and P.
solida.
Twenty five species of corals are recorded around Manoli island and they
are Acropora corymbosa, A. humilis, A. millepora, A. nobilis, A. plantaginea, A.
valenciennesi, Montipora digitata, M. divaricata, M. foliosa, M. granulosa,
M. verrilli, Echinopora lamellosa, Favia pallida, Favites abdita, Favites pentagona,
Goniastrea pectinata, G. retiformis, Leptastrea transversa, Platygyra lamellina,
Pocillopora damicornis, P. verrucosa, Goniopora planulata, Porites lichen, P. lutea
and P. solida.
Seagrass distribution
Seagras are distributed all round both the islands. Twelve species of
seagrass are recorded. Seagrass beds cover an area of about 5 sq. km. The
recorded species are Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata, Syringodium
isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia
hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila
beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
In Manoliputti very thick mangrove vegetations are found along the
periphery region of the channel and around the island. Six mangroves and
6 associated sp. are recorded and they are Avicennia marina, Rhizophora
mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera cylindrica, Excoecaria agallocha, Pemphis
acidula, Salvadora persica, Pandanus sp, Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp, Thespesia
populnea and Salicornia sp.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass are present all around the island covering an area of about 9.5 sq.
km. Twelve species of seagrass have been recorded as Cymodocea rotundata, C.
serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila
ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila
decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove Distribution
Dense mangrove vegetation with high species diversity is found to occur is
this island. Six species of mangroves and 6 associated species are recorded. The
recorded species are Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Lumnitzers
racemosa, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera cylindrica, Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica,
Pandanus sp., Sesuvium sp., Scaevola sp., Salicornia brachiata and Thespesia
populnea.
Phytoplankton distribution
Seventy eight species of phytoplankton are recorded in Gulf of Mannar. In the
Mandapam group, 59 species of Bacillariophyceae, 9 species of Dinophyceae, 4
species of Cyanophyceae and 2 species of Chlorophyceae totalling to 74 species of
phytoplankton were recorded. Maximum number of species was recorded in
Manoliputti, Poomarichan and Musal. The phytoplankton count varied from 3 – 872
nos/ml.
Zooplankton distribution
Sixtytwo species of zooplankton are recorded in Gulf of Mannar. In the
Mandapam group alone 46 species of Crustacea, 1 species of Granuloreticulosa, 1
species of Hydrozoa, 2 species of Polychaeta, 5 species of Polyhymenophora, 3
species of Sagittoidea and 2 species of Thaliacea totalling 60 species of zooplankton
were recorded. Maximum number of species was recorded around Musal and Shingle
islands. The density of zooplankton varied from 1000-9000 nos/cu.m.
Benthos distribution
In the current study (1998-99), 198 species of benthic organisms were
recorded in Gulf of Mannar. In the Mandapam group 11 species of Protozoa,
16 species of Porifera, 37 species of Cnidaria, 17 species of Annelida, 2 species of
Platyhelminthes, 9 species of Nematoda, 1 species of Echiura, 3 species of Sipuncula,
31 species of Mollusca, 41 species of Arthropoda, and 15 species of Echinodermata, 1
species of Hemichordata, totalling184 species of benthic organisms were recorded.
Musal island exhibited maximum species diversity.
Capture fisheries
A total of 130 species of fishes were recorded in Gulf of Mannar. In the
Mandapam group 9 species of Chondrichthyes (Elasmobranchs), 66 species of
Actinopterygii (Teleostei), 12 species of Crustaceans and 5 species of Cephalopods,
totalling 92 species were recorded.
Trap fishing was carried out in and around Mandapam group of islands
normally from January to March and September to December every year. About 500
to 600 traps were operated daily in the Gulf of Mannar along the coast of Mandapam,
Vedalai, Pullivasal and Pudumadam. Altogether 23 species of fishes belonging to 15
families were found to occur in the Mandapam area. A study of the percentage
composition of the different species in the total catches from the Gulf of Mannar
revealed that Lethrinus cirereus (emperor fish) formed 57%, the next important being
Callyodon ghobbon forming 26%. The species Lutjanus Johsuii (snapper) formed 5%
and Therapon puta formed 4%. Other fishes such as Psammoperca wigiensis,
Epinephelus tauvina, (grouper fish), Teuthis marmorata, Pelates quadrilineatus,
Plectorhynchus schotat (sweet lip fish), Parapenaeus indicus (Goat fish), Upeneoides
tragula, Halichaers spp., Chiloscyllium indicum, Plotosus spp., Gerres spp., and
Acanthurus spp., (surgeon fish) formed 8%. Underwater photographs of some of these
fishes were taken.
Field survey was carried out during Jan. 2000 in all the seven islands of
Keezhakaria Group for mapping the extent of coral distribution. Information on the
distribution of corals was collected using DGPS, scuba diving and skin diving. By
underwater survey, areas of abundance of corals were identified and observation
points fixed. At each point, percentage of live corals was determined visual
confirmation of coral reef areas. Corals are mostly found upto 5 m depth. Live corals
are found beyond 0.5 m depth. More number of live coral points exist around
Poovarasanpatti and Valimunai islands. Coral reef area around the islands is about 37
sq. km.
Field survey was carried out during Jan 2000 in all seven islands for mapping
the extent of seagrass. Information on the distribution of seagrass was collected using
DGPS, scuba diving and skin diving. GIS has facilitated overlay of depth contours on
seagrass areas. Seagrass covers an area of about
43.5 sq. km around this island.
3.3.4.1 Mulli Island
Mulli Island is located at about 10 km from Keezhakarai and covers an area
about 10 ha. It is a small sandy island with a vegetative cover consisting of bushes
and shrubs. The swampy regions are surrounded by muddy terrain.
Coral distribution
Boulder reef occurs in the northern side and fringing reef on the eastern side
of the island. Coral reef covers an area of about 7 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about
25%. 18 species have been recorded in the current study. The species recorded are
Acropora corymbosa, A. millepora, A. humilis,
A. hyacinthus, Coscinarea monile, Turbinaria peltata, Porites lutea, P. solida,
Goniastrea retiformis, G. pectinata, Favites abdita, Leptoria phrygia, Montipora foliosa,
M. spumosa, M. digitata, Echinopora lamellosa, Pavona varians and Pocillopora
damicornis.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass beds occur all around the islands covering an area of about
2 sq. km. Eleven species of seagrass have been recorded and the recorded species
are Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila
decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove Distribution
Dense Distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants occur in the island.
Five species of mangroves and 5 associated species are Avicennia marina,
Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera cylindrica, Pemphis acidula,
Salvadora persica, Sesuvium sp, Thespesia populnea, Suaeda sp. and Scaevola sp.
Coral distribution
Boulder and fringing reefs occur along the northwestern and southern side of
the islands. Coral reef covers an area of about 14 sq. km. and the live coral coverage
is about 16% (includes area around both the islands).
In the current study 11 species (51 species – past data) of corals are
recorded around Valai island. The recorded species are Montipora digitata, M.foliosa,
Pocillopora damicornis, Porites solida, P. lutea, Goniastrea sp. Montipora digitata, M.
foliosa, Porites lutea, P. solida, Acropora corymbosa,
A. formosa, A. humilis, Goniastrea retiformis, G. pectinata and Favites abdita
Segrass distribution
Seagrasses occur all around the islands covering an area of about
8 sq. km. Eleven species of seagrass have been recorded. The recorded species are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila
decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove Distribution
Dense distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants occurs in the
island. Two species of mangroves and 5 associated species are recorded. The
recorded species are Avicennia marina, Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica,
Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp, Salicornia sp and Thespesia populnea.
Coral distribution
Coral reefs occur all around the island except for a small patch on the eastern
side covering an area of about 5 sq.kms. Live coral coverage is about 2%. In the
current study 10 species have been recorded and they are Montipora digitata,
Montipora foliosa, Porites lichen, P. lutea, P. solida, Coscinarea monile, Acropora
hyacinthus, Goniastrea retiformis, G. pectinata and Favites abdita.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass beds are distributed all around the island covering an area of about
8 sq.km. Nine species of seagrass have been recorded and they are Cymodocea
serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila
stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove vegetation
Dense distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants occurs in the
island. One species of mangrove Pemphis acidula and 2 associated species
Salvadora persica and Sesuvium sp are recorded.
Coral distribution
Coral reef occurs all around the island covering an area of about
6 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about 50% (including area around both the islands). In
the current study, 11 species were recorded around Poovarasanpatti island. The
recorded species are Goniastrea retiformis, Porites lutea, Acropora hyacinthus, A.
nobilis, Montipora spumosa, M. foliosa, M. digitata, Turbinaria peltata, Favia pallida,
Platygyra lamellina and Favites abdita.
In the current study, 12 species were recorded around the Valimunai island.
The species are Goniastrea retiformis, Porties mannarensis, Portites solida, Acropora
hyacinthus, A. humilis, Montipora spumosa, Turbinaria peltata, Favia pallida, Favia
favus, Echinopora lamellosa, Platygyra lamellina and Favites abdita.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass beds occur all around the islands covering an area of about 11.5
sq. km. Nine species of seagrass are recorded and the recorded species are
Cymodocea serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata,
Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila beccarii and
Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Dense distribution of Pempbis and other halophytic plants occurs in Valimunai
Island. One species of mangrove and 4 associated species are recorded. The
recorded species are Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica, Sesuvium sp, Scaevola
and Thespesia populnea.
Coral distribution
Coral reef occurs all around the island covering an area of about
5 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about 37%. Twety one species of corals were
recorded in the present study (30 species – past data) and the recorded species are
Acropora corymbosa, A. formosa, A. hyacinthus, A. humilis, Montipora digitata, M.
foliosa, M. spumosa, Turbinaria peltata, T. crater, Leptoria phrygia, Goniastrea
pectinata, Goniastrea retiformis, Hydnophora exesa, Favia apllida, Porites solida, P.
mannarensis, Goniopora sp. Psammocora contigua, Merulina ampliata, Platygyra
Lamellina and Favites abdita.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass beds occur all around the island covering an area of about
14 sq. km. Eleven species of seagrass are recorded and they are Cymodocea
rotundata, C.serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis,
Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii,
Halophila stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove Distribution
Dense distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants occurs in the
island. Two species of mangroves and 4 associated species are recorded. The
recorded species are Avicennia marina, Pemphis, Salvadora persica, Sesuvium sp,
Scaevola sp and Thespesia populnea.
Phytoplankton
In the Keezhakarai group, 53 species of Bacillariophyceae, 9 species of
Dinophyceae, 3 species of Cyanophyceae and 2 species of Chlorophyceae totalling
67 species of phytoplankton were recorded. Appa island exhibited maximum species
diversity. The phytoplankton count varied from 5-935 nos/ml.
Zooplankton
In the Keezhakarai group, 45 species of Crustacea, 1 species of
Granuloreticulosa, 1 species of Hydrozoa, 3 species of Polychaets, 1 species of
Polyhymenophora, 1 species of Sagittoidea and 2 species of Thaliacea totalling 54
species of zooplankton were recorded. Appa island exhibited maximum species
diversity. The density of zooplankton varied from 1000-9000 nos/cu.m.
Coral distribution
In the Keezhakarai group, 6 species of Acropora, 3 species of Montipora, 4
species of Porites, 2 species each of Favia, Goniastrea & Turnbinaria, 1 species each
of Coscinarea, Echinopora, Favites, Galaxea, Goniopora, Hydnopora, Leptoria,
Merulina, Pavono, Platygyra, Pocillopora and Psammocora totalling 31 species of
corals were recorded. Maximum number of coral species were recorded around
Anaipar and Kulli Islands.
Benthos distribution
In the Keezhakarai group 1 species of Porifera, 32 species of Cnidaria, 1
species of Annelida, 7 species of Mollusca, 12 species of Arthropoda and 3 species of
Echinodermata totalling 56 species of benthic organisms were recorded. Anaipar and
Valimunai islands exhibited maximum species diversity.
Capture fishes
In the Keezhakarai group 5 species of Chondrichthyes (Elasmobranch), 54
species of Actinopterygii (Teleostei), 9 species of Crustaceans and 4 species of
Cephalopodas, totalling 72 species were recorded.
Live corals are found beyond 0.5 m depth. Maximum number of live coral
points exists around Upputhanni islands. Coral reef area around the islands is about
12 sq. km. Seagrass covers an area of about 9 sq.km. around the islands.
Coral distribution
Coral reef and coral boulders occur all around the island at a distance of
400-500 m on the southern side and very close to northern shore. Coral reef covers
an area of about 2 sq.km. Live coral coverage is about 38%. Twenty species have
been recorded in the current study. The recorded species are Sarcophytum sp.,
Montipora foliosa, M. spumosa, M. digitata, Turbinaria peltata, T. crater, Favia
pallida, Favia sp. Fvites abdita, Goniastrea pectinata, Goniastrea retiformis,
Hydnophora sp, Goniopora sp Porites lutea, Porites solida, Acropora formosa, A.
hyacinthus, A. corymbosa, Symphyllia radians, Leptoria phrygia, Galaxea
fascicularis and Psammocora contigua.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass around the island covers an area of about 5 sq. km.
Eleven species of seagrass have been recorded. The recorded species are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulassia,
Halophila decipens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Dense distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants occurs in the
island. One species of mangroves and 4 associated species are recorded. The
species are Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica, Sesuvium sp. and Thespesia
populnea.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass occurs all around the islands covering an area of about
1.5 sq. km. Eleven species of seagrasses have been recorded and the species are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodule uninervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea, Halophila
decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Pemphis and other halophytic plants occur in the island. One species of
mangrove and 4 associated species are recorded. The dominant species are Pemphis
acidula, Salvadora Persica, Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp and Thespesia populnea.
Coral distribution
Fringing reefs occur at a distance of 150 to 300 m all around the island except
in the north. Coral reefs cover an area of about 3 sq. km. Live coral cover is about
28%. Sixteen species of corals are recorded in this study and they are Montipora
digitata, Monitipora foliosa, Montipora spumosa, Montipora turgescens, Favia pallida,
Favites sp, Porites lutea, Porites solida, Goniastrea retiformis, Hydnophora exesa,
Turbinaria peltata, T. crater, Leptoria phrygia, Acropora corymbosa, Psammocora
contigua and Symphyllia radians.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass occur all around the islands covering an area of about
2.5 sq. km. Ten species of seagrasses have been recorded and they are Cymodocea
serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halodula uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila
ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulasia, Halophila decipiens, Halophila
beccarii and Halodula pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Dense distribution of mangroves occurs in the southeastern side of the island.
Three species of mangroves and 4 associated species are recorded and the species
are Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persica,
Sesuvium sp., Scaevola sp. and Thespesia populnea.
Phytoplankton
In the vembar group, 48 species of Bacillariophyceae, 11 species of
Dinophyceae, 2 species of Cyanophyceae and 1 species of Chlorophyceae, totalling
62 species of phytoplankton were recorded. Nallathanni island exhibited maximum
species diversity. The phytoplankton count varied from 6 - 478 nos/ml.
Zooplankton
In the vembar group, 37 species of Crustacea, 1 species of Hydrozoa, 1
species of Polychaeta, 1 species of Polyhymenophora, 3 species of Saggitoidea and 1
species of Thaliacea totalling 45 species of zooplankton were recorded. Maximum
number of species was recorded around Pulivinichalli and Upputhanni islands. The
density of zooplankton varied from 1000-9000 nos/cu.m.
Coral distribution
In the Vembar group, 5 species of Acropora, 4 species of Montipora,
2 species each of Porites, Goniastrea and Turbinaria, 1 species each of Favia,
Favites, Galaxea, Hydnopora, Goniopora, Leptoria, Pocillopora, Symphyllia,
Psammocora and Sarcophytum totalling 25 species of corals were recorded.
Maximum number of coral species was recorded around Nallathanni island.
Benthos distribution
In the Vembar group, 1 species of porifera, 27 species of Cnidaria,
7 species of Mollusca, 8 species of Arthropoda and 2 species of Echinodermata
totalling 45 species of benthic organisms were recorded. Nallathanni island exhibited
maximum species diversity.
Capture fisheries
In the Vembar group, 8 species of Chondrichthyes (Elasmobranchs), 69
species of Actinopterygii (Teleostei), 9 species of Crustaceans and 5 species of
Cephalopods, totalling 91 species were recorded.
The Tuticorin group consists of four islands, one of, which is submerged. Reef
patches exist all around the islands. The islands have sparse vegetation. Twenty three
species of corals, 11 species of seagrass and
3 species of mangroves and asociated species are found in the Tuticorin group of
islands.
Live corals are found beyond 0.5 m depth. Maximum number of live coral
points exists around Karaichalli island. Coral reef area around the islands is about 10
sq. km. Field survey was carried out during March 2000, in all four islands for mapping
the extent of seagrass. Seagrass covers an area of about 10 sq.km.
3.3.8.1 Karaichalli Island
Karaihalli island is about 15 km from Tuticorin. It covers an area of about 16
ha and has very poor vegetative cover. Fishermen from the nearby mainland visit the
island for illegal coral mining operations.
Coral distribution
Patches of coral reef exist all around the island and cover the area of 0.31
sq.km. Live coral coverage is about 14%. Twenty five species of corals have been
recorded and the species are Acropora hyacinthus, A formosa,
A nobilis, Acropora sp., Montipora digitata, M. foliosa, M. foliosa, M. spumosa, Favites,
abdita, Favites sp., Favia pallida, F. favus, platygyra, T. crater, Goniastrea, retiformis,
G. pectinata, Galaxea fasicularis, Symphyllia radians, Leptastrea transversa, Leptoria
phrygia and Goniopora stokesi.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass occur all around the islands covering an area of about 1 sq km.
Eleven species of seagrass have been recorded . The recorded species are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Sysringodium isoetifolium, Halodule univervis,
Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila stipulacea,
Halophila decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule pinifolia.
Mangrove vegetation
There is sparse distribution of Pemphis and other halophytic plants in the
island. Two species of mangroves and 4 associated species are recorded. The
dominant species are Avicennia marinam, Pemphis acidula, Salvadora persicam,
Sesuvium sp, Scaevola sp and Thespesia populnea.
Coral distribution
Coral reef patches occur all around the submerged island. Coral reefs cover
an area of about 1 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about 8%. Eight species of corals
were recorded in the current study (21 species- past data) . The recorded species
are Acropora hyacinthus, A formosa, Montipora spumosa, Favia pallida, porties
lutea, Turbinaria crater, Goniastrea retiformis and Leptastrea sp.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrasses occur all around the island covering an area of about
1.5 sq. km. Eleven species of seagrass have been recorded and they are
Cymodocea rotundata, C. serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila stipulacea
and Halophila decipiens.
Coral distribution
Coral reef patches occur all around the island. Coral reefs cover an area of
about 6 sq. km. Live coral coverage is about 5%. Fourteen 14 species are recorded
and the species are Acropora hyacinthus, A formosa, Montipora digitata, M. foliosa,
Favites abdita, Favia favus, Platygyra lamellina, Porites mannarensis, Turbianria
Peltata, T. crater, Goniastrea retiformis, Goniastrea sp., Goniopora stokesi and
Leptoria phrygia, Digitata, M. foliosa, M. spumosa, Favites abdita, Favites sp, Favia
pallida, Platygyra lamellina, Porites lutea,
P. mannarensis, Hydnopora sp., Turbinaria peltata, T. crater and Goniastrea
retiformis.
Seagrass distribution
Seagrass occurs all around the island covering an area of about 5 sq. km.
Nine species of seagrass have been recorded and they are Cymodocea serrulata,
Syringodium isoetifolium, Halophila ovalis, Halophila ovata, Thalassia hemprichii,
Halophila stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, decipiens, Halophila beccarii and Halodule
pinifolia.
Mangrove distribution
Pemphis and other halophytic plants occur in the island. Two species of
mangroves and 4 associated species are recorded. The recorded species are
Avicennia marina, Pemphis acidula, salvadora percisa, Sesuvium sp, and Thespesia
popuinea.
Phytoplankton
In the Tuticorin group, 4 species of Bacillariophyceae, 8 species of
Dinophyceae, 5 species of Chlorophyceae totalling 70 species of phytoplankton were
recorded. Kasuwar island exhibited maximum species diversity. The phytoplankton
count varied from 2-835 nos/ml
Zooplankton
One species of Granuloreticulosa, 1 species of Hydrozoa, 3 species of
Polycheata, 5 species of Polyhymenophora, 1 species of Sagittoidea and
2 species of Thaliacea totalling 59 species of zooplankton were recorded. Van island
exhibits maximum species diversity. The zooplankton count varied from 1000 –
10,000 nos / cu.m.
Coral
In the Tuticorin group, 3 species each of Acropora, Montipora and Porites, 2
species each of Goniastrea, Turbinaria and Favia, 1 species each of Favites,
Galaxea, Hydnopora, Goniopora, Leptoria, platygyra and Symphyllia, totalling 23
species of corals were recorded. Maximum number of coral species was recorded
around Karaichalli island.
Benthos
In the Tuticorin group, 1 species of Porifera, 24 species of Cnidaria, 4
species of Mollusca, 3 species of Arthropoda and 2 species of Echinodermata,
totalling 34 species of benthic organisms were recorded Kasuwar island exhibited
maximum species diversity.
Ornamental Fishes
In the current study (1998-99), 128 species of ornamental fishes were
recorded in the Gulf of Mannar. 101 species of ornamental fishes were recorded
around Tuticorin group. The dominant species were recorded in the families of
Pomacentridae, Cheatodontidae, Mullidae and Lutjanidae.
Capture fisheries
In the Tuticorin group, 14 species of Chondichthryes (Elasmobranchs), 96
species of Actinopterygii (Teleost), 11 species of Crustaceans and 5 species of
Cephalopods, totalling 126 species were recorded.
Marine water quality in Palk Bay area near the proposed channel is assessed
from secondary data and is summarised in Table 3.40. It is observed that suspended
solids vary from 28-30 mg/l at the surface and is uniformly distributed up to bottom.
The could be due to shallow depths 2-12 m in Palk Bay. Salinity is observed to vary
from 30.4-32.5 parts per thousand. High dissolved oxygen (DO) levels at the surface
are indicative of healthy aquatic life and low organic pollution loads particularly away
from the coastal areas. DO was observed to decrease towards bottom and is
attributed to demand excercised by sediment. Observed levels of nitrogen and
phosphorus support biological growth. Heavy metals were in traces and levels of
polynuclear aromic hydrocarbons observed in parts per billion (ppb) levels. This could
be attributed to fishing activity in the region.
The Palk Bay is biologically rich and are rated among the highly productive
seas of the world. The Palk Bay is endowed with a combination of ecosystem
including mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs, supporting over 3,600 species of
plants and animals. Its biodiversity is considered globally significant. The Palk Bay
islands constitute a resting-place for birds migrating to and from Sri Lanka.
Approximately 168 types of birds use the islands in this area as a resting-place while
migrating or as wintering and molting grounds. All five species of marine turtle nest in
various locations in Palk Bay. Dolphins are more common here than in any other
region in the Bay of Bengal. The endangered dugong uses many of the islands as
browsing grounds. Marine life also includes many colored coral fishes, eels, molluscs,
and stomatopoda. Sea anemones, crabs, starfishes, sea urchins and numerous other
organisms are found in the Palk Bay.
Primary productivity in SW & NE monsoon is 0.56 & 0.23 g C m-2 day-1 and 101
and 60 g C m-2 180 day-1.
Ostracods
Ostracods are tiny bivalve crustaceans more during April, followed by July,
that may be attributed to high temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen of the
bottom water, high calcium carbonate and low organic matter content of the
sediments. The most congenial substrate for better thriving of the fauna are found to
be silty - sand. About 51 ostracod species (both living and dead forms) belonging to
40 genera in 22 families were identified of which the following
8 spp are considered to be abundant viz. Actinocythereis scutigera, Bairdoppilata
atcyonicola, Callistocy flavidofusca C. intricatoides, Cytherelloidea leroyi, Keijella
reticulata, Loxoconcha gruendeli, L., mandiensis and Tanella gracilis.
Decapoda
Decapods are Prawns and Shrimps. Both the type of animals are having 10
sets of legs. They are highly sensible creatures and occur mostly beyond
50 m depth. Distribution of decapods in Palk Bay is shown in Table 3.42.
Mysids
A rich and varied mysid fauna exist in the littoral and shallow areas of the
seas around Palk Bay / Palk Strait. Reports on the abundance of mysid population
reveal a greater concentration (74%) in the nighttime collections indicating diel
migrations, characteristics of the fauna. The population density is high during the post-
monsoon (October-January) in the shelf waters and during the pre-monsoon
(February-May) in the oceanic region. The population of mysids occurred throughout
the year even in the deeper layers beyond 200m. The predominance is prominent
(63%) during the pre-monsoon and to lesser extent (23%) in the northeast monsoon
seasons in the neritic area.
Sediment Characteristics
Distribution of zooplanktons in relation to the sediment composition reveals
that silty - sand followed by sandy - silt and sand are the most favourable substrates
for the population abundance.
3.4.2.4 Benthos
Sediments led to the recognition of 108 benthic species consisting of both
living and dead fauna. They belong to 50 genera, 27 families and 10 superfamilies.
Among the 108 species, 12 species (viz. Rhabdommina scabra, Ammonbaculites
exiguus, Textularia agglutinans, T. aura, T. candeiana, T. conica, T. foliacea, T.
foliacea var occidentalis, T. palustris. Bigenerina irregularis, Trochammina inflata
and Eggerella advena) are arenaceous agglutinated (suborder Textulariina); 43
species are calcareous porcelaneous (viz. Edentostomina cultrata, Spiroloculina
angulata, S. communis, S. corrugata, S. costifera, Spiroloculina sp., Vertibralina
striata, Quinqueloculina agglutinana, Q. bicostata, Q. bidenta Q. compressa, Q.
lamarckiana, Q. parkeri, Q. polygona,
Among living forms, only the eight taxa (viz. Spiroloculina insignis, T.
trigonula, Ammonia beccarii, A. tepida, Pararotalia nipponica and Osangularia
venusta) are considered to be widespread and abundant in the Palk Bay area.
Sea - Cucumbers
Sea cucumbers are a group of economically important echinoderms with a
wide range of distribution in coral to mangrove habitats.
Although nearly 200 species of sea cucumbers are distributed in the seas
around India, only about a dozen species are of commercial importance. Only
species belonging to the families Holothuridae and Stichopodidae are of commercial
importance since they are large in size and the body wall is also thick. These are
distributed in good numbers in the Palk Bay. Nearly 30 corals are recorded from
Palk Bay (Table 3.43).
Flourishing export market for the processed sea cucumbers has increased
their exploitation. Over 60% of beche- de-mer exported from India, is from the Palk
Bay. Sea cucumbers are mostly collected by skin divers in shallow waters from 2-10
m depth. Presently, operation of a modified trawl net called Chanku madi yields good
catches of sea cucumbers alongwith chanks (Xancus pyrum). The harvest
composition of this gear is Xancus pyrum (61.22%), sea cucumbers (20.4%), rays
(Amphotistus kuhlii) (16.33%) and starfish, sea shells and small fishes (2.04%).
Holothuria being detritus feeders are found among the marine macro-algae and
seaweeds.
Sea fan
The Sea fan is yet another colonial form, but it branches only in one plane
and the branches may fuse with each other to form a 'fan'. White or cream-colored
polyps may grow on a base of contrasting maroon colour, attached to stones by a
broad disc-like holdfast. Gorgonides are reported in Palk Bay in deeper waters,
beyond 50 m (CMFRI 1998). The colorful sea fans have long been objects of attraction
to man. Gorgonid community is popularly known as "flowers of under water gardens".
Sponges
Sponges, although at a casual glance look like plants, are animals, living
singly or in colonies. They have no fixed shape, and form flat encrustations on stones
in the region of strong waves. In the crevices, these sponges are found associated
with many animals, ranging from tiny crabs and brittle star to bivalve molluscs.
Sponges show commensalisms as several crustaceans, worms, molluscs and fishes
live in the internal cavities of sponges for protection against enemies, and also act as a
shelter bed. About, 60 desmosponges are recorded from Palk Bay (Table 3.43).
The distribution and abundance of different groups of fish in the areas are
shown in the Table 3.44. It is evident that highest catch was recorded for
Pomadasys, Leiognathus and Lethrinus sp. Along Palk Bay region, very high values
of organic production to the tune of 435 mgC/m/day to 2340 mgC/m/day were
reported from June to July. The threadfin breams along SE coast of Palk Bay
(10O/18O) has no catch at all upto depths from 40-100 m. The depth range of 60-90
m along 10ON Lat. of SE coast (Palk Bay) has only one form of threadfin breams as
Nemipterus japonicus (100%). Off the south east coast the fishing area at 10O/80O
has recorded the highest catch of 1,033 kg/hr with major perches (Pristipomoides
typus, Epinephelus and Lutjanus) forming the bulk. The abundance of demersal fin
fish kg/hr along Palk Bay (10O/80O) in Table 3.45 shows the dominance of fish in the
order Carangids>Perches> Rastrelliger> miscellaneous fish between 51-100 m
depth, whereas there is no catch below
50 m depth. Other types of fishes (13 types) are not found in this area. The perches
in SE coast at 10ON below 50 m show presence of serranids, whereas at depth 51-
100 m Lutjanus, Lethrinus, Plectorhynchus and other perches are uniformly caught
(Table 3.46).
The cetacea (whales and dolphins) and sirenia (sea cow) represent the
main groups of marine mammals in the Palk Bay. Marine mammals have a layer of
dermal fat or blubber. This acts as a stored reserve food for future use in case of
deficiency of food. The sirenia (sea cow) graze with their well developed lips, in
consequence, their teeth are little used and are greatly reduced in size. In cetacea,
whales and dolphins are mostly carnivorous and feed on crustaceans, squids, and
fishes. In sirenia, sea cow is herbivorous and feeds mainly on sea grasses.
Dolphins and Whales
The dolphis found in the Palk Bay are oceanic and roam about in the area. It
is most likely that only the frail and the infirm whales move towards this area as
known from strandings of whales. So far no mass stranding of whales has been
observed in the canal area. The dolphins Stenella longirostris and Tursiops truncatus
are often caught in various nets and the ones thus caught and injured (probably) are
clandestinely butchered for food. However, capture or harming of the sea mammals
is prohibited by law.
Sea Cow
Unlike dolphin and whales, sea cow (Dugong dugon) inhabits the Palk Bay
preferably within 10 m depth limit not far from the shore (1-3 km). Usually sea cows
move in groups of 5-7 among the seagrass Cymodocea, which is its chief diet. The
dugong which grows to over 300 kg measuring 1-1.5 m in length, is harmless and
sluggish in nature. Its gestation period lasts 13-14 months and gives birth to a single
calf at a time. Though young male adults compete among themselves for female,
once they have paired, they remain paired for the whole life. Their attachment to the
partner and calf is such that if one of the partners or calf gets caught the rest also
shall follow; thus becoming easy victims. They have no natural enemies except the
civilised man. The exact number of sea cows living in the Palk Bay is not known.
Due to uncontrolled fishing carried out till recently and also due to reduction in their
grazing area and Cymodocea, their numbers have gone down drastically. During
1980's, about 200 numbers used to be killed per year. Now they are protected by the
Wildlife (Protection) Act, and are under threatened status. Occasionally, marine
mammals and turtles have been observed to get washed ashore, and on
examination it is found that the death is often due to propeller cuts or eating of
floatsam.
The reef in Palk Bay runs parallel to land (east to west direction) from
Pamban Channel at the Pamban end of the bridge to Rameswaram island between
longitudes 79° 17' E and 79° 8'E at the latitude 9° 17'N. The Bay is a very shallow flat
basin and the depth never exceeds 15 metres. The average depth is 9 meters. The
coral reef in Palk Bay starts from Munakad as a wall-like formation 1-2 m broad and
runs east upto Tonithurai a distance of nearly 5.5 km. Here the reef width is more than
300 metres. East of Pamban pass, the reef again starts near Thangachimadam and
ends near Agnitheertham (Rameswaram) (Mahadevan and Nair, 1969). This reef is
25-30 km long and generally less than 200 m wide. Visibility is poor due to siltation.
The Palk strait between India and Ceylon is about 75 km wide, with a water depth of 9-
13 m, except where local coral reef rises above sea level.
Coral reefs on the Tamil Nadu coast (south east coast) are located in Palk
Bay near Rameswaram and in the Gulf of Mannar. Mandapam peninsula and
Rameswaram Islands separate Palk Bay from the Gulf of Mannar. The reef is
centered at 9O17’ N and 79O15’ E. There is only one fringing reef in the Palk Bay,
which lies along the mainland from the Pamban channel at the Pamban end of the
bridge to Rameswaram Island. This reef is 25-30 km long, and generally less than
200 m wide; maximum depth is around 6 m. Visibility is poor due to siltation and it is
influenced by the north east monsoon. The reef flat is relatively broad from Pamban
channel to the southern end near Ramnad and narrow from Pamban to south of
Rameswaram.
Gopinadha Pillai (1969) classified the reefs of Palk Bay into five zones -
shore, lagoon, shoreward slope, reef crest and seaward slope. The shore of the reef
is mostly sandy with dead pieces of corals, except at the extreme eastern and near
the Pamban bridge where one can see traces of sandstone. The vegetation on the
shore comprises Cocos nucifera, Borassus flabellifera, Casurina equisetifolia,
Azadirdicata indica and few other thorny shrubs.
The width of the lagoon varies from 200 to 600 meters at different places
with a depth of 1 to 2 metres. The bottom is sandy with molluscan shells and pieces
of disintegrating corals. Living corals are practically absent in the lagoon, probably
due to the absence of any hard substratum on which coral planulae can settle.
Sponges such as Hercina fusca, Dysidea fragilis,
Spirastrella inconstans and Calispongia diffusa are fairly common at the bottom. The
vegetation is composed commonly occurring of Cymodocea sp., Ulva reticulata,
Turbinaria sp., Padina sp., Halimeda sp. and Amphiora sp. Holothuria scabra,
Holothuria arta and Pentaceraster australis are common inhabitants of the sandy
lagoon floor (Pillai, 1969).
Corals distributed along the shoreward slope are encrusting and of massive
types with comparatively large polyps, such as Favia pallida, Favus, Favites virens,
Goniastrea pectinata, G. retiformis, Platygyna lamellina, Hydrophora sp., Cyphastrea
sp., Leptastrea sp., symphillia sp. and Goniopora sp. Living colonies of Ponies sp
are rare or small in size. Galaxea fascicularis and Turbinaria peltala, Pavona varians
are the rarest species. This zone of the reef supports a good many reef dwellers like
encrusting sponges, bryozoans and calcareous algae. Among the fleshy corals
Lobophylum sp and Sarcophylum sp are represented.
The reef crest is often completely exposed at low tides. Corals are very rare
at the reef crest, probably because of the influence of exposure to sun light. However
Heptastrea transversa and Goniopora duofaciata are occasionally seen under the
rocks.
The coral growth of the reef along the seaward side slope is comparatively
richer than on the shoreward side. Majority of corals are ramose genera viz.,
Pocillopora sp, Acropora sp and Montipora sp. The vegetation comprises of
Turbinaria sp, Sargassum sp, Padina sp, Caulerpa sp and rarely Cymodocea sp.
Halimeda sp and a few other encrusting calcareous algae are commonly seen.
Dugongs are long living animals with a low reproductive rate. They have a
long gestation period and a large gap between each off spring. Around 25 dugongs
were caught accidentally in this region during 1960. In Palk Bay Karangadu,
Nambuthaalai, Morepanai and Mullimunai are minor fishing villages. Valivalai (drift
net) shore seins and Thirukkaivalai are used to capture dugong in the shallow
regions. Explosives (Country bombs and dynamites) are used for capturing the
dugong in Thiruppalaikudi and Devipatnam (Ramnad District). During the 1960's the
fisherman of Palk Bay region bitterly complained about the disappearance of large
beds of algae owing to the cyclone in 1964, and turtles and dugongs almost
disappeared in this area. Fishermen, now report that the algal beds have sprung up
once again (Silas and Fernando, 1985).
3.4.8 Present Status of Palk Bay
The Palk Bay lagoon has a width of around 230 m. from the shore. The
lagoon contains a large number of boulders, occupied by various species of
scleractinian corals. Table reef are also found in the lagoons. These newly found
boulders and table reef are formed by a process of wind drift. The green algae
population is greater in areas close to the sewage outlets of processing industries
than in healthy reef systems. Perna virdis, a rare component of the coral reef
ecosystem, is densely distributed in Palk Bay. Six scleractinian coral species are
recorded from the lagoon of Vellaperukkumanthai reef whereas Gopinadha Pillai has
identified two species (Porities somaliensis and Favia pallida) from the lagoon.
Fishermen suggest that the sponge population and soft coral population have
decreased over the past two decades. Our investigations also confirm an increase in
the boring sponge species and a decrease in the macrosponge species.
The shoreward slope of the reef has a width of 70 m in the area between
230 m and 300 m from the shore. The coral population has been increasing
remarkably in distribution and diversity along the shoreward slope. The 1969 record
of Gopinadha Pillai shows 11 species in this area, however, present investigation
shows 20 coral species with a density of 50 colonies/10m2. Padina sp and Halimeda
sp are most common algae present in this zone. The sponge population is
comparatively higher than in the lagoon. The coral species Platygyra lamellina,
Hydnophora sp, Galaxea fascicularis and Turbinaria pelata recorded by Pillai (1969)
are no longer present in Palk Bay.
Gopinadha Pillai recorded all the ramose corals in the seaward slope of the
reef. However, our present investigation shows that ramose corals are also
distributed along the shoreward slope and lagoon. The present study indicates that
10 scleractinian species are present in the seaward slope, whereas the previous
record (Gopinadha Pillai, 1969) shows only 6 species.
Situated at the southern end of Nagappattnam district, Tamil Nadu the Point
Calimere region was first identified as an area of high conservation significance,
birds by the late Dr.Salim Ali in 1962. The sanctuary may be divided into three
divisions: the Point Calimere Forest; the GVS, which includes the mangrove forests
at Muthupet and the mangroves of TRF. It is the breeding ground or nursery for
many species of marine fishes, which are vital to the fisheries of the coast.
Biodiversity Values
Flora
Due to the diversity of habitats, the vegetation of the Point Calimere Wildlife
Sanctuary is equally diverse, ranging from dry evergreen forests, mangrove
vegetation, salt marsh to grasslands.
The dominant trees of the forest are Manilkara hexandra and Salvadora
persica in the open areas. Insectivorous plants such as Drosera burmanii and
D.indica are also present in the grassland habitat. Dominated by Halophytes such as
Arthrocnemum indicum, Salicornia brachiata and Sessuvium portulacastrum are
common along the marshy areas of the shore. Patches of Prosopis chilensis,
Calotropis gigantea, Clerodendrum inerme and Pandanus tectorius occur in elevated
areas. Ipomoea pes- capre, Spinifex littoreus and Zoysia matrella are common on
the sand dunes. Avicennia marina is the dominant mangrove species in the area. At
Talaignayar, the vegetation is charateristic salt - marsh vegetation. During the
monsoon, aquatics such as Aponogeton natans, Bergia capensis, Najas graminea
and Sphenoclea zeylanica occur. Pentatropis microphylla is a common twiner on
many plants.
Fauna
Some of the major waterbird species are the greater flamingo and the lesser
flamingo, spot - billed pelican, spoonbilled sandpiper, Asian dowitcher, whitebellied
seaeagle, brahminy kite and osprey. Landbirds include paradise flycatcher, Indian
pitta, Rosy starling, Blyth reed warbler, crested serpent eagle and brown shrike.
Fourteen species of mammals have been reported from the Sanctuary. The larger
mammals are the blackbuck, spotted deer, wild boar and jackal. The flying fox
resides in large groups on trees in the Point Calimere forest and the mangrove forest
at Muthupet. The blackbuck of Point Calimere represents one of the three isolated
populations of blackbuck existing in Tamil Nadu with the other populations in the
Guindy National Park and near Satyamangalam.
Threats
– Threats to the sanctuary mainly comes from illegal extraction of
timber and non timber produce.
Conservation Measures
To conserve the blackbuck and other wild animals, an innovative freshwater
source has been created. In the watchtowers, overhead tanks have been
constructed, to supply water during the drought period and underground pipeline is
laid up to 3 kms. to connect the overhead tank for the supply of water. The water
source is from the bore - well equipped with motor. In 1988 a proposal was sent to
the Tamil Nadu Government to extend the area of the Sanctuary to include the Great
Vedaranyam Swamp and the Talaignayar Reserve Forest and rename the sanctuary
as the Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird Sanctuary. The promulgation of this new
sanctuary is still in process.
The Gulf of Mannar reefs on the other hand are developed around a chain
of 21 islands that lie along the 140 km stretch between Tuticorin and Rameswaram.
These islands are located between latitude 8O47’ N and 9O15’N and longitude
78O12’E and 79O14’ E. The islands lie at an average of about
8 km from the main land. They are a part of the Mannar Barrier reef, which is about
140 km long and 25 km wide between Pamban and Tuticorin. Different types of reef
forms such as shore, platform, patch and fringing type are also observed in the Gulf
of Mannar. The islands have fringing coral reefs and patch reefs around them.
Narrow fringing reefs are located mostly at a distance of
50 to 100 m from the islands. On the other hand, patch reefs rise from depths of
2 to 9 m and extend to 1 to 2 km in length with width as much as 50 meters. Reef flat
is extensive in almost all the reefs in the Gulf of Mannar. Reef vegetation is richly
distributed on these reefs. The total area occupied by reef and its associated
features is 94.3 sq. km. Reef flat and reef vegetation including algae occupies 64.9
and 13.7 sq. km, respectively. (DOD & SAC, 1997). Visibility is affected by
monsoons, coral mining and high sedimentation load. These reefs are more luxuriant
and richer than the reefs of Palk Bay.
The mainland coast of India has the Gulf of Kutch in the Northwest (Gujarat
State) and Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar in the southeast (Tamil Nadu State).
Other than these important off shore island groups of India, the Andaman and
Nicobar in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea also have
extensive reef growth. The total area of coral reefs in India is estimated to be 2,374.9
sq. km.
Reef’s resources have traditionally been a major source of food for local
inhabitants and of major economic value in terms of commercial exploitation. Reefs
in India provide economic security to the communities that live alongside them.
There are millions of poor fishers in India whose livelihood depends on coral reefs.
Coral reefs provide up to 25 percent of all the fisheries harvested and 75 percent of
animal protein consumed. Thus, the aspect of coral reefs is significant to the
livelihood and social welfare of communities.
The terms “stress” and “disturbance” have been applied to coral reefs and
many other biological communities, with a variety of interpretations. Stress is a
physiological condition which results from adverse or excessive environmental
factors and in corals this can be measured by decreased growth rates, metabolic
differences and biochemical changes. Disturbance is an ecological phenomenon,
which includes departure from a routine set of conditions.
Recent reports indicate that coral reefs are under considerable stress and
are experiencing considerable damage. Coral reefs have been resilient ecosystems
since the Mesozoic (about 200 million years ago), surviving major environmental
events such as ice ages, meteor strikes and large changes in solar activity. Not
withstanding these events, coral reefs have recovered to form the extensive reefs we
see today, although recovery may have taken thousands to hundreds – of thousands
of years. Coral reefs also have the capacity to regenerate rapidly after catastrophic
tropical storms, plagues of the coral-eating Crown-of-thorn starfish, and severe
bleaching. Recovery often takes 15 to 20 years. However, over the past 50 years,
there has been major increase in stresses on coral reefs from direct and indirect
human activities. These stresses are threatening the existence of reefs in some
areas, and will diminish the extent of reefs in other areas.
The major stresses on reefs are storms and waves, particularly tropical
storms and cyclones. These cause major intermittent damage to reefs, particularly to
those reefs that rarely experience these storms. Cyclone disturbances develop during
certain months (October-November) along the Indian Seacoast and elsewhere in the
tropical region.
These cyclones have sustained winds with speed ranging from 65 to 120 km
per hour. High-speed winds cause extreme wave action that break coral into rubbles
and sometimes large amounts of sand and other materials may be dumped onto the
coral reef. Due to 1969 cyclone a large area of coral was buried under the sand in
Rameswaram area of Gulf of Mannar. Likewise the cyclone of December 1987 in Bay
of Bengal devastated the coral reefs of the Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park of
Port Blair, Andaman, that resulted in large quantities of broken coral colonies getting
heaped and scattered near the shore.
Varied man’s activities which are, a cause for concern includes runoff and
sedimentation from development activities (projects), eutrophication from sewage and
agriculture, physical impact from maritime activities, dredging, collecting and
destructive fishing practices, pollution from industrial sources, golf courses and oil
refineries and the synergistic impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on top of natural
disturbance.
3.6.2.1 Sedimentation
Sedimentation, which is the most well studied impact, may affect corals
three different ways: photosynthetically, physically and chemically. As most reef-
building corals obtain the majority of their nutritional requirements through
translocation of metabolites from their photosynthetic partners (Zooxanthellae), any
reduction in the availability of light will affect coral nutrition, growth, reproduction and
depth distribution.
While the effects of suspended solids from sewer out falls have been
compared to those from terrigenous runoff and sedimentation, the two types of
sediment differ in physical, chemical and toxicological characteristics, which must be
considered when assessing impacts. Sewage suspended solids primarily organic,
can contain absorbed toxins, and increase B.O.D more than inorganic sediment
associated with runoff. The toxic component of sewage depends on the sources of
input and is primarily a concern in industrial or agricultural areas where industrial
wastes and pesticides are included in the effluent.
3.6.2.4 Temperature Stress and Bleaching
The negative impacts of increased temperature on corals have been
documented from both anthropogenic and natural sources. There are many
documented evidences for coral mortality associated with the hot water discharge
from a cooling system for a power plant and wide spread mortality with increased
temperatures accompanying the El Nino event. In both cases, the cause of mortality
appeared to be the breakdown of the symbiotic association between the
zooxanthellae and the coral host (bleaching).
There has been unprecedented bleaching of hard and soft corals throughout
the coral reefs of the world from mid-1997 to late-1998. Much of the bleaching
coincided with a large El Nino event followed by a strong La Nina but bleaching in all
the coral reefs is uncorrelated. During this event bleaching and mortality were most
pronounced in shallow water (less than 15 m) and particularly affected staghorn and
plate Acropora and other fast growing corals. Many of the massive, slow-growing
species bleached, but many recovered within one or two months. This bleaching
event has resulted in poor coral cover (recent study by Zoological Survey of India,
Chennai) and possibly fewer new coral recruits on many reefs in India for the next 10
years until recovery gains speed. In the short term, this will affect adversely the
economics of India, particularly fisheries. There will be a shift in the composition of
coral communities; some will have greater dominance of slow growing massive
corals, whereas other reefs will lose century-old colonies. Nevertheless, such shifts
have occurred in the past and are part of the normal variability of many coral reefs. If
however, the recent bleaching event is linked to global climate change, and will be
repeated regularly in the immediate future, the consequences would be serious for
many coral reefs if sea temperatures show a continuing upward trend.
Blast Fishing
Although it is now illegal, blast fishing has been a widespread and accepted
fishing technique in some of the developing countries. Schooling reef fishes are
located visually, after which the capture boat moves within close range and a lighted
bomb is thrown into the middle of the school. After the bomb is exploded, fishermen
enter the water to collect the fish that have been killed or stunned by the resulting
shock wave. Due to blasting, branching, tabulate and foliose hard corals are shattered
while massive and columnar corals are often fractured. Although this effect of blasting
is quite localized, reefs subject to repeated blasting are often to little more than shifting
rubble fields, punctured by the occasional massive coral head. In addition to damaging
the reef framework, blast fishing results in side-kills of non-target and juvenile fishes
and invertebrates.
There are about 47 fishing villages along the coast of which 38 are in the
Ramanathapuram district and nine in V.O. Chidambaranar district bordering the Gulf
of Mannar Park area. Exploitation of fishery resources in the inshore waters has been
the sole occupation of hundreds of fishing families along the coast for centuries. The
reefs are used to carry out reef fishery, chanks and pearl fishery, ornamental shell
trade and illegal mining of corals. The villagers around Palk Bay harvest holothurians,
seahorse and pipe fishes. Other harvesting activities include chanks and milk fish fry.
Turtles are being harvested up to 1000 annually; dugongs are also poached.
The destruction of reefs and reef associated organisms in the Gulf of Mannar
and Palk Bay is perhaps unparalleled in the history of environmental damage to nature
and natural resources in the recent past (Pillai, 1996). The coral reefs on Palk Bay and
Gulf of Mannar were quarried for industrial purposes from early sixties from
Mandapam to Tuticorin. The estimate of coral quarried varies. At Tuticorin the
estimate was 80,000 t per year. Pillai (1973) estimated the exploitation of corals from
Mandapam area during sixties and early seventies to the tune of 250 m3 per day. It is
found that some of the islands (Vilanguchalli in Tuticorin group and Poovarasanpatti
Island in Keelakari group) are totally submerged and vanished because of quarrying. A
recent survey in Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar has revealed that damage to reef due to
human interference is still rampant. The huge colonies of corals that occupied large
areas in the lagoons of many islands are no more there due to over exploitation of
algae and shells by fishermen in an extensive scale. Fishermen during collection of
algae to negotiate their boats brake most of the corals. The live export of crabs and
lobsters from this area in the recent years is also causing damage to live corals. Fish
traps (Koodu) to collect live crabs are causing a lot of destruction to coral reefs in
these areas. Other than these disturbances, siltation, agricultural run off, sewage
discharge as well as the fecal pollution are the major problems in these areas.
3.8 Conservation
The Federal Government Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991
regulates onshore development activities, which affect coastal environments, and
strictly prohibits the collection and trade of corals. Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
provides protection for protected areas and certain marine species. Efforts continue
to bring corals under this act and to encourage enforcement that is more stringent.
Coral reef conservation is also included in the Environmental Protection Act (1986),
the National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environmental
Development (1992) and the Action Plan of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
The conservation and management of coral reef resources is within the mandate of
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the focal point for the Indian Coral Reef
Monitoring Network and the National focal point of ICRI.
India has 6 marine protected areas; the largest is the Gulf of Mannar
Biosphere Reserve (GOMMBRE), which encompasses 10,500 sq km. Coral Reef
Monitoring Action Plans (CRMAPs), prepared under the first phase of the GCRMN,
have been launched within the framework of the ICRMN for all reef areas except the
Gulf of Kutch. Government support has been extended for the implementation of the
CRMAPs and to build capacity to monitor reefs through training. However, activities
are still at a beginning and overall the capacity for monitoring and management is
lacking. Other significant international initiatives on the Indian coral reefs underway
and under development include. UNDP/GEF DPFB projects on the Gulf of Mannar
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
3.9 Future Direction
Coral reefs in India are under increasing pressure. In many cases, the
sources of stress due to human pressure are known. However, the etiology of a
growing number of diseases and pathologies now being reported in corals is not
widely understood, highlighting the need for more search to unravel the complex
interactive effects between natural and anthropogenic forms of stress and their effects
on coral reefs. The inability of scientists to predict with any certainty where the critical
thresholds of resilience to stress lie along the continuum of human-induced and
natural disturbances, make it inherently difficult to manage reefs sustainably. Solutions
to these conservation and management problems will need to incorporate effective
science, robust economic analysis and sound policies and laws. Participatory actions
grounded in the cultural and social reality of local people who depend on and benefit
directly from coral reefs must be part of the solution. Creating political will, through
communication and environmental education, will be essential in mobilising and
sustaining conservation efforts.
Recommendations
• Understand the problems facing coral reefs by assembling information from
within India and nearby countries.
• Determine the true economic value of reefs so that rational decisions can be
made on the cost of management.
• Transfer that understanding via education to the principal users, the public
and decision makers.
• Incorporate reefs into marine protected areas to buffer the reefs against
outside damaging influences.
Recommendations
The coral reef areas in India should be determined using satellite and aerial
images with ground truthing. Assistance may be needed from large agencies such as
the National Aeronautics and Space Application Centre.
• These data should be used to find out the status of the coral reefs and how
they are changing.
• Central and State Government may convene national and local committees
including user groups, local government authorities, tourism developers,
scientists and Non governmental organizations (NGOs) to advise on
sustainable management of coral reefs.
Recommendations
• Direct ‘extractive’ values like fisheries, aquarium fish and other animals,
ornamental products and sand production.
• ‘Indirect use ‘ values such as the commercial species that migrate to other
areas the physical barrier, role in protecting the shoreline, the value in
extending exclusive economic zone.
• As well as the less tangible ‘non use and aesthetic ‘ values of high
biodiversity habitats for endangered species and roles as part of the global
environment.
• Determination of coral reef fisheries, how these are being exploited (catch
per unit effort) and the dependence by local fishermen on reef fisheries.
• Assessment of the current and potential future income from coral reef
tourism and the contribution of health of reefs towards attracting tourists to
India.
Recommendations
• National and state governments of India should devolve sufficient
responsibility for the management of coastal resources to local authorities at
the village level.
Recommendations
• Large areas of relatively undamaged marine habitat including good coral
reefs should be designated as marine protected areas and management
plans developed to involve all users.
Recommendations
Pollution
• Emphasize the treatment of sewage at the source or divert them away from
coral reef onto the land or as deep ocean outfalls.
Sedimentation
• Government should request developers and farmers to minimize the amount
of sediment that is lost into rivers and the ocean.
Overfishing
• Fishermen should be discouraged from using destructive methods
(dynamite, cyanide, bleach, poisons) through education, local cooperative
discussion and where possible be provided with other employment.
Recommendations
• Selective sustainable fishing and harvesting in all the coral reef areas in
India.
• Controlled harvesting or aquarium fish in all the coral reef areas of India.
• Limited fish cage culture and rack culture of pearl shell edible oyster and
algae.
Recommendations
• A committee of experts by the National Coral Reef Committee should
monitor all MPAs and other managed areas in India for the effectiveness of
management particularly to assess whether the health of reefs is stable.
• Inventories of all the coral fauna present in the region and the status of the
coral reefs and the associated fauna are to be monitored on a long-term
basis.
− Reduce the risk for coral reef such as destructive fishing practices,
siltation, industrial and domestic sewage and over fishing.
− Developmental projects detrimental to coral reef should be implemented
with caution.
− Increase the awareness among the local public and made as curriculum
in the schools about the importance of coral reefs.
− Artificial reefs should be allowed with more caution and only with EIA
studies.
− Tourism in coral reef area should not be detrimental to the coral reef
ecosystem and Eco-tourism should be encouraged.
0
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Maximum Diversity Index values of K han
Corals in 21 Island of Gulf of Mannar
ar n
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Maximum Diversity Index
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Name of island
N aip
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Fig. 3.15 : Maximum Diversity Index values of
pp al
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h
Ka an
Seagrass in 21 Island of Gulf of Mannar
ra ni
Vi i
la cha
ng l
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Ka lli
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Maximum Diversity Index
Sh
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Fig. 3.18 : Maximum Diversity Index values of Corals, Mangroves
Coral
Seagrass
Mangrove
Fig. 3.1 : Data Locations
3.94
Man
Fig. 3.9 : Coral Reef and Seagrass Areas around the Islands of Gulf of Mannar
3.102
Dugong dugong Ha
GULF OF MANNAR
Fig. 3.13 : Habitats of Sea Cow (Dugong-dugong) in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk
Bay
3.105
Fig. 3.14 : Habitats of Sea Weed, Sea Grass and Holothuria in the Gulf of Mannar and
the Palk Bay
3.108
Mangroves
Fig. 3.17 : Locations of Mangroves in Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay
Table 3.2
Location
Sr. Palk Bay Gulf of Mannar
Parameter Sample
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Surface 32.8 32.4 32.0 32.6 32.4 32.3 32.1
1. Temperature (oC)
Bottom 32.2 31.9 32.0 32.3 32.5 32.4 31.8
2. Surface 2.8 4.0 4.9 3.4 3.4 2.8 3.2
Turbidity (NTU)
3.111
6. TDS (gm/L) Surface 33.2 33.4 37.9 32.0 37.9 38.2 38.5
Bottom 33.7 31.4 38.1 33.4 38.1 38.3 38.4
Sediment Quality
Location
Sr.
Parameter Palk Bay Gulf of Mannar
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. pH 7.6 7.4 8.2 8.0 7.9 7.8 8.2
2. Moisture 71.46 72.63 74.51 72.05 71.72 72.02 76.62
3. Ash 27.72 26.50 25.07 27.59 27.62 27.41 21.91
4. Volatile Solids 0.82 0.87 0.42 0.36 0.66 0.57 1.47
3.113
5. Total Organic Carbon (C) 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.13
6. Total Phosphorus (P2O5) BDL BDL 0.02 0.84 0.015 0.02 BDL
7. Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen (N) 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.09
8. Chloride (C) 1.25 1.63 2.05 3.15 3.1 4.9 4.25
9. Sulfate (SO4) 0.68 0.65 0.06 0.2 0.08 0.4 0.18
10. Sodium (Na) 2.88 3.8 0.4 0.7 1.6 0.9 1.44
11. Potassium (K) 0.66 0.72 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.08
12. Iron (Fe) 3.04 3.5 0.40 0.36 0.356 0.254 0.528
13. Manganese (Mn) 0.27 0.32 0.005 0.012 0.003 0.013 0.012
14. Copper (Cu) 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.003 0.007 BDL 0.002 0
15. Zinc (Zn) 0.009 0.01 BDL 0.002 0.01 BDL 0.004
Table 3.4 (Contd…)
Location
Sr.
Parameter Palk Bay Gulf of Mannar
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16. Arsenic (As) 0.033 0.041 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.007
17. Chromium (Cr) 0.007 0.008 0.001 0.001 BDL BDL 0.001
18. Lead (Pb) 0.004 0.005 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
19. Nickel (Ni) 0.004 0.005 0.001 BDL BDL BDL 0.001
20. Selenium (Se) 0.005 0.006 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002
3.114
21. Cadmium (Cd) 0.001 0.001 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
22. Boron (B) 0.023 0.028 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.003
23. Cobalt (Co) 0.001 0.002 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL
24. Calcium (Ca) 5.675 5.662 6.500 6.5 7.3 8.24 7.50
25. Magnesium (Mg) 1.86 3.30 2.04 3.16 3.832 3.12 4.24
26. Oil and Grease 0.07 0.11 0.24 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.08
1 1649 - 0.73 0.61 0.18 63.67 15.77 0.73 0.91 1.82 0.12
2 1531 0.13 1.31 0.98 0.33 65.38 17.64 0.65 0.52 2.61 -
3 1459 0.55 1.23 1.37 0.21 69.77 8.50 0.55 0.69 1.37 -
3.130
4 1177 0.51 0.85 1.70 - 66.86 10.21 0.85 0.51 1.27 0.25
5 972 0.51 2.06 3.09 - 71.92 8.23 1.03 0.82 1.03 0.51
6 1233 0.24 1.22 1.62 - 73.56 12.17 0.65 0.81 2.03 0.41
7 1370 1.31 0.58 1.46 0.15 66.72 18.25 0.73 0.22 2.19 0.36
8 787 1.90 1.27 3.18 - 5.57 16.52 2.54 0.64 2.54 0.51
9 1116 1.79 1.34 4.03 0.18 62.19 17.03 0.45 1.34 0.72 0.18
10 1273 1.18 1.18 3.39 0.31 64.40 18.07 0.24 1.96 0.79 0.08
Table 3.18
2 2 - - - - - 50.00 - - - 50.0
4 18 - - - - - - - - - 55.
5 23 - - - - - - - 13.04 - 86.9
6 5 - - - - - - 80.00 - - 20.0
10 8 - - - 37.50 - - - - - 12.
Note : Data is not available for 7 & 8 locations due to poor visibility
Table 3.1
Depth
Station Latitude Longitude
(m)
Palk Bay
Gulf of Mannar
Sr. Location
Parameter
No. 2 4 6 8 10
Heavy Metals
ND : Not Detectable
All values are expressed as mg/L
Table 3.5
Position Productivity
Location
Latitude Longitude mgC/m3/day
Palk Bay
Gulf of Mannar
Chlorophyceae 32
Pheaphyceae 35
Rodophyceae 59
Cyanophyceae 3
Sea grass 13
Foraminifera 51(2)
Tintinida 12
Sponges 275(31)
Coelenterata (non-coral) 123 (48) 27
Corals 128 (42) 21
Polyzoa 100(15)
Polychaeta 75(22) 6
Copepoda 223(63)
Cumacea 10(9)
Amphipoda 52 (28)
Ostracoda 57(23)
Isopoda 18(9)
Lobster 5 3
Prawns 41(4) 24
Leptostraca 1
Schizopoda 1
Mysidae 1
Squillidae 25(2)
Anomura 38(1)
Brachyura 172 (13) 95
Mollusca 731 (23) 75
Chaetognatha - 17
Echiompdemata 264 (2) 116
Hemichordata 1 (1) 2
cephalochordata 6 (1) 2
Urochordata 59 (38) 79
Fishes 580 581
Turtles 5 6
Birds 61
Mammals 11 6
* Complied by CMFRI, Kochi from studies carried out by different authors (refer
list of references)
# Based on survey undertaken by ZSI (Anonymous 1998)
Table 3.7
inflata
2. Robulus limbosus X
3. Nonionia scapha X
4. Operculina X
gaimairdi
5. Bulimina elegans X
6. Bolivinia X
rhomboidalis
7. Bolivinia robusta X
8. Bolivinia X
subrenlusts
9. Streblus X
catesbyarus
10. Poroeponides X
lateralis
11. Cancris auriculus X
Phylum : Porifera
Class : Desmosponglae
12. Heteronema oracta X
16. Callyspongia X
fibrosa
17. Callyspongia difusa X
18. Spirastrella X
coccinea
19. Spirastrella X
cuspidifera
20. Cliona carpenteri X
26. Dercitopsis X
ceylonica
27. Dercitopsis minor X
Phylum : Coelenterata
Class : Anthozoa
Order : Scleractinla
29. Psammacora X
contigua
30. Pocillopora X
damicomis
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
31. Pocillopora danae X
32. Acropora X X
corymbosa
33. Acropora Formosa X
35. Acropora X
multicaulis
36. Acropora surculosa X
39. Montipora X
granulose
40. Montipora digitata X
41. Montipora X
divaricata
42. Montipora X
turgescens
43. Montipora verrtilli X
47. Goniopora X
duofaciata
48. Goniopora nigra X
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
49. Porites X
mannarensis
50. Porites solida X
55. Favia X
valenctennesii
56. Favia pallida X
59. Goniastrea X
retiformis
60. Goniastrea X
pactinata
61. Platygyra lamellina X
62. Leptastrea X
transvera
63. Echinopora X
lamellose
64. Galaxea fascicularis X
octopodides
Phylum : Annelida
Class : Polychaeta
68. Aphrogenia alba X
73. Eurythoe X
complanata
74. Syllis (Syllis) gracilis X
75. Ceratonereis X
mirabilis
76. Perinereis cultrifera X
siciliensis
80. Marphysa corallina
81. Onuphis (Nothria) X
conchylega
82. Malacoceros X
indicus
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
83. Armandial X
lanceolata
84. Axiothella X
obockensis
85. Nicolea X
gracilibranchis
86. Hypsicomus X
phaeotaenia
Class : Sipunculida
87. Phascolosoma X
nigrescens
88. Phascolosoma X
scolops
89. Phascolosoma X
stephensoni
Class : Echiura
90. Thalassema X
diaphanes
Phylum : Platyhelminthes
Class : Turbellaria
91. Acanthomacrostom X
um gerlachi
92. Octoplana X
subterranean
Phylum : Nematoda
Class : Aphasmidea
93. Anticoma X
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
acuminata
94. Halalaimus X
supercirrhatus
95. Oncholaimus X
brachycerus
96. Chromadora X
vulgaris
97. Halichoanolaimus X
robustus
98. Latronema orcimum X
99. Metachromadora X
clavata
100. Desmodora X
brevicclis
101. Camacolaimus X
prytherchi
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Crustacea
102. Penaetus X
semisulcatus
103. Penaeus indicus X
105. Alpheus X
macrocelas
106. Pontophilus X
candidus
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
107. Pontophilus incisus X
108. Corallicaris X
gramines
109. Leptocarpus X
potamuscus
110. Perclimenes X
(Harpilius) agag
111. Perclimenes X
(Perclimenes)
digitalis
112. Perclimenes X
(Perclimenes) impar
Anomura
113. Clibanarius X
longitarus
114. Clibanarius X
merguiensis
115. Diogenes X
investigators
116. Pagurus megistos X
Brachyuran Crabs
117. Dromia dehaani X
pelagicus
119. Portunus (Portunus) X
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
sanguinolentus
120. Scylla serrata X
123. Charybdis X
(Charybdis)
anmulata
124. Charybdis X
(Charybdis)
anisodon
125. Trapezia areolata X
133. Pseudoliomera X
speciosa
134. Composcia retusa X
143. Grapsus X
albolineatus
144. Percnon X
planissimum
Phylum : Mollusca
Class : Crustacea
Order : Stomatopoda
145. Gonadactylus X
chiragra
146. Gonadactylus X
falcatus
147. Heterosquilla jonest X
Brachyuran Crabs
148. Cellana radiata X
virgeneus
157. Chicoreus ramosus X
159. Hemifusus X
pugilimus
160. Xancus pyrum X
Class : Bivalvia
163. Arca inaequivalis X
Class : Cephalopoda
174. Sepia aculeate X
Phylum : Echinodermata
Class : Asteroidea
181. Culcita X
novaeguineae
182. Pentaceraster X X
regubus
183. Dactylosaster X
cylindericus
184. Disasterinaleptalac X
antha
Class : Ophiuroidea
185. Ophiomyza X
australis
186. Ophiactis savgnyi X
187. Ophiothrix X
(Keystonea)
nereidina
188. Ophiocoma X
erinaceus
Class : Echinoidea
189. Diadema savignyi X
Sr. Species Common Rare Endangered Endemic Commercially Scientific
No. Threatened Collections
(C) (R) (End) (En) (CT) (SC)
190. Echinothrix X
diadema
191. Echinometra X
mathaei
Class : Holothuroidea
192. Holothuria X
(Halodeima) atra
193. Holothuria X
(Haloteima) edulis
194. H. (Lessonothuria) X
pardalis
195. Holothuria X X
(Metriatyla) scabra
196. Holothuria X
(Thymiosycia) hilla
Phylum : Hemichordara
Class : Enteropneusta
197. Ptychodera flauva X
Table 3.8
Sr. Station
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No. Name of Alga
Cyanophyceae
1. Trichodesmium + + + + + + + - - -
Theibautii
Bacillariophyceae
2. Rhizosolenia sp. + + - + + + + + + +
3. Coscinodiscus sp. - + + + - + - + + +
4. Biddulphia sp. - - - - - + + + - -
5. Pleurosigma sp. + - - - - - - - - -
6. Bacteriastrum - - - - - - + + + -
hyalinum
7. Gunieardia sp. + - - - - - - - - -
8. Thallasiothrix sp. - + + + - - + + + +
9. Chaetoceros sp. - - + + - + - - - -
Dianophyceae
Sr. Island Granuloret Hydrozoa Polyhymeno Poly- Crus- Sagi- Thali- Total
No. Iculosa phora chaeta tacea ttoidea acea
1 Shingle 1 - 2 1 17 2 1 24
2 Krusadai - 1 1 - 18 - 1 21
3 Pullivasal - 1 - - 17 1 - 19
4 Poomarichan 1 - 1 1 24 - 1 28
5 Manoliputti 1 - 2 - 12 1 1 17
6 Manoli 1 - 1 - 19 1 - 22
7 Musal - 1 1 1 19 - 1 23
8 Mulli - 1 - 1 14 - - 16
9 Valai 1 - - 2 15 - 1 19
10 Appa 1 - 1 1 21 1 - 25
11 Valimunai - - - - 18 - 1 19
12 Anaipur - - - 1 18 - - 19
13 Nallathanni 1 - - - 17 2 - 20
14 Pulivinichalli 1 1 - 1 19 - - 22
15 Upputhanni - 1 1 - 18 1 1 22
16 Karaichalli - - 1 1 20 - - 22
17 Vilanguchalli - - 2 - 18 1 1 22
18 Kasuwar - - 1 1 24 - - 26
19 Van 1 1 1 1 31 - 1 36
Source : Resources information system for Gulf of Mannar (India), GOI, DOD,
Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate,
Chennai, April 2001
Table 3.13
Sr.
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.
Cnidaria
1. Medusae + + + + + + + + + +
Ctenophora
2. Beroe sp. - + + + + + + + + +
Chaetognatha
3. Unidentified + + + + + + + + + +
Polychaeta
4. Polychaete larvae + + + + + + + + + +
Pteropoda
5. Unitentified + + + + + + + + + +
Mollusca
6. Molluscan larvae + + + + + + + + + +
Cladocera
7. Evadne sp. + + + - - - + - + +
8. Penilia sp. + - - - - - + - + +
Copepoda
9. Acartia sp. + + + + + + + + + +
10. Tortanus sp. + + + + + + + + + +
11. Calanopia sp. + + + + + + + + + +
12. Centropages sp. + + + + + + + + + +
13. Pontella sp. + + + + + - + + + +
14. Paracalanus sp. + + + + + + + + + +
15. Canthocalanus sp. + + + + + + + + + +
16. Eucalanus sp. + + + + + + + + + +
17. Metis sp. + + - + + + + + + -
18. Oithona sp. - + + - + + + + - +
Decapoda
19. Lucifer sp. + + + + + + + + + +
20. Decapod larvae + + + + + + + + + +
Appendicularia
21. Oikopleura sp. + - - + + + + + + +
Pisces
22. Fish eggs and larvae + + + + + + + + + +
23. Others + + + + + + + + + +
Table 3.16
Sr. Island
No.
Platyhelminthes
Echinodermata
Hemichordata
Arthropoda
Nemotoda
Sipuncula
Conidaria
Protozoa
Mollusca
Annelida
Porifera
Echiura
Total
1 Shingle 7 5 14 13 - 2 2 8 25 16 4 - 96
2 Krusadai 10 6 19 12 - 3 1 7 26 18 8 1 111
3 Pullivasal 5 3 16 8 - 1 1 4 14 6 5 0 63
4 Poomarichan 4 5 13 15 - 3 1 8 21 11 1 - 81
5 Manoliputti 7 8 13 12 - 2 1 9 28 19 7 - 106
6 Manoli 7 11 26 16 1 3 2 8 31 21 13 - 139
7 Musal 10 7 30 18 1 3 2 8 37 26 11 - 153
8 Mulli - - 18 - - - - - 7 4 - - 29
9 Valai - - 11 - - - - - 6 3 1 - 21
10 Talairi - 1 15 - - - - - 8 3 3 - 30
11 Appa - - 11 - - - - - 10 4 1 - 26
12 Poovarasanpatti - - 11 - - - - - 2 - 1 - 14
13 Valimunai - 1 12 1 - - - - 7 5 1 - 27
14 Anaipur - 1 22 1 - - - - 9 4 2 - 39
15 Nallathanni - - 23 - - - - - 8 6 2 - 39
16 Pulivinichalli - 1 7 - - - - - 1 - 1 - 10
17 Upputhanni - - 17 - - - - - 2 3 2 - 24
18 Karaichalli - - 26 - - - - - - 3 1 - 30
19 Vilanguchalli - - 9 - - - - - 2 1 1 - 13
20 Kasuwar - 1 15 - - - - - 2 2 2 - 22
21 Van - - 15 - - - - - 1 1 1 - 18
Source : Resources Information System for Gulf of Mannar (India), GOI, DOD and Integrated
Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Chennai, April 2001
Table 3.19
Sr.
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
No.
Chlorophyceae
1. Halimeda sp. - - + - - - + - -
2. Caulerpa sp. - - + - - - - + -
3. Ulva sp. - - - - - - - - -
4. Enteromorpha sp. - - - - - - - - -
5. Codium sp. - - + - - - - - -
Phaeophyceae
6. Padina sp. - - - - - - - - -
7. Hydroclathus sp. - - - - - - - - -
8. Sargassum sp. - - - - - - - - -
9. Turbinaria sp. - - + - - - - - -
Rhodophyceae
10. Galidiella sp. - - - - - - - - -
11. Gracillaria sp. - - - - - - - - -
12. Porolithon sp. - - - - - - - - -
13. Lithothamnion sp. - - - - - - - - -
Spermatophyta
14. Phakellia sp. - - + - - - - - -
15. Euspongia sp. - - + - - - - - -
Porifera
16. Phakellia sp. - - - - - - - - -
17. Euspongia sp. - - - - - - + - -
18. Phyllospongia sp. + - - - - - - + -
19. Acarnus sp. - - - - - - - - -
20. Acathella sp. - - - - - - - - -
21. Clathria sp. - - - - - - - - -
22. Hiricinia sp. - - - - - - - + -
23. Spongilla sp. - - - - - - - - +
24. Raspailia sp. - - - - - - - - -
25. Petrosia sp. - - - - - - - - -
Table 3.19 (Contd…)
Sr.
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
No.
Alcyonaria
26. Juncella sp. + - - - - - - - -
27. Alcyonium sp. - - - - - - - - -
28. Alcyonid sp. - - - - - - - - -
29. Antipathes sp. - - - - - - - - -
30. Sclcrophytum sp. - - - - - - - - -
31. Sarcophytum sp. - - - - - - - - -
32. Scirpearia sp. - - - - - - - - -
33. Verucella sp. + - - - - - - - -
34. Virgularia sp. - - - - - - - - -
35. Acanthogorgia sp. - - - - - - - - -
Scleractinia
36. Solitary coral + - - - - - - - -
37. Fungia sp. - + - - - - - - -
Hydroida
38. Halicornaria insignis - - - - - - - - -
Polychaeta
39. Eunice sp. - - - - - - - - -
40. Nereid - - - - - + - - -
Brachyura
41. Uca sp. - - - - + - - - -
Anomura
42. Hermitcrab - - - - - - - - -
Gastropoda
43. Xancus sp. - - + - - - - + -
44. Lambis lambis - - - - - - - + -
45. Oliva sp. - - + - - - - - -
46. Conus sp. - - + - - - - - -
47. Murex sp. - - + - + - - - -
48. Terebra sp. - - - - - - - - -
49. Thais sp. - - + - - - - - -
50. Umbonium sp. - - + - - - - - -
51. Siliqua radiata - - - - - - - - -
Table 3.19 (Contd…)
Sr.
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
No.
Bivalvia
52. Pecten sp. - - - - - - - - -
53. Pinna sp. - + - - - + - - -
54. Pteria sp. - - - - - - - - -
55. Arca sp. - - - - - - - - -
56. Cardium sp. - - + - + - - - -
57. Donax sp. - - - + + - - - -
58. Solen sp. - - + - - - - + -
59. Tellina sp. - - - - + - - + -
60. Pinctada sp. - - - - - - - - -
61. Sunnetta sp. - - - - - - - + -
Scaphopoda
62. Dentalium sp. - - - - - - - - -
Echinodermata
63. Clypeaster sp. - - - - - - - - -
64. Astropecten sp. - - - - - - - + -
65. Salmacis sp. - - - + - - - - -
66. Sticopus sp. - - + - - - - + -
67. Ophiuroid - - + - - - - - -
68. Hologhuria atra - - + - - - - - -
69. H. Scabra - - + + - - - + -
70. Protoreaster lincki - - - - - - - - -
71. Pentaceros lincki - - - - - - - - -
72. Luidia maculata - - - - - - - + -
73. Pentacta fucata - - - - - - - - +
Urochardata
74. Rhodocynthia sp. - - - - - - - - -
75. Solitary ascidian - - - - - - - - -
76. Colonial ascidian - - - - - - - - -
77. Polycarpa sp. - - - - - - - - -
Pisces
78. Remora sp. - - - - - - - + -
Table 3.20
1 32 4.70
2 44 6.47
3 111 16.32
4 110 16.17
5 98 14.40
6 120 17.64
7 93 13.66
8 28 4.12
9 118 17.34
10 115 16.90
Keezhakarai Group
Vember Group
11. Nallathanni 110.00 2.0 38 5.0
12. Pulivinichalli 6.12 7.0 38 1.5
13. Upputhanni 29.94 3.0 26 2.5
Tuticorin Group
14. Kasuwar 19.50 6.0 5 3.0
15. Karaichalli 16.46 0.3 4 1.0
16. Vilanguchalli 0.95 1.0 8 1.5
17. Van 16.00 2.5 7 5.0
Source : Resources Information System for Gulf of Mannar (India), GOI, DOD and Integrated
Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Chennai, April 2001
Table 3.22
Gulf of Mannar
1. Oothaiputti 21. Keelakkarai
2. Paradi 22. Sennaevadi
3. Thavukadu 23. Vallinokkam
4. Otthathalai 24. Mundal
5. Rameswarampudu Road 25. Mariyur
6. Naduthurai 26. Oppillan
7. Kadarpachapadu 27. Mukaiyur
8. Punkammapadu 28. Narippaiyur
9. Kundukaal point 29. Rochemaanagar
10. Chinnappaliam 30. Vembar
11. Therkuvadi 31. Keelavaipar
12. Thonithurai 32. Sippikulam
13. Vedalai 33. Pattinamarudur
14. Seeniyappadharga 34. Taruvaikulam
15. Pudumadam 35. Vellapatti
16. Thalaithoppu 36. Alangarathattu
17. Muthupettai 37. Tuticorin-North
18. Periyapattinam 38. Tuticorin-Fishing Harbour
19. Kalimankundu 39. Titocorin- South
20. Sethukkarai 40. Tuticorin Harbour Point
Source : CMFRI, Kochi (1998)
Table 3.24
Shannon Weaver Diversity Index (H’ value) for the Ornamental Fishes
Recorded Around each Island in the Gulf of Mannar
Source : Resources Information System for Gulf of Mannar (India), GOI, DOD,
Integrated
Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Chennai, April 2001
Table 3.25
Major Fishing Gears used in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay
Shoreseines (Kara valai type) - Operated with the help of thony (palnkbuilt
Tuticorin type) fitted with outboard engine,
targeting the small pelagics
Gillnets
Trawlers - Demersals
Marine Fish landings in the Gulf of Mannar during 1992-96 (In Tonnes)
Elasmobranches
a. Sharks 0.002
b. Rays 7.717
Catfishes 0.959
Clupeids
a. Wolf herring 0.021
b. Oil sardine 0.059
c. Other sardines 1.321
d. Hilsa shad 0.375
e. Other shads 0.375
f. Anchovies
Colilia 0.004
Stolephorus 0.578
Thryssa 7.594
Other clupeids 0.463
Rock cods 0.031
Pig-face breams 0.036
Threadfin breams 0.033
Other perches 2.035
Snappers 0.002
Goatfishes 1.097
Threadfins 0.159
Croakers 5.630
Ribbon fishes 0.008
Caraginds 3.371
a. Leather jackets 0.004
b. Other carangids 0.496
Silver bellies 38.331
Big jawed jumper 0.010
Pomfrets
a. Black pomfret 0.010
b. Silver pomfret 0.073
c. Chinese pomfret 0.002
Indian mackerel 0.025
Seerfishes 0.396
Barracuda 0.241
Mullets 0.017
Flatfishes
a. Soles 0.438
Crustaceans
a. Penaeid prawns 11.913
b. Non-penaeid prawns 0.004
c. Crabs 3.373
d. Stomatopods 0.433
Cephalopoda 0.611
Miscellaneous 12.115
Total 100.00
Source : CMFRI, Kochi (1998)
Table 3.30
Pearl Oyster Paars in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay
Group Paars
I Inner Pamban group 1. Pamban karai
2. Pamban velangu
II Pamban Periya paar group 3. Pamban periya paar
III Musal Tivu group 4. Musal tivu paar
5. Cholava karai paar
IV Keelakkarai group 6. Vallai malai karai paar
7. Vallai malai velagu paar
8. Anna paar
V Valinokkam group 9. Valinukam paar
10. Valinukam thundu paar
11. Nalla tanni tivu paar
VI Inner Vemba group 12. Uppu tanni tivu paar
13. Vemabar karai paar
14. Kumulam paar
VII Outer Vembar group 15. Vembar periya paar
VIII Outer Vaipar group 16. Vaipar periyar paar
IX Inner Vaipar group 17. Devi paar
18. Parnanthu paar
19. Paduthamarikan paar
20. Paduthanmarikan paar
X Cruxian group 21. Cruxian paar
22. Tuticorin kuda paar
23. Cruxian thundu paar
24. Vantivu arupagam paar
XI Utti paar group 25. Nagarai paar
26. Uttipaar
27. Petha paar
28. Uduruvi paar
29. Kilathi paar
30. Athuvai aurpagam paar
31. Patharai paar
XII Pasi paar group 32. Attonbotu paar
33. Pasi paar
XIII Tholayiram paar group 34. Tholayiram paar
35. Koothadiyar paar
XIV Kanna tivu group 36. Thundu paar
37. Kanna tivu arupagam paar
Source : CMFRI, Kochi (1998)
Table 3.32
Sr.
Poovarasanpatti
No.
Poomarichan
Vilanguchalli
Species
Pulivinichalli
Upputhanni
Nallathanni
Manoliputti
Karaichalli
Valimunai
Pullivasal
Krusadai
Kasuwar
Anaipar
Shingle
Manoli
Talairi
Musal
Appa
Valai
Mulli
Van
1 Cymodocea + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
serrulata
2 Cymodocea + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
rotundata
3 Syringodium + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
isoetifolium
4 Halodule + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
uninervis
5 Halodule ovalis + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
6 Halophila + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
ovata
7 Thalassia + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
hemprichii
8 Enhalus + + + + + +
acoroides
9 Halophila + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
stipulacea
10 Halophila + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
decipiens
11 Halophila + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
beccarii
12 Halodule + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
pinifolia
Source : Resources Information System for Gulf of Mannar (India), GOI,
DOD, Integrated
Coastal and Marine Area Management Project Directorate, Chennai, April 2001
Table 3.33
Name Type
Rhizophora apiculata
True mangrove (Tree)
Sr.
No.
Poovarasanpatti
Poomarichan
Vilanguchalli
Pulivinichalli
Species
Upputhanni
Nallathanni
Manoliputti
Karaichalli
Valimunai
Pullivasal
Krusadai
Kasuwar
Anaipar
Shingle
Manoli
Talairi
Musal
Appa
Valai
Mulli
1 Avicennia Van
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
marina
2 Rhizophora + + + + + + + + +
mucronata
3 Ceriops tagal + + + + + + + +
4 Bruguiera + + + + + + + +
cylindrica
5 Lunmitzera + + + +
racemosa
6 Pemphis + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
acidula
7 Excoecaria + + +
agaloocha
8 Aegiceras +
corniculatum
9 Rhizophora + + +
apiculata
ASSOCIATED SPECIES
10 Salvadora + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
persiea
11 Pandanus sp. + + + + +
12 Sesuvitun sp + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
13 Scaevola + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
plumieri
14 Suaeda sp. + + + +
15 Salicornia + + + +
brachiata
16 Thespesia + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
populnea
Table 3.37
Genus : Pocillopora :
P. damicornis p. danae
Genus : I. Acropora
A. formosa A. nobilis
M. digitata (Dana)
P. lutea P. mannarensis
Genus : V Favia
F. pallida
Genus : VI Favites
1 2 3 4
0.5 km 5.0 km 10.0 km 15 km
(depth 2 m) (depth 4 m) (depth 6 m) (depth 7 m)
Major groups, %
Copepoda 47-70
Foraminifera 5.66-17.79
Ostracoda 1.4-3.8
Polychaeta 1.6-1.89
Cumacea 0.6-1.89
Amphipoda 1.09-3.77
Mysids 1.14-1.89
Euphasids 1.14-1.60
Source : COMPAS report prepared by CECRI
Table 2.42
P. latiulcatus +
Metapenaeus affinis ++
Parapenaeopsis maxillipedo +
P. cornuta ++
P. tenella +
Macrobrachium rosenbergii ++
M. aemulium ++
Hippolyty ventricosa +
Table 2.43
Species Distribution
Demospongiae
Spongia officinalis ++
Heteronema erecta +
Hyattella cribriformis +
Ircinia fusca +
Fasciospongia cavemosa ++
Dysidea herbacea +
Dendrilla nigra ++
Psammaplysilla purpurea +
Haliclonia exigua +
Iotrochota baculifera ++
Sigmadocia fibulata +
Taxadocia fibulata +
Orina sagittaria +
Damiria simplex +
Callyspongia diffusa ++
Echinodictyum gorgonoides ++
Damiriana schmidti ++
Rhabderemia indica +
Endectyon thurstoni +
Tedania anhelans +
Acarnus thielei +
Aulospongus tubulatus ++
Clathria, frondifera ++
C. indica +
Mycale grandis ++
Mycalecarmia monanchorata +
Zygomycale parishii +
Toxemna tubulata +
Biemna fortiis +
Axinella tenuidigitata +
Higginsia mixta +
Myrmekioderma granulata ++
Trachyopsis halichondroides ++
Table 2.43 Contd…
Species Distribution
Spirastrella coccinea +
Timea stellata ++
T. stelligera +
Suberites carnosus +
Laxosuberites cruciatus ++
Aaptos aaptos ++
Placospongia carinata ++
Cliona celata ++
C. vastifica +
Prostylyssa foetida +
Stellettinopsis simplex +
Epipolasis topsenti +
Tethya robusta +
T. diploderma +
Echionemia acervus +
Myriastra purpurea +
Aurora globostellate +
Geodia perarmata ++
Geodia lindgreni +
Cinachyra cavemosa +
Paratetilla bacca +
Lophacanthus rhabdophorus +
Dercitopsis minor +
Pachamphilla dendyi +
Corticium candelabrum +
Corticium acanthastrum +
Plakina monolopha +
Plakina acantholopha +
Chondrilla sacciformis +
Table 3.44
Groups 10O/80O
Elasmobranchs 0
Carrangids 6.62
Nemipterids 0
Epinephelus sp. 7.43
Lethrinus sp. 10.05
Lutjanus sp. 5.48
Lutianus sp. 0
Pomadasys sp. 17.14
Diagramma sp. 2.74
Pentaprion sp. 1.37
Other perches 2.05
Cat fishes 0
Sciaenids 0
Lizard fishes 0
Goat fishes 2.45
Leiognathus sp. 11.22
Sphryaena sp. 0
Seer Fish 0
Mackeral 0
Dussumieria sp. 0
Psenes indicus 0
Psenopsis cyaena 0
Priacanthus sp. 0
Balistids 0.59
Miscell. Fish 15.7
Jelly fish 0
Crustaceans and Cephalopods 6.97
Sharks -
Skates -
Rays -
Carangids 451
Rastrelliger Kanagurta 227
Silver bellies -
Threadfin breams 1
Lizard fish 1
Upeneus sp. -
Sphyraena sp. -
Priacanthus sp. -
Perches 303
Platycephalus sp. -
Flat fish -
Trichiurus sp. -
Cat fish -
Other finfish 5
Miscell. Fish 41
Total 1035
Table 3.46
0-50 10O 3 - 29 - 18 50
101-150 10O 14 - - - - 14
4. Land Environment
The objective of the present study is to evaluate the environmental impacts
on various land and ocean features in the project area as a result of dredging
operations to be carried out in Adam Bridge area, parts of Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Bay to create the navigational channel. The dredged material is required to be
assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively to arrive at option for its disposal either
on land or in sea. It is therefore imperative to accurately define the baseline status of
various environmental parameters pertaining to both land and the sea and to carefully
examine the environmental impacts on them. The option of disposal of dredged
material has to be selected in such a manner so that impacts on Biosphere Reserves
can be prevented/minimized.
4.1 Objectives
• Delineation of various landuse and land cover classes in the study region
and estimation of their areal coverage through the analysis and digital
classification of satellite data
Satellite data obtained in 1998 and 2002 has been used for delineation of
landuse pattern and identification of dumping sites. The data obtained in 2002 was
mostly used to study change in landuse pattern and to select suitable dumping site
close to Adams Bridge provided the quality of dredged materials is suitable for
nourishment of soil.
1. Remote Sensing Data : In keeping with the climate of the area the following
cloud free satellite data were chosen and the quality was checked for cloud
and haze cover, striping, line drop out etc. The following data at the latitude
(09°05’00"-09°25'00") N longitude (79005'00"-79035'00") E were used:
A. Satellite data
1. A highly configured computer was used for the digital image processing. The
system offers an integrated platform to carry out complex tasks necessary for
digital image processing.
2. Remote Sensing data was analyzed using EASI/PACE V 7.0 and Geomatica V
8.2 software loaded in a highly configured computer. The software package is
a collection of image processing functions necessary for pre-processing,
rectification, band combination, filtering, statistics, classification etc. Apart
from contrast stretching, there are large number of image processing
functions, that can be performed on this station. Further analysis was
performed in GIS (MAP INFO Professional 6.2 and ARC/INFO software)
environs.
4.5 Methodology
The task of delineation of various landuse and land cover classes and site
selection for dumping of dredged materials was accomplished with recourse to the
step-wise methodology described as under.
ii. Acquisition of representative ground truth samples from the field by means of a
Global Positioning System (GPS), providing a geometric accuracy which is
sufficient for accomplishing the task of digital image analysis successfully. The
ground truths were used for selecting the training pixels of different classes on the
FCCs with high geometric accuracy.
iii. Selection of representative training signatures for various landuse/land cover classes
on the basis of their spectral discriminability and ground truths.
iv. Digital classification of the multispectral satellite data using maximum likelihood
classifier using the training signatures extracted for the respective classes. All the
four spectral band data have been used in the classification. Reject classes, and
underrepresented and overrepresented classes have been minimised by interactive
iteration through careful selection of the training area based on the a-priori
probabilities of different classes.
The area statistics of the different feature classes present on the classified
image is given in Table 4.2 for the study region. The landuse/ landcover classification
indicates 4.772 % area covered by turbid water, 53.328 % vegetation cover (crop land,
shrubs, forests), 8.084 % fallow land etc.
Different classes are identified, alongwith the corresponding area. Most of the
water bodies are shallow containing turbid water. Few agricultural activities occur in
the area. The yellow colour in the landuse map indicates the cropland. The fallow is
found to be associated with agricultural lands. The shrub land is found to be present
inside the forest as well as outside and is reported an area of 8.331 %. and is
assigned by reddish colour. Small patches of water bodies are mainly concentrated
towards north-eastern part of the area and are assigned by the cyan colour in the land
use map. The degraded land is present towards the south-eastern part of the Island
and is assigned as deep brown colour. Road network as visible in full resolution is
represented as red lines in the colour coded output.
The following criteria were used to identify potential sites for dumping of the
dredged materials:
ii. Areas which presently are not in use for any significant activity (commercial
or other)
iii. Shallow and deep areas which otherwise can be reclaimed for productive
utility
iv. Barren sandy areas which do not contain any vegetation cover and are also
classified as unproductive
v. Areas which are devoid of vegetation and areas which are not in close
proximity to the dense vegetation
vi. Areas which are not in proximity to the water bodies such as river, pond, back
water etc. to ensure prevention of erosion and siltation of dumped materials
into them so that their natural pristine status is conserved
i. The shallow and deep sandy areas lying in the Pamban island since most of these
areas are located in the narrow strip of the island through which the navigational
channel is proposed to be constructed. Likewise, the barren sandy areas occurring
in the island can also be used as dumping sites. The shallow and deep areas cover
20.32 sq.km. i.e. 2032 hectares which comprises 20.67% of the island whereas the
barren sandy areas alone stretch over 21.76 sq.km. i.e. 21.76 hectares which covers
22.13% of the island. In other words, nearly 42.8% of the island alone which covers
an area of 42.08 sq.km. i.e 4208 hectares can be selected for dumping sites. Even
effective utilization of 50% of the available area would serve as major dumping
sites within the island alone (i.e. nearly 20 sq.km. or 2000 hectares).
ii. Barren sandy areas occurr in the Pamban island and in the coastal wedge of
Mandapam area. The shallow and deep areas in this region are nearly same as that
of the Pamban island alone because these areas are dominantly confined to the
island only. However, an extensive barren sandy area is available in the coastal
wedge of the Mandapam region (over 140 sq.km. or 14000 hectares). Effective
utilization of a nominal 25% of the available area means that 35 sq.km. area is
available for dumping of the dredged materials.
Along the coast in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay, there are 127 villages
and towns spread over 5 districts. Summary data on population area number of households
etc. is presented in Table 5.1. Detailed information for each one of these villages/ towns is
presented in Table 5.2 and 5.3.
The project area contains a rich mix of people of different religions and castes.
There are 23,000 fisher-folk households with a population of 115,000 in about 70 fishing
villages/ hamlets. There are about 35,000 active fisher-folk and about 70% of them are
involved in direct fishing, 21% in fishing related activities and 9% in other activities.
The literacy rate among the communities living along the coast of Gulf of Mannar is
only 31%, far less than the state average (64%). While most of them (54%) do not have a
dwelling of their own and live in huts along the sandy beaches, 25% have semi permanent
and only 21% have concrete or tiled roof houses. Though majority (56%) of the fishermen
still depend on traditional catamaran for their fishing activities, 95% of them could not
operate continuously due to non-availability of net and other equipment. Only 10 percent of
the fisherfolk have ownership of means of production above Rs. 1,00,000 indicating the most
of the commercial trawlers are from outside the area. Hardly, 37% of the fisherfolk
households in the region have ownership on some sort of means of production. Per capita
income of a fishermen is just Rs. 3,943/- (1990-91), far less than the state average.
During this study a review of fishing activities in Ramnathpuram Dist. was taken up
based on 2000 census data. The number of male population involved in fishing is 29570
whereas who are involved in trade, marketing, net making and other allied activities those
are around 2200. The population of fisherwomen involved in fishing is about 1657 and
women involved in allied activities including trade are about 5500. Income status of
fisherfolk in 2000 census has shown a positive trend as compared to 1991 census where per
capita income was Rs. 3943/-. The per capita income according to 2000 census varies from
Rs. 3000 to Rs. 15000/- as per 2000 census data. Income status of fisherfolk in Dist.
Ramnathpuram shows 7849 people in less than Rs. 3000/- range, 13083 people in Rs. 3001-
6000 range, 19425 people in Rs. 6001-12000 category and about 2000 people in Rs. 12001-
15000 range. As per 2000 census data the fishing crafts comprise mechanised boats (1804
no.) and non-mechanised boats (5078 no.).
Currently the Gulf’s fishery is truly an open access resource. No property regime is
in place to manage or control access to this resource and as a result it is under heavy,
unsustainable pressure. Approximately 45,000 fisherfolk are currently fishing along the
Gulf’s waters. Ninety percent of them are artisanal fisherfolk (using small wind or small
engine powered craft) and 10% of them are mechanised trawler fishermen. Any person who
desires to take-up commercial fishing need only register with the Fisheries Department.
There is no limit on the number of fishing society in their local village or town. These
societies serve primarily as a savings-type of institution, and do not provide the fisherfolk
with the benefits of cooperative marketing, processing and management of the local fishing
areas for the common good.
The introduction of mechanised fishing to the region in the last 40 years has
gradually led to the breakdown of the specialised artisanal fishing community (some fishing
exclusively for prawn, others for sea cucumber, etc.) and has resulted in most fisherfolk
fishing for whatever they can find.
One of the serious problems in the area is the increasing human population at rates
considerably faster than that occurring in metropolitan areas of India. The rate of increase in
some villages could exceed 4% per annum, which is equivalent to a doubling of the
population within about 30 years. Unless the population is stabilized it is unlikely that the
ecosystems in the proposed reserve and surrounding areas will be sustainable. This problem
will be aggravated by the inevitably greater demands on resources from individuals as
economic development proceeds.
Currently there are very few, if any, income generating options for local fisherfolk.
There are no organised programs to provide local fisherfolk with technical and business
expertise in order to develop alternative livelihoods and income generating activities.
Existing research programs in the area are developing appropriate technologies for seaweed
farming, and pearl oyster farming, but they lack the mandate and expertise to transfer this
technology to local people.
As part of the present study, a rapid survey was conducted on the socio-economic
aspects of the population in the project area, and to assess the public opinion on the proposed
canal project. The details of this survey alongwith the views expressed by the fishermen, the
officials of the Fisheries Department, Rameswaram, Naval Staff of Coast Guard Station,
Mandapam, and officials engaged in R&D work in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay on
the project are presented hereunder.
The settlement called ‘Kothandaramar Koil Nagar’ near the Kothandaramar temple
has about 200 huts with a population of nearly 800. This village is very near the proposed
alignment and the local fisher folk have no ‘Vallarns’ or ‘Thonis’ for fishing. They go for
fishing to the Dhanushkody island by bus/walk. According to them fish is available in the
shallow (2 to 3 feet) waters in the Dhanushkody island. The fish catch is transported to the
market by bus or as head loads. When interviewed, the people were of the opinion that the
Sethu Canal project would severely affect their economic development. The proposed land
cutting for the navigation channel between Kothandaramar Koi and Dhanushkody island,
near ‘Moonru Eruppu Chathram’, will cut off the road transport facility between their
dwelling places and Dhanushkody island, their only place of fishing. None the less, they are
in favour of the project in the overall national interest and with the hope that they will get
their ‘pattas’ from the Government once the project comes into operation.
The Naval Staff of the Coast Guard Station at Mandapam are of the view that the
implementation of the project will increase the potential for oil spill in the navigation canal.
They also suggested that the above problem could be overcome by enanting a low by which
any ship navigating through the canal and causing oil spill would not be allowed to use the
canal in future. Otherwise, they are much in favour of the project as it would provide free
protected access to fisherman between the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay, illegal and
clandestine activities in the project area and also improve the socio-economic status of the
people living in Ramanathapuram, Rameswaram, Mandapam and Tuticorin.
The conflicts that arise in the fisheries sector are essentially due to the
economic disparity that has developed between the fishermen who continue to use the
age-old traditional crafts and gear to catch fish and the mechanised boat owners who
have been able to adopt and invest in modern technologies such as trawling. Artisinal
fishers have a narrow range of operations closer to the coastline with propulsion
depending on human muscle power and wind energy and passive gears where the
fish should reach the gear for capture. The mechanised boat owners have a longer
range for capture and operations away from the coastline and operate active fishing
gear which goes after the fish for capture.
This latter group goes for high value shrimps and fish and, because of their
efficiency cause problems for conservation of the target resources. Due to shrinking
economic returns, the former (artisanal fishermen), unable to meet their daily livelihood
needs, resort to unsustainable activities such as coral mining, dynamite fishing,
juvenile fishing, sea cucumber collection, intensive seaweed harvesting, and even
attack protected and endangered species. They thus come into conflict with the law
enforcement machinery.
The mechanisation of fishery has displaced women from their traditional roles
in processing, marketing and making of nets; forcing them to take up alternative
livelihoods. As women play a major role in supporting the sector, they would be the
primary beneficiaries. Existing livelihoods related programmes in the buffer zone area
do not provide adequate economic alternatives and in particular do adequately
address the needs of women fisher-folk. As a result, people’s only alternative
livelihood option has been harvesting of wild seaweed or coral, which they have been
over harvesting. (Source: Paragraph 9 of GEF project brief)
As a result of the complexity of the types and efficiency of fishing craft and
gear and the fluctuations in the available fishery resources, there are wide variations in
the catch and income to the fishermen. More than 70% of the active fishermen work as
labourers in the boats owned by others on share-basis or for wages. The fishermen
working in the country crafts such as catamarans, vathai, thoni and vallam (not
motorized) earn a daily income in the range of Rs.20-30, except on a few days during
the peak fishing season.
The fisherwomen are more burdened and try to supplement the family income
through fishery related trades such as dry fish preparation and marketing, seaweed
collection and net-making and mending, and non-fishery activities such as working as
labour in salt pans, and beedi making. These activities are seasonal and possible only
in certain areas and do not add much to the family income.
The GOMBR coastal belt has a very large proportion of country crafts, about
87%, against the mechanised boats, about 13%, in the total crafts of about 1573. Thus
a very large segment of traditional fishermen population has to work closer to the
shoreline in shallow waters where the resources are poor and thereby their income also
is poor. There are increasing number of instances where, due to poor catches and
diminishing economic returns, the owners are selling the mechanized boats.
The fishermen and fisherwomen, during discussion, expressed the desire for
guiding them and training them in income generating vocations that will improve their
socio-economic conditions. In respect of fishery technological options, Fish
Aggregating Devices (FAD's) for men and net making/ mending and fish by-products
for women stand out significantly.
On the other hand, it is also reported that farm workers from hinterlands
mainly tankfed agriculture farmers are leaving and joining as trawler workers. Though
this is a seasonal activity the trend seems to be on the increase. The major reason
attributed is due to lack of proper irrigation facilities like tanks, which are mostly under
disrepair in the region. Any meaningful development of the Reserve should also
include the development of tank irrigation and dependent agriculture.
Majority of the poor in this area depend on the indigenous systems and have
least access to formal institutions providing these services. Predominant among
savings systems include local chits, friends and relatives. People are involved in a
local practice called ‘Seimora’ (offering of money to relatives on a social function)
which involves outflow of funds. Though this practice is a socially accepted mutual
support system, people find it difficult to meet these commitments and depend on
money lenders.
A variety of local lending practices are in use and the interest rates range
from 5-10% per month. In case of small consumption and emergency loans, the rates
are as high as 10-20%. The formal financial institutions primarily rely on collateral and
the procedures are lengthy resulting in undue delay in sanctioning of loans. Even if
formal credit is available, banks provide credit only for selected economic activities,
while the poor need credit for both income generation and social security. In order to
sustain the economic activity and to insulate the liquidation of assets in times of
emergency, the poor require continuous line of credit support for small consumption
and emergency needs.
As the livelihood of the poor in this area depends on the sea, there is a high
risk of accidents and often leading to death of family members. This causes great set
back to the whole family and affects their livelihoods. Though government sponsored
social security schemes are in existence, this does not cover and reach all the needy
in time. Incomes earned are high in cases of the marine or coastal-based activities but
due to the problem of alcoholism, the income does not reach the family and is drained
out of the system, keeping the families in perpetual debt leading to poverty. The
programme related to building up financial services should also include insurance
against the risks due to death, sickness and other calamities.
The survey team had held discussion with general secretary of fishermen
association at Rameshwaram. It is revealed that about 50000 fishermen are involved
in fishing operation at Rameshwaram including all the villages in Pamban Island.
Fishing is done in both Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar. Some times fishermen go upto
Lankan waters as prawn fishing in Palk Bay is not conducive due to rocky base. It
was informed that fish catch in Palk Bay has decreased over last 10 years.
Approximately 900 boats operate from Rameshwaram on alternate days. The fishing
is done both by mechanised and non-mechanised boats. Prawn catch is 20-25
kg/boat whereas fish catch is 600 kg per boat.
Table 5.1
District : Nagapattinam
1. Sirkali 8 48170 7874.46 10601 10776 2.97-17.26
2. Tharagamabadi 5 31324 3759.03 2811 2829 3.09-19.22
3. Nagapattinam 8 119442 11520.91 24105 24818 3.72-58.44
4. Vedaranyam 7 52523 6021.45 5442 5448 2.54-33.99
District : Thanjavur
7. Pattukottai 14 36030 11386.44 7946 8034 0.56-22.01
8. Peravoorani 10 11349 3633.16 2202 2255 -
District : Pudukottai
9. Avudaiyar Kovil 17 49854 8664.38 9823 10003 0.05-21.54
District : Ramanathapuram
10. Thiruvadanai 13 55626 7389.99 5567 5602 0.27-24.69
11. Mudukulathur 8 33379 13201.95 6549 6685 0.13-4.13
12. Ramanathapuram 22 137812 30651.39 22016 22073 0.5-29.84
13. Rameswaram 2 56522 624.92 4656 4688 52.36
District : Tuticorin
14. Vilathikulam 2 9548 5024.3 1818 1854 0.51-1.07
15. Ottapidaram 2 6793 4118.61 1344 1358 0.78-2.65
16. Tuticorin 5 237419 20841.77 1157 1180 4.08-35.73
Table 5.2
Details of Coastal Towns/Villages in the Study Area
(Palk Bay)
(Contd…)
Table 5.2 (Contd…)
(Contd...)
Table 5.2 (Contd...)
Sl. No. Name of Viallage/Town Taluk Population Area (Ha) No. of House- Density
Houses holds
54. Ariyakuttithevan Peravoorani 24 115.09 5 5 -
55. Thiruvathevan Peravoorani 1922 725.16 410 417 -
56. Kuppathevan Peravoorani 1975 544.63 416 431 -
District : Pudukottai
(Contd...)
Table 5.2 (Contd…)
Sl No. Name of Village/Town Taluk Population Area (Ha) No. of House- Density
Houses holds
84. Nambuthalai Thiruvadanai 6908 816.55 N.A. N.A. 8.46
85. Kaliyanaguri Thiruvadanai 1978 326.27 427 431 6.06
86. Kanathankundu Thiruvadanai 3205 1501.26 535 535 2.13
87. Mandapam Ramanathapuram 5709 2263.92 1145 1145 0.50
88. Devipattinam Ramanathapuram 8350 1520.79 1634 1658 5.02
89. Chittrakkottai Ramanathapuram 6667 2106.82 1331 1337 3.16
90. Theruvadi Ramanathapuram 5162 1054.97 899 899 2.82
91. Alagankukam Ramanathapuram 13364 2294.47 2636 2637 2.78
92. Attangarai Ramanathapuram 2854 814.76 601 616 3.50
93. Enmahamkundan Ramanathapuram 5159 481.17 1141 1151 10.72
94. Pirappanvalasai Ramanathapuram 3991 1070.61 918 918 2.40
95. Sattakkonvalasai Ramanathapuram 2108 1332.92 405 406 1.58
96. Nochivurani Ramanathapuram 2331 1305.20 550 550 0.57
97. Kalimankundu Ramanathapuram 5476 1190.04 1254 1254 2.09
98. Tiruppullani Ramanathapuram 6599 2929.02 1255 1255 0.63
99. Kanjirahgudi Ramanathapuram 5431 1586.48 1049 1049 3.42
100. Rameswaram rameswaram 32721 624.92 - - 52.36
District : Tuticorin
(Contd…)
Table 5.3 (Contd...)
26. Tuticorin (Rural + Town) Tuticorin 205766 17574.01 N.A. N.A. 15.63
6. Assessment of
Environmental Impacts
6.1 General
In the backdrop of data collected during the site visits, information provided by
the concerned authorities and the list of project activities described earlier in the
report, the ‘cause-condition-effect’ networks for various components and activities of
the project have been delineated as depicted in Fig. 6.1 through 6.2. In these
illustrations, the lines are to be read as “has an effect on”.
Operation phase involves various maritime and shipping activities all of which
can cause impacts (positive or negative) on marine water quality, ecology, aesthetics
and socio-economics of the project affected population.
6.3 Impacts due to Land Based Facilities
300 m wide channel will be about 600 ha. The quantity of capital dredge material
including slope and tolerance is approximately 38 x 106 m3 for 12 m deep channel.
Requirement of capital dredging in Palk Bay/Palk Strait area have been
computed. The proposed alignment in Palk Bay/Palk Strait is shown in Fig. 6.11. The
Bathymetry along the alignment is presented in Fig. 6.12. The quantity of dredged
material will be about 44 million m3 for 12 m deep 300 m wide channel as per
bathymetry data collected by National Hydrography office, Dehradun
(Fig. 6.12).
Though option for both 9.15 m and 10.7 m draught were evaluated, study
carried out by shipping corporation of India for estimating traffic potential at 7, 9 and 11
draught recommended that a minimum draught of 10.7 m be kept to make channel
viable. The savings based on expected number of transits through proposed channel
for various considered draught is given in Table 6.9.
The proposed channel will have a bed width of 300m which will provide a safe
width for navigation of two way channel. The channel will have side slopes of 1:3. A
cross section of channel is shown in Fig. 6.13.
It is known that seabed strata is only sand hard pane and blasting which
could adversely affect flora and fauna due to shock waves emanating from the blast is
not required for excavation/dredging.
The maintenance dredge spoil will mainly comprise silt / clay and will be used
for reclaiming degraded areas in the vicinity of Pamban island / Mandapam.
6.4.1.2 Disposal in Sea
Disposal of dredged spoil generated during capital dredging containing sand
is proposed to be disposed in sea in the proximity of dredging activity where potential
adequate dilution and dispersion is available. It is observed from the bathymetry data
that a depth of 30-40 m is available about 25-30 km away from Adam’s Bridge in GOM
area. An exercise using dispersion modelling was carried out to study impact of
dredged spoil on turbidity of sea water.
The methodology provides answers to questions that typically arise during the
application of mixing zone regulations for both conventional and toxic discharge. More
importantly, this is accomplished by utilizing the customary approaches often used in
evaluating and implementing mixing zones, thereby providing a common framework
for both applicants and regulatory personnel to arrive at a consensus view of the
available dilution and plume trajectory for the site and effluent discharge
characteristics.
The existing level of primary productivity in the project area will remain
practically unaltered during the construction and operation phases of the ship channel
as proposal for disposal of silt / clay on land should be the most preferred option. Even
during sea disposal care would be taken to dispose material well below the sea
surface so that plume of suspended solids will remain submerged and will not cause
alteration in surface turbidity and primary productivity. There would not be any
significant change in water quality including turbidity due to the proposed deployment
of trailor suction hopper dredgers for capital and maintenance dredging. Moreover, the
envisaged dredging activities in the area are likely to cause much less turbidity than
the international threshold, and thus the likely risk to marine biota is going to be
minimal.
Disposal of sand (~30 million m3) in the form of dredge spoil will temporarily
after the structure of benthic community. However the benthos will restructure and
recover to original status after the capital dredging activity is completed.
The existing level of primary productivity in the project area will remain
practically unaltered during the construction and operation phases of the channel.
There would not be any significant change in water quality including turbidity due to
the proposed deployment of cutter suction/trailor suction hopper dredgers for capital
and maintenance dredging.
Due to dredging the bottom flora and fauna on an area about 6 sq. km along
the channel alignment in Adams Bridge and about 16-17 sq.km in Palk Bay/Palk Strait
area will be lost permanently. This loss, however, will be very insignificant compared to
the total area of 10,500 sq. km of the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve.
In Palk Bay area, about 44 million m3 of dredged spoil will be generated due
to excavation activity in Palk strait and Palk Bay to achieve 12 m depth for 300 m
channel including allowances for slope and tolerance. The NHO data indicate hard
strata beneth soft sand hence spoil may contain silt, sand and hard material. The
dredging may also require blasting if hard strata is encountered. In the event of
blasting, adverse impact on sea bottom fauna is envisaged. The spoil is proposed to
be discharged in Bay of Bengal at suitable depth (25-40 m) to minimize impacts on
coastal areas of Palk Bay. An option of using silt/clay for beach nourishment is also
recommended. In the event of restricting the channel depth to 10 m the requirement of
dredging in Palk Bay/Palk strait will drastically reduce to about 14.8 million m3 as
against 44 million m3 envisaged for 12 m depth. This would minimize environmental
impacts as well cost of dredging and disposal.
During the construction and operation phases of the channel, the potential
sources of marine pollution are spillage of oil and grease, marine litter, jetsam and
floatsam including plastic bags, discarded articles of human use from the sea-borne
vessels which will have to be controlled.
The channel will facilitate the movement of fishes and other biota from the
Bay of Bengal to the Indian Ocean and vice versa. By this way, the entry of oceanic
and alien species into the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, as also the dispersal of
endemic species outside the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar could occur.
Presently, stray turtles and marine mammals suffer from propeller cuts, ghost
fishing, and death due to ingestion of jetsam and floatsam. Such instances may
increase unless strict control is enforced in maintaining the canal litter-free, and
shipping speed is under regulatory control.
Despite significant shipping activities, it has been reported that Olive Ridley
turtles from the deep seas migrate to Gahirmatha beach in northern Orissa via
northern Sri Lanka and Paradeep Port for mass nesting during November-February
each year. Reported mass killing of turtles in this region is primarily due to their getting
entangled in gill netters and also due to poaching by local people for turtle flesh. This
observation indicates that the proposed canal project may not have any significant
adverse impact on the migration and mass nesting of turtles.
During the operational phase, the frequent ship movements in the channel,
maintenance dredging of the canal which could increase turbidity, oil spill, bilge water,
marine litter etc. may have negative impacts if they are allowed to travel to the Gulf of
Mannar Biosphere Reserve which supports a very fragile ecosystem.
Excavation of the channel in the Adams Bridge sector would provide a deeper
passage in the sector, which is shallow at present, and serve only as a barrier.
Underwater currents play a significant role, not only in the transportation of large
marine organisms, plankton biota, fish eggs and larvae but also on shore dynamics,
especially of the islands, reef and paars. Strong current would erode the banks of the
canal and carry the sediments from one sector to another, which ultimately results in
accretion of sand in one sector and erosion in another sector. Once the canal is
deepened, the passage would greatly increase the movement of fishes and other large
animals from Bay of Bengal to Indian Ocean and vice-versa. Hence, the entry of
oceanic and alien species into Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar and also dispersal of
endemic species outside Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar would be facilitated.
Because of the deepening of the channel, the course of water currents and
their speed as related to the prevalent biomonsoonal conditions may be altered.
Currents play a vital role not only in the movement of large marine organisms,
planktonic biota, the juvenile, larvae and eggs, but also on shore dynamics especially
of islands, reefs and paars. Current related sediment transport might level up, bury or
elevate certain locations, and yet other benthic sites may be eroded and deepended.
This would play havoc on the benthic animals including pearl oysters.
Hydrodynamic modelling was carried out to study the baseline spatial tidal
current distributions in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay, and to estimate the
changes that could be brought about due to the proposed ship navigation canal. The
focus has been to predict the change in direction and magnitude of the vector currents
due to the change (increase) in bathymetry resulting from dredging. The geographical
domain considered for modelling is shown in
Fig. 6.18.
The modelling exercise has been carried out on a HP Workstation under HP-
UNIX 10.1 Operating System. The source code of the model has been suitably
compiled, and configured for modelling, after incorporating boundary conditions. The
simulations have been carried out for 42 hours, for each case of ‘before dredging’ and
‘after dredging’ conditions.
The depth, width and draft along the proposed alignment for modelling the
hydrodynamic conditions is taken as 12 m, 300 m and 10.7 m respectively.
The model has been calibrated and the calibration curves for tide and
currents are shown in Figs. 6.24-6.25. The curves show good match between the
measured and the model predicted values. The spatial distributions of tidal currents
have been modelled for two conditions :
The currents predicted by the model for a new patches (sub areas) within the
study domain are shown in Figs. 6.26-6.27. The sub areas are chosen for being
geographically close to the coral reefs and the proposed alignment. The sub areas are
referred as Patch I, Patch II, Patch III and Patch IV in the Figs. 6.24-6.25. The
magnitudes and angles of the current vectors for each sub area are given in Table
6.12 through 6.15. The directions are with respect to the model axis. The model axis is
assumed to be North-South direction and the angles (in degrees) are measured in
clock wise direction from the model axis starting from North.
The arrows on the tidal curves in Figs. 6.24-6.25 indicate the time point on
the tidal curve for which the current vectors are shown.
Patch I is spatially located close to the coral reefs which are shown in Figs.
6.28-6.29 (Source of Data-Digitized from SAC Maps). It is seen that there is no
significant change in the magnitude and direction of current velocities.
Patch II and Patch III are close to the alignment in the South Approach
Channel in the Gulf of Mannar. As in the case of Patch I, it is seen that there is no
significant change in the magnitude and directions of current velocities.
Current vectors predicted by the model at the sensitive sub areas for highest
spring water height point out the following :
During the construction of the channel, the land access now available to the
local fisher folk to Dhanushkody area for traditional fishing will be hindered unless
alternative arrangements are made. The dredging and shipping operations will have to
be so regulated as to cause minimum disturbance to the normal fishing activities.
Once the channel is in place the clandestine and illegal activities presently in
vogue in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar will be minimised due to constant
vigilance and regulation of movement of ships and vessels.
In all the proposals listed as above, the only major criterion influencing the
final recommendation has been the economic viability of the proposal with very little
consideration to the environmental/economical aspects of the project. This can be
attributed to the fact that at that time even at the national level environmental concerns
of developmental projects were rarely addressed.
While detailed information for the above enumerated alternatives are not
available, it would be apparent that any alignment of the proposed canal across the
main land would have not only proved expensive due to the longer lengths of dredging
and the associated socio-economic impacts particularly with respect to land
acquisition, resettlement and rehabilitation. These alignments would have also been
nearer to the 21 islands in the Gulf of Mannar (which have subsequently been
declared as national Marine Parks) with their associated ecological impacts.
10
y = 1E-07x2 - 0.0019x + 12.544
R2 = 0.6954
8
Depth (m)
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Distance (m)
y = material to be dredge
x = length
R2 = regretion wett
14
12
y = 9E-08x2 - 0.0018x + 12.842
10 R2 = 0.7058
Depth (m)
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Distance (m)
12
y = 1E-07x2 - 0.0021x + 14.129
R2 = 0.7281
10
Depth (m)
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Distance (m)
12
y = 7E-08x2 - 0.0017x + 13.886
R2 = 0.6426
10
Depth (m)
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Distance (m)
8
6
4
2
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
Distance(meter)
39 38.33
37.56
Material to be dredged x 10 -6 m3
38
37
36.05 35.88
36
35
34
33
32.58
32
31
30
29
Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4 Line 5
Different Channels
Speed (Knots)
Time (hrs.)
Speed (Knots)
Time (hrs.)
3
Quantity : million m
Rs. in Crores
POL & Specialized Cargo 282 39.39 366 51.97 522 75.75
Currents Patch-I
Speed in cms/sec
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
55 31.26 17.03 13.42 25.63 23.41 22.56 22.02 24.19 17.89 15.81 15.30
56 27.29 24.02 19.03 22.00 24.08 22.36 22.02 22.09 18.44 17.46 16.12
57 26.48 24.19 20.02 21.00 25.00 17.12 19.03 19.10 18.25 17.12 17.03
58 24.02 23.19 22.09 23.00 24.08 18.49 17.12 16.00 19.03 17.03 18.00
59 30.15 19.24 22.02 22.00 21.00 18.03 17.03 17.00 17.00 16.00 16.00
60 26.08 23.02 22.00 21.00 20.00 19.00 18.00 17.00 17.00 16.00 15.00
61 25.18 24.08 22.02 21.02 21.02 20.02 18.03 17.03 17.03 16.03 16.03
62 24.33 24.19 22.20 21.10 21.10 20.02 18.03 17.03 17.03 16.12 16.12
63 23.35 23.35 22.36 21.21 21.21 20.10 18.11 17.12 18.25 17.26 15.13
64 23.54 22.56 21.38 21.38 20.40 20.22 19.24 18.44 18.25 17.26 16.28
65 22.80 21.59 21.59 20.62 19.42 20.40 19.42 19.42 18.44 17.46 16.49
66 22.14 21.84 20.88 20.62 19.65 20.88 19.65 19.65 18.68 17.72 16.49
67 22.14 21.19 20.88 20.62 19.65 19.92 20.25 19.92 18.68 17.72 17.72
68 21.19 20.62 18.97 22.85 21.02 21.19 18.97 18.97 18.97 18.97 18.03
69 21.93 18.36 23.77 22.47 19.31 18.97 18.97 18.97 18.97 18.03 18.03
70 21.47 17.89 22.85 21.93 18.38 18.97 18.03 18.03 17.72 18.03 17.72
Direction in Degrees
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
55 277 183 297 291 290 283 273 187 207 198 191
56 278 272 183 270 275 280 273 185 193 193 187
57 281 277 273 270 270 187 183 186 189 187 183
58 182 277 275 270 185 194 187 270 273 273 270
59 276 189 183 270 270 183 183 270 270 270 270
60 274 272 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270 270
61 277 275 273 273 273 273 273 273 273 274 274
62 279 277 278 275 275 273 273 273 273 277 277
63 280 280 280 278 278 276 276 277 279 280 278
64 282 283 281 281 281 279 279 283 279 280 281
65 285 283 283 284 282 281 282 282 283 283 284
66 288 286 287 284 285 287 285 285 286 286 284
67 288 289 287 284 285 288 290 288 286 286 286
68 289 293 288 293 295 289 288 288 288 288 289
69 294 299 292 291 288 288 288 288 288 289 289
70 298 297 293 294 292 288 289 289 286 289 286
Table 6.12 (Contd…)
After Dredging
Currents Patch-I
Speed in cms/sec
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
55 28.28 15 12.53 24.17 21.54 20.62 20.1 22.09 16.55 14.87 14.14
56 25.32 22.09 18.03 20.02 22.09 20.4 20.02 20.02 16.28 15.3 15.13
57 24.74 22.36 19.1 19.03 23.02 16.03 17.03 17.03 16.12 15.03 15
58 22 21.38 20.1 20.02 22.02 14.32 15.03 14 17.12 14.04 16
59 27.17 17.12 19.03 19 19 16 15 15.03 15.03 14 14
60 23.09 21.02 19.03 19.03 18.03 17.03 15.03 15.03 14.04 14.04 13.04
61 22.2 21.1 20.1 19.1 18.11 17.12 16.03 15.03 14.04 14.04 13.04
62 21.38 21.38 20.22 19.24 18.11 18.11 15.13 15.13 14.14 14.14 13.34
63 21.59 20.4 19.42 18.44 18.44 18.25 16.12 15.3 16.49 15.3 13.34
64 20.88 19.65 19.65 18.44 17.46 17.46 17.46 16.49 15.52 15.52 14.32
65 20.25 19.92 18.97 17.72 18.68 17.72 16.76 16.76 17.76 15.81 14.87
66 20.25 19.31 18.03 18.03 17.09 18.03 18.03 16.76 16.76 15.81 14.87
67 19.7 18.38 18.38 17.72 18.03 17.09 18.38 17.09 17.09 16.16 15.23
68 18.79 17.89 17.46 20.12 17.89 17.46 16.16 16.16 16.16 16.16 16.16
69 19.72 16.64 21.47 20.12 17.89 17.46 16.16 16.16 16.16 16.16 16.16
70 18.87 16.64 20.12 19.72 17 16.55 16.55 16.16 15.23 15.23 15.23
Direction in Degrees
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
55 278 270 299 294 292 284 276 185 205 200 188
56 279 275 183 273 275 281 273 183 191 191 188
57 284 280 276 273 272 184 183 183 187 184 270
58 270 281 276 273 183 192 184 270 277 274 270
59 276 187 183 270 270 270 270 274 274 270 270
60 275 273 273 273 273 273 274 274 274 274 274
61 278 275 276 276 276 277 274 274 274 274 279
62 281 281 279 279 276 276 278 278 278 278 283
63 283 281 282 283 283 279 277 281 284 281 283
64 287 285 285 283 283 283 283 284 285 285 282
65 290 288 288 286 286 286 286 287 287 285 286
66 290 291 289 289 291 289 289 287 287 288 290
67 294 292 292 286 289 291 292 291 291 292 293
68 295 297 294 297 298 295 291 291 291 292 293
69 300 303 298 297 297 294 292 292 292 292 292
70 302 303 297 300 298 295 295 292 293 293 293
Table 6.13
Speed and Direction of Currents for Patch-II
Before Dredging
Currents Patch-II
Speed in cms/sec
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
70 11 11 11 11 11 9.8 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 10 9.8 10
71 11 11 11 11 9.8 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.9 10 10
72 11 11 9.8 9.8 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.1 10
73 10 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.6 8.5 8.5
74 10 10 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.6 7.6 8.5 7.6
75 10 11 9.8 9.8 9.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6
76 12 11 9.8 9.8 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.3 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6
77 16 9.4 9.8 9.8 8.9 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6
78 15 8.9 9.8 9.8 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.6 7.6 7.6
79 14 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.5 8.9 8.5 8.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.6 7.6 7.6
80 13 8.5 8.5 8.9 9.8 8.5 8.5 7.6 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.6
Direction in Degrees
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
70 292 292 292 292 292 294 288 288 288 288 291 291 291 299 294 299
71 292 292 292 292 294 288 288 288 288 291 291 291 291 297 299 299
72 292 292 294 294 288 288 288 291 291 291 291 291 291 291 300 299
73 287 288 288 288 288 288 291 291 291 291 291 291 293 293 291 291
74 287 287 288 288 288 291 291 291 291 291 291 293 293 293 291 293
75 287 292 294 294 288 291 291 291 291 291 293 293 293 293 293 293
76 290 297 294 294 291 291 291 291 291 291 293 286 293 293 293 293
77 297 302 294 294 297 291 291 291 291 293 286 286 293 293 293 293
78 293 297 294 294 291 291 291 291 293 286 286 286 286 293 283 293
79 295 297 297 297 291 297 291 291 286 286 286 286 286 293 293 293
80 297 291 291 297 294 291 291 293 293 286 286 286 286 286 286 293
Table 6.13(Contd…)
After Dredging
Currents Patch-II
Speed in cms/sec
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
70 8.94 8.06 8.06 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 6.40 7.81 5.66 5.83
71 8.06 8.06 8.06 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.66 6.40 8.60
72 8.06 8.06 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.66 6.40 7.81
73 8.06 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 5.66 7.07 7.07
74 8.06 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 7.07
75 8.94 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40
76 9.85 8.60 8.60 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40
77 13.04 7.81 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40
78 12.21 7.81 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40
79 11.40 7.21 7.21 7.81 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40 6.40
80 7.21 7.21 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 6.40 6.40
Direction in Degrees
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
70 297 300 300 300 300 304 304 304 304 304 309 309 310 315 315 329
71 300 300 300 300 300 304 304 304 304 309 309 309 315 321 321 324
72 300 300 300 300 304 304 304 304 304 309 309 309 315 321 321 320
73 300 300 300 304 304 304 304 304 304 301 301 309 315 315 315 315
74 300 300 300 304 304 304 304 304 301 301 309 309 309 309 309 315
75 297 300 300 304 304 304 304 301 301 309 309 309 309 309 309 309
76 294 306 306 304 304 304 304 309 309 301 301 309 309 309 309 309
77 302 310 304 304 304 304 304 309 301 301 301 309 309 309 309 309
78 305 310 304 304 304 304 304 309 309 301 301 301 309 309 309 309
79 308 304 304 310 304 304 304 309 301 301 301 301 309 309 309 309
80 304 304 310 310 310 304 304 309 309 301 301 301 301 309 309 309
Table 6.14
Currents Patch-III
Speed in cms/sec
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
70 13.42 11.66 12.53 13.42 11.66 9.22 10.82 8.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.00
71 12.53 11.18 11.18 11.18 11.18 12.53 12.08 10.00 10.82 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
72 9.85 9.85 9.85 9.85 9.85 10.77 11.18 11.66 9.22 8.54 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
73 9.85 8.54 8.54 8.54 8.94 10.30 11.18 12.53 13.42 14.32 13.00 8.49 10.63 7.00 0.00
74 8.94 8.54 7.62 7.62 8.06 8.94 10.30 11.18 11.18 11.18 10.30 10.82 8.49 77.31 10.00
75 8.06 7.62 6.71 6.71 6.71 7.21 8.06 9.43 9.43 9.43 10.00 10.00 9.90 15.81 15.00
76 8.06 8.06 7.21 6.71 6.71 7.21 7.21 7.21 7.81 9.22 9.22 9.22 10.82 10.00 10.00
77 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 7.07 7.81 7.81 9.22 9.90 8.49 8.49
78 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.66 5.66 5.66 5.66 5.66 8.49 8.60 7.81 7.81
79 8.06 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.66 5.66 5.66 5.66 5.66 6.40 7.21 8.06 8.06
80 6.71 8.06 7.21 7.81 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.66 5.83 5.83 7.21 8.06 8.06
81 8.06 8.06 7.21 7.81 7.81 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 6.71 7.62 7.62
82 8.06 8.06 8.60 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.71 6.71 6.71 7.62 7.62
Direction in Degrees
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
70 297 301 299 297 301 311 326 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270
71 299 297 297 297 297 299 294 307 326 0 0 0 0 0 0
72 294 294 294 294 294 292 297 301 311 339 0 0 0 0 0
73 294 291 291 291 297 299 297 299 297 295 293 315 319 0 0
74 297 291 293 293 300 297 299 297 297 297 299 304 315 315 0
75 300 293 297 297 297 304 300 302 302 302 307 307 315 305 307
76 300 300 304 297 297 304 304 304 310 311 311 311 304 307 307
77 300 304 304 304 309 309 309 309 315 310 310 311 315 315 315
78 300 304 304 304 309 309 315 315 315 315 315 315 324 320 320
79 300 304 304 304 309 309 315 315 315 315 315 321 326 330 330
80 297 300 304 310 315 315 321 321 321 315 329 329 326 330 330
81 300 300 310 310 310 315 315 321 321 321 329 329 333 337 337
82 300 300 306 310 310 310 315 315 321 321 333 333 333 337 337
Table 6.14 (Contd…)
After Dredging
Currents Patch-III
Speed in cms/sec
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
70 14.14 13.45 14.21 15.81 12.21 9.90 10.82 9.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.00
71 12.73 12.04 12.21 12.21 12.21 13.04 12.53 10.00 10.30 7.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
72 10.00 10.00 10.82 10.30 10.30 10.30 10.82 1.82 9.90 7.28 6.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
73 10.00 8.60 8.60 9.43 9.43 10.30 11.66 11.66 12.53 14.32 12.08 8.49 10.00 7.00 0.00
74 8.60 7.81 7.81 7.21 8.60 8.60 10.00 10.82 10.82 10.82 10.00 10.82 8.49 11.31 9.00
75 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.07 7.81 7.81 8.60 9.22 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.63 9.90 15.00 14.21
76 7.81 7.81 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.81 7.07 9.22 9.90 9.90 10.63 10.00 10.00
77 7.81 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.40 7.07 7.07 7.81 9.22 9.90 8.49 8.49
78 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.66 6.40 8.60 8.60 8.60 7.21
79 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.07 6.40 6.40 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 7.21 8.06 7.62
80 6.40 7.07 7.07 7.81 7.21 6.40 6.40 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.83 5.39 7.62 8.06 8.54
81 7.07 7.07 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.71 5.83 6.71 6.32 7.62 7.62 8.54
82 7.07 7.07 7.07 7.81 7.81 7.81 7.21 7.21 7.21 6.71 6.71 7.62 7.62 7.62 8.25
Direction in Degrees
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
70 315 312 309 305 305 315 326 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270
71 315 312 305 305 305 302 299 307 331 0 0 0 0 0 0
72 307 307 304 299 299 299 304 304 315 344 0 0 0 0 0
73 307 306 306 302 302 299 301 301 299 295 294 315 323 0 0
74 306 310 310 304 306 306 307 304 304 304 307 304 315 315 0
75 310 310 310 315 310 310 306 311 307 307 307 311 315 307 309
76 310 310 315 315 315 315 315 310 315 311 315 315 311 307 307
77 310 315 315 315 315 321 321 321 315 315 320 319 315 315 315
78 315 315 315 315 321 321 321 321 321 315 321 324 324 324 326
79 315 315 315 315 321 321 321 321 329 329 329 329 326 330 337
80 309 315 315 320 326 321 321 329 329 329 329 338 337 330 339
81 315 315 320 320 320 326 326 326 333 329 333 342 337 337 339
82 315 315 315 320 320 320 326 326 326 333 333 337 337 337 346
Table 6.15
Currents Patch-IV
Speed in cms/sec
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
45 23.35 13.60 6.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
46 13.34 13.00 8.06 7.07 3.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
47 13.00 9.85 5.39 1.41 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
48 13.93 9.49 4.12 1.41 2.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
49 13.00 10.20 7.07 3.00 9.06 2.00 2.00 3.00 11.40 19.24 18.25 19.24 16.12 16.12 12.17
50 13.93 13.34 13.04 11.00 25.02 28.07 27.17 15.30 10.44 19.24 19.24 22.20 11.40 12.17 12.17
51 15.23 18.11 23.00 32.02 30.07 29.15 28.16 18.25 14.32 18.25 19.10 24.08 11.40 12.37 12.17
52 18.03 21.10 24.08 27.17 27.17 26.17 24.19 21.10 19.24 20.22 21.10 24.08 13.15 12.37 12.17
53 21.19 22.80 24.33 25.71 26.31 25.32 21.21 20.22 21.10 22.09 22.09 23.09 16.12 11.18 13.15
54 23.41 24.35 24.19 25.71 26.48 26.31 12.65 13.60 28.28 22.09 22.09 21.10 19.10 12.17 14.14
55 25.63 25.30 25.08 27.46 31.26 17.46 13.00 24.52 22.56 22.36 22.20 24.08 16.12 15.13 15.13
Direction in Degrees
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
45 350 343 351 0 0 0 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
46 347 337 353 352 0 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
47 337 336 338 315 0 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
48 339 342 346 225 180 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
49 337 349 352 0 84 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
50 339 347 356 0 88 86 84 79 73 81 81 82 75 81 81
51 337 354 0 88 86 84 84 81 78 81 84 83 75 76 81
52 341 355 85 84 84 83 83 85 81 82 85 85 81 76 81
53 341 345 81 77 81 81 82 82 85 85 85 85 83 80 81
54 340 341 83 77 79 81 72 73 82 85 85 85 84 81 82
55 339 342 85 80 83 77 67 78 77 80 82 85 83 82 82
Table 6.15 (Contd…)
After Dredging
Currents Patch-IV
Speed in cms/sec
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
45 4.47 4.00 3.16 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.41 1.41 2.24 2.24 2.24 3.16 4.12 4.12 5.10
46 3.16 5.10 2.24 1.41 0.00 1.00 1.41 1.41 2.24 2.24 3.16 3.16 4.12 4.12 5.10
47 5.39 4.12 2.83 2.24 1.00 1.41 1.00 1.41 2.24 2.24 3.16 3.16 3.16 5.10 5.10
48 5.39 3.16 1.41 3.16 3.00 2.24 2.00 2.24 2.83 2.83 3.61 3.16 4.12 5.10 5.10
49 5.39 2.00 1.41 5.00 4.12 3.61 2.24 3.16 3.61 3.61 4.24 4.47 4.47 5.39 6.32
50 6.40 3.61 1.00 6.00 5.10 4.47 3.61 3.00 3.16 3.16 4.24 5.00 5.83 6.32 7.28
51 7.81 3.61 1.00 8.06 6.32 5.00 3.61 3.00 3.61 3.61 3.61 5.00 5.83 6.71 7.28
52 8.49 5.39 4.47 9.49 7.62 5.00 3.61 2.00 4.24 4.24 4.47 5.39 6.32 7.62 8.25
53 8.60 10.00 10.77 10.82 8.06 6.40 4.24 3.00 3.61 3.61 4.47 5.39 5.39 6.32 8.25
54 12.04 16.12 15.30 10.82 7.81 5.66 5.00 4.00 4.47 4.47 5.39 5.39 5.39 6.32 8.25
55 13.45 17.00 20.10 10.30 7.21 5.66 5.83 5.00 5.66 5.66 5.83 5.39 5.39 5.39 8.25
Direction in Degrees
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
45 297 270 252 0 180 180 135 135 153 153 153 162 166 166 169
46 288 191 243 315 0 90 135 135 153 153 162 162 166 166 169
47 292 194 225 333 0 45 90 135 153 153 162 162 162 169 169
48 292 198 225 342 0 63 90 117 117 135 146 162 166 169 169
49 292 270 225 0 76 56 27 108 108 124 135 153 153 158 162
50 309 304 270 0 79 63 34 90 108 108 135 143 149 162 164
51 310 326 0 83 72 53 34 90 124 124 146 143 149 153 164
52 315 338 63 72 67 53 34 90 124 135 153 158 162 157 166
53 306 323 68 56 60 51 45 90 135 146 153 158 158 162 166
54 318 330 79 56 50 45 37 90 117 153 158 158 158 162 166
339 318 332 84 61 56 45 31 90 112 135 149 158 158 158 166
7. Environmental Management Plan
7.1 Construction Phase
Balance dredged spoil, about 30 million cu.m. will be transported for disposal
to sea at a location having depths ranging from 30 to 40 m and atleast 20 km away
from Gulf of Mannar marine national park. Adequate distance from international medial
line will also be maintained. This is to prevent impacts on ecologically sensitive coastal
areas in GOM and to minimize transboundary effects. About 44 million m3 of dredged
material generation is envisaged during dredging in Palk Bay and Palk Strait area
Dredge material will not be disposed in Palk Bay. It is proposed to dispose this
material in Bay of Bengal at suitable depth (more than 25 m bathymetry) in open sea
so as to avoid any impacts on coastal areas particularly in the vicinity of Point
Calimere. This would involve high lead distances (between 30 & 60 km) for disposal
vessel requiring higher investments on costs. During excavation and transportation of
dredged spoil, fishing communities will be informed about the schedule so as to
minimize impacts on fishing activities. During transportation of dredged spoil,
precautionary measures will be taken to avert collision of ships with fishing boats,
damage to fishing nets and also to marine animals crossing the path of the
vessel/barges.
Transportation
The proposed navigation route in Gulf of Mannar will be about 20 km from all
the 21 islands except Van Tiu which is about 9 km from Tuticorin Harbour. These
islands falling in marine national park are ecologically sensitive due to presence of
diverse flora and fauna. With a view to minimize impacts of developmental activity on
this marine national park, the canal alignment in Gulf of Mannar is suggested in such a
way that only navigational depths will be used hence no dredging activity will be
required. The alignment in this region will be at depths greater than 20 m and would
keep a distance of about 20 km from marine national park. The ships originating from
TPT will however be about 9 km away from Van Tiu and later take a designated
navigation route once out of Tuticorin harbour area. Ship traffic bypassing Tuticorin
Port will maintain a distance of more than 20 km from biosphere reserves throughout
the transit in Gulf of Mannar and Adam’s Bridge. In Adam’s Bridge area the 300 m
wide channel will be along line no. 2 for which bathymetry was studied (pl. refer Fig.
2.48)
All the ships originating from Tuticorin Port will comply to Marpol Conventional
1973/78 and CPCB regulations for discharge of bilge, ballast, effluents etc. into sea.
However keeping in view the sensitivity of the region, ships will not be allowed to
discharge any effluents viz. bilge, ballast, treated sewage, deck washings, oily wastes,
spillages etc. into sea so that water quality and living organisms are not affected. The
traffic of ships carrying crude oil will be handled with strict vigilance so as to avoid
possibility of spillage. Tuticorin port has been handling oil ships for last 25 years and
not a single incidence of oil spill has been reported. The oil spill contingency plan in
operation at TPT will be extended to navigation in new channel. It is suggested that a
pilot should board the vessel from Tuticorin to navigate ship through GOM area up to
Bengal Channel in Palk Bay. This will help in keeping vigil on discharges from ship as
well as ship movement so that it would not drift towards marine park area.
Traditional fishing using mechanised and non mechanised boats will not get
affected as width of canal will be 300 m and rest of the sea is available for fishing. The
channel will be properly marked by navigational light buoys. Accidents by collision of
ships with fishing boats will be totally prevented by slowing down the cruise speed
and also alerting the fisherman by cautionary measures. During implementation and
operational phases of the project, TPT will take action to avoid the collisions of ships
with fishing boats or damage to fishing nets with cooperation from fishing
communities, Navy, Coast Guards and other Govt. authorities. Suitable timings apart
from ship transit will be given for fishermen to continue with their fishing activities. With
the deepening of channel in Adam’s Bridge area it would be possible for fishermen to
access fishing area in Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay and Vice-Versa. No special
permission would be required by fishermen to use the transit. It is recommended that
TPT will provide a corridor both in terms of space and time to fishermen living in
coastal areas of Rameshwaram, Mandapam and Ramnathpuram to access the canal
for moving across the ridge from Palk bay to Gulf of Mannar and Vice-versa.
Tuticorin Port Trust, keeping in view the sensitive coastal ecology, would
ensure that there will not be any open sea accidents and ships will follow a defined
sea waterway and the national and international regulations on safe navigation to
avoid any oil spill. The defaulters will be punished with fines and imprisonment. An
environmental watcher will board every ship that will transit the canal along with the
pilot at Tuticorin to caution the ships about movement of fishes and marine animals,
particularly movement of mammals, dolphins, sea cow, turtles etc. to prevent any
damage to this biological wealth of Gulf of Mannar. Movement of fishing boats,
placement of fishing nets will be watched by both pilot who also will be responsible on
behalf of TPT to prevent any discharges from ships. The traffic management along the
canal will be controlled by TPT. The port currently handles 1600 ships per annum at
TPT. The traffic projected with 9.15 m draft will be 1792 whereas for 10.7 m draft it will
be slightly more. Hence there will be marginal increase in traffic. Management facilities
at TPT will be augmented to handle the increased traffic.
TPT will ensure following from the ships transiting the canal :
• Ships should not use paints, anti corrosive agents of toxic nature on ship
bottoms
• All the ships berthing at TPT will have sewage treatment facilities however no
ship will be allowed to discharge treated sewage in Gulf of Mannar area
• Ships bypassing TPT and transiting the canal will also be inspected for its
navigational safety measures before it is allowed to enter the canal
alignment.
An oil spill contingency plan will be drawn by Tuticorin Port Trust with
preparedness to prevent spread of oil or any cargo spillage in Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Bay and its immediate recovery by deploying equipments and ships.
Movement of barges for transporting dredged spoil to land area will not interfere
with movement of fishing boats in both Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay region
adjoining the Adam’s Bridge
• All the ships originating from Tutitcorin Port will comply to International
Maritime Standards and follow MARPOL convention (MARPOL 73/78)
• The traffic of crude oil tankers will be allowed in this route with strict
vigilance so as to avoid any possibilities of spillage in this region
• It will be ensured that ships navigating in this region should not use
such paints and anticorrosive agents on ship bottom which can cause
damage to marine organisms
• It will be ensured that all the ships berthing at TPT as well as all those
using the route without touching TPT will have proper treatment
facilities for sewage however discharge of treated sewage will not be
permitted in GOM area
• Ships bypassing TPT and transiting the channel will be inspected for its
navigational safety measures before it is allowed to enter proposed
navigation route
• An oil spill contingency plan will be drawn by Tuticorin Port Trust with
preparedness to prevent spread of spillage in Gulf of Mannar and Palk
Bay area and its immediate recovery by deploying equipments and
ships
• The traffic of ships carrying crude oil will be handled with strict vigilance
so as to avoid possibility of spillage
• Suitable timings apart from ship transit will be given for fishermen to
continue with their fishing activities
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Environmental Impact Assessment for Proposed
Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project
Executive Summary
1.0 Introduction
India does not have, within her own territorial waters, a continuous navigable
route around the peninsula due to the presence of a shallow (1.5 to 3.5 m depth) ridge
called ‘Adam’s Bridge’ between Pamban island on south-eastern coast of India and
Talaimannar of Sri Lanka. While Rameshwaram is a major pilgrim centre on Pamban
island, the tip of the island is marked by Arimunai. Consequently, the ships calling at
ports on the east coast of India have to go around Sri Lanka entailing an additional
distance of about 254-424 nautical miles and about 21-36 hours of ship time.
The routes selected through earlier studies particularly in Gulf of Mannar area
have been rejected, keeping in view sensitivity along the coastal stretch of GOM
harbouring marine national park. Instead a navigation route keeping a minimum 6-8
km distance from Van Tiu near Tuticorin and more than 20 km from Shingle in Adams
Bridge approach area has been suggested.
Tuticorin Port Trust (TPT), the nodal agency identified by Ministry of Shipping,
Govt. of India for the implementation of the project in pursuance of its decision to
incorporate environmental considerations in the design phase of the project, retained,
in March 2002, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) to
conduct the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study for the project.
This report presents briefly the project setting, describes the baseline
environmental status of the project area, identifies environmental issues, predicts and
evaluates impacts due to the proposed project and delineates environmental
management plan to mitigate potential adverse impacts.
The EIA study has primarily drawn upon the available information on the
proposed project, the hydrography, marine water quality and ecological resources in
the project area, and the primary data generated during the course of study. This
environmental impact assessment study with intensive data collection has resulted
into fuller description and appreciation of the natural processes occurring in the study
area, and delineates the environmental consequences including the ecological risk
associated with the proposed project with or without proper environmental
management plan.
2.0 Project
The proposed Sethusamudram ship channel will have two legs, one near the
Point Calimere called the Bay of Bengal Channel and the other across the Adams
Bridge. The Bay of Bengal Channel traverses the Palk Bay wherein the sea-bed is
mostly soft to hard clayey-sand in nature. Some hard strata has been reported beneth
the soft sand during recent survey by the National Hydrographic Office, Dehradun.
The area adjoining Adma’s Bridge, Dhanushkody Peninsula on the North and the
South is reported to be sandy by National Ship Design Research Centre (NSDRC),
Visakhapatnam during their survey in connection with this project.
While navigational depths will be used in Gulf of Mannar from Tuticorin Port to
Adam’s Bridge area, a 20 km long, 300 m wide channel with 10.7 m draught with two
way controlled traffic is proposed to be created as ultimate phase by dredging shallow
area of Adam’s Bridge upto 12 m depth. Similar excavation will be done in Palk Strait
and adjoining parts of Palk Bay to achieve the required depth over a stretch of around
36 km and 18 km respectively. A control station, administrative building and Vessel
Traffic Management System (VTMS) is proposed to be located at Rameshwaram
island between Dhanushkodi and Koil Nagar village to control navigation, besides
other infrastructure including administrative requirements.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act of India (1972) provides legal protection to many
marine animals including reef associated organisms. Chapter IV of this Act dealing
with Sanctuaries, National Parks etc. is equally applicable to marine reserves, marine
national parks and biosphere reserves.
The Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve (GOMMBR) has been notified
in 1989 through an executive communication from the Secretary to the Government of
India, Ministry of Environment and Forests to the Chief Secretary, Government of
Tamil Nadu.
During the operational phase of the project, the most important instrument to
be complied relates to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships 1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) for which India is a
signatory.
Sediment samples collected along the proposed channel alignment show the
presence of organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorous and sulphates in
concentrations adequate for biological growth. Almost all the sediment samples show
presence of oil & grease. The concentrations of heavy metals are high in some of the
sediments in the Palk Bay as compared to other locations.
Biological Resources
The gross primary productivity along the proposed channel alignment vary
from 142 to 472 mgC/m3/day indicating that the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay are
biologically productive regions. The zooplankton are dominated by copepod.
Macrobenthos represented by 78 varieties exhibit fairly good diversity. The meiofauna
comprised larval polychaetes, nematodes and worms.
The corals along the proposed channel alignment in Adam’s Bridge do not
exist though major groups of biological resources like sea fan, sponges, pearl oysters,
chanks and holothuroids at various sampling points have been recorded. In general,
the density of economically/ecologically important species along the proposed
alignment is not significant.
There are 87 fish landing stations between the south of Point Calimere and
Pumban in the Palk Bay, and 40 stations in the Gulf of Mannar between Pamban and
Tuticorin. Out of over 600 varieties of fishes recorded in this area, 200 are
commercially important. During 1992-1996, the fish production has increased
gradually from 55,325 tonnes in 1992 to 2,05,700 tonnes in 2001.
Biodiversity
Rare and endangered species of sea turtle, dolphin, sea cow and whale are
recorded in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay. The sea cow inhabitates the shallow
shore regions where grasses occur, while other endangered animals mostly prefer
deep sea.
Several species of green algae (32), brown algae (35), red algae (59), blue
green algae (3) and sea grasses are recorded in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay.
A few of the 21 islands are reported to possess patches of mangroves predominated
by Avicennia sp. And Rhizophora sp.
Most of the habitats of the sensitive biota, viz., corals, pearl oysters, chanks,
sea cow, holothuroids and marine algae are along the coast and around the 21
islands, and mostly away from the proposed canal alignment.
Point calimore wild life sanctuary sprawling over 17.26 sq. km. Area
comprising tidal swamp, dry evergreen forests and mangroves is located in coastal
areas of Palk strait in Nagapattinam District. The sanctuary is bestowed with
population of varied wildlife such as Chital, Wild Bear, Bannet, Macaque, Black Buck,
Flamingoes, Teals, Gulls Tems, Plovers and Stilts, Dolphins and Turtles are seen
close to shore area.
Along the coast in the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Bay there are 138 villages
and towns belonging to 5 districts. The socio-economic profile of the
fishermen in the villages of Gulf of Mannar coast is low, and more than 40% of families
are in debt. The local people are of concern that the creation of channel would result in
the reduction of their income due to fishery.
The hydrodynamic studies of the seabed in Adam’s Bridge and its adjoining
area have been carried out in May 2003 and February 2004 by retaining the services
of National Ship Design Research Centre (NSRDC), Vishakhapatnam. The
hydrographic charts bearing nos. 1584, 1586, 1587, 2069, 2197 and 96 have been
referred while conducting the surveys.
There are two circulations of water masses observed in the Bay of Bengal,
the clockwise circulation in south-west monsoon and the counter clockwise circulation
in the north-east monsoon. The tidal variations are between 0.05 to 0.7 m. The current
velocities in the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar are as mild as 0.2 - 0.4 m/s except
on few days during south-west monsoon when it rises upto 0.7 m/s. Water currents
follow the directions of predominant winds. The analysis of current data shows no
potential threats to siltation of channel. It is observed that during southwest monsoon
the sediments move from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay and during fair weather the
direction reverses. In annual cycle, a net exchange of 6000 m3 of sediment is found to
move from Palk Bay to Gulf of Mannar through Pamban pass and 25000 m3 of
sediment moves from Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay through Arimunai.
Geological strata in Adam’s Bridge area shows soft and hard sand upto 12 m
with particle size varying from 65 to 600 µm. The bathymetry varies from 0.6 to 6.3 m.
Depth in Palk strait averages to about 8 m.
The hydrographic survey of Palk Bay and Palk strait area has been carried
out during Jan. 25 - Feb. 18, 2004 by the Naval Hydrographic
Department of National Hydrographic Office (NHO). According to the findings of NHO,
the seabed in this region comprises of sand and mud with few broken shells. The
depth contours in the sea are in agreement with those depicted on the existing
navigational chart no. 358. While navigable depth (more than 12 m) will be used in
about 78 km stretch in Palk Bay, a sizable stretch (about 54 km) will require to be
dredged in Palk Strait and adjoining area. Subbottom profile studies indicate that
though the upper layer of sediment is made up of mud and sand, there is some hard
strata under the soft sediment. This hard strata if discovered to be rock, if would
require blasting at the time of dredging to achieve the desired draught.
The tides in the area are not similar. Both semi-diurnal and diurnal tides are
observed at the tidal station set up. The range of spring tides vary between 0.4 to 0.7
m. The current in the area is N-S direction with speeds varying from 0.08 to 0.8 m/s
and may reach 1.8 m/s (4 kt) in spring. No wrecks and obstruction have been
observed during the survey.
The existing level of primary productivity in the project area will remain
practically unaltered during the construction and operation phases of the channel.
There would not be any significant change in water quality including turbidity due to
the proposed deployment of cutter suction/trailor suction hopper dredgers for capital
and maintenance dredging.
Due to dredging the bottom flora and fauna on an area about 6 sq. km along
the channel alignment in Adams Bridge and about 16-17 sq.km in Palk Bay/Palk Strait
area will be lost permanently. This loss, however, will be very insignificant compared to
the total area of 10,500 sq. km of the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve.
In Adam’s Bridge area about 38 million m3 of dredge spoil comprising about
7-8 million m3 clay silt will be generated for achieving 12 m depth for 300 m wide
channel including allowances for slope and tolerance. It is proposed that spoil
containing a mixture of clay and sand will be disposed on degraded areas of Pamban
island for reclaiming the land subject to approval of Forest and Environment
Department (TN) for use of area falling under CRZ as dumping of wastes in CRZ area
is not permissible activity. Balance 30 million m3 spoil containing mainly sand (particle
size 125 µm to 600 µm) will be discharged in sea 25 km away from the dredging area
keeping safe distance from medial line at depths varying from 30-40 m to minimise the
impact. In the event of restricting the channel to 10 m depth to suit vessels with 9.15 m
draught, the quantity of dredged spoil will reduce by 13.5 million m3 and material
required to be disposed in sea will be 16-17 million m3 instead of 30 million m3 as
envisaged for 12 m depth. This would further minimize impacts on sea bed due to
disposal of dredged spoil.
In Palk Bay area, about 44 million m3 of dredged spoil will be generated due
to excavation activity in Palk strait and Palk Bay to achieve 12 m depth for 300 m
channel including allowances for slope and tolerance. The NHO data indicate hard
strata beneth soft sand hence spoil may contain silt, sand and hard material. The
dredging may also require blasting if hard strata is encountered. In the event of
blasting, adverse impact on sea bottom fauna is envisaged. The spoil is proposed to
be discharged in Bay of Bengal at suitable depth (25-40 m) to minimize impacts on
coastal areas of Palk Bay. An option of using silt/clay for beach nourishment is also
recommended. In the event of restricting the channel depth to 10 m the requirement of
dredging in Palk Bay/Palk strait will drastically reduce to about 14.8 million m3 as
against 44 million m3 envisaged for 12 m depth. This would minimize environmental
impacts as well cost of dredging and disposal.
During the construction and operation phases of the channel, the potential
sources of marine pollution are spillage of oil and grease, marine litter, jetsam and
floatsam including plastic bags, discarded articles of human use from the sea-borne
vessels which will have to be controlled.
The channel may facilitate the movement of fishes and other biota from the
Bay of Bengal to the Indian Ocean and vice versa. By this way, the entry of
oceanic and alien species into the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar, as also the
dispersal of endemic species outside the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar could
occur.
Due to the construction of infrastructure in the island, the land access, now
available to the local fisher folk to Dhanushkody area for traditional fishing will be
hindered unless alternative arrangements are made. The dredging and shipping
operations will have to be so regulated as to cause minimum disturbance to the
normal fishing activities.
– Dredged spoil comprising clay and sand upto 2 m of dredging depth will
be used for reclaiming degraded land in Pamban island subject to
approval of FED for CRZ. Balance dredged spoil will be disposed in sea
at a depth 30-40 m, 20-25 km away from islands in National Marine
Park in Gulf of Mannar. Dredged spoil generated in Palk Strait / Palk
Bay area will be disposed in open sea in Bay of Bengal at
25-40 m depth, 30-60 km away from dredging area
– Movement of barges for transporting dredged spoil to land area will not
interfere with movement of fishing boats in both Gulf of Mannar and
Palk Bay region adjoining the Adam’s Bridge
– The traffic of crude oil tankers will be allowed in this route with
strict vigilance so as to avoid any possibilities of spillage in this
region
– It will be ensured that all the ships berthing at TPT as well as all
those using the route without touching TPT will have proper
treatment facilities for sewage however discharge of treated
sewage will not be permitted in GOM and Palk Bay / Palk strait
area
– The traffic of ships carrying crude oil will be handled with strict
vigilance so as to avoid possibility of spillage
– Suitable timings apart from ship transit will be given for fishermen
to continue with their fishing activities
– The dredged material will be mostly silt and clay and will not be
disposed in sea. Instead it will be used to reclaim degraded areas
on Pamban island, Ramnad and Mandapam coastal stretches
5.4 km
E4
14.4 km 10.5 m
E3
19.8 km 8.1 m
E2
9.6 m
14.6 km
E1
E 11.6m
Tirutturaippundi
Pattukkottai Karryappattinam
Muttupet Topputtural
Atirampattinam POINT CALIMER
Peravuruni North Channel
PALK STRAIT
Tiruvayppadi E3 E4
E2
Manamelkudi E1
E
Kottaippattanam Point Pedro Shoa
Point Pedr
Gopalapatnam
Sundarapandiyanpattana
6.33
Karaitivu NW Point
Tiruvadanai
Tiruvettriyur Nakarkoy
D Chem
Kalmunal Pt.
Moreppanai Delft Channel
Proposed in 1961
Proposed in 1968
Proposed in 1996 Report
Suggested by Steering Committee
Considered by NEERI (1998)
Present Proposal of NEERI
6..58
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