Experiment #2

Torsion of Cylindrical Rods

Stephen Mirdo

Performed on October 4, 2010

Report due October 11, 2010

 Table of Contents

Object ………………………………………..………………………….………….…. p. 1

Theory …………………………………………………………………………..…pp. 1 - 2

Procedure ………………………….……………………………………..……..... pp. 3 - 4

Results ….............................................................................................................. pp. 5 - 10

Discussion and Conclusion ……………………...…………………….......…... pp. 11 - 12

Appendix ………………………………………………………..….……..…... pp. 13 - 18

 Object
The object of this experiment was to determine the relationship between the angle
of twist and applied torque for a rod as well as the relationship between the deflection and
length of the rod at a specified torque.

Theory
Torque is defined as a moment that acts about a member’s longitudinal axis. A
member that has had torque applied to it such that it deforms along its longitudinal axis is
said to be under torsion. The torsion presents itself as shear strain, γ, which is equal to
the angle of twist along the longitudinal axis denoted by the symbol φ. For a diagram of
this relationship, see Figure 1. Because this experiment uses cylindrical specimens, the
theory discussed will pertain only to members of circular cross-section.

Figure 1: Diagram of torsional deformation of a cylindrical specimen.

(Adapted from Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, 2011)

As a member of circular cross-section is twisted along its longitudinal axis, the

cross-sectional area remains constant without deforming. Because there is no
deformation in the plane of cross-section, it is implied that there is no strain in the
member’s latitudinal direction. Therefore, the components of shear stress act only in the
radial direction.

The shear strain of a member is the product of a shear stress denoted by the
symbol τ. Shear stress occurs in a cylindrical member when torque, T, is applied. The
shear stress is a function of the radius of the circular cross section as seen in Figure 2
below. Along the longitudinal axis, the shear stress is null. At any given point along the
radius of the cross-section, the shear stress is a function of the radius ρ, denoted by τρ,
where J is the moment of inertia. The further out from the axis a measurement is taken
for ρ, the larger the calculated shear stress will be. At the circumference of the member,
the shear stress will be at its greatest value, τmax.

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Figure 2: Diagram of shear stress, τ, as a function of the radius, ρ, of a cross sectional
area. (Adapted from Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, 2011)

τρ = Tρ / J (Equation 1)

To calculate the polar moment of inertia, J, for a solid circular shaft, employ the
following equation where D is the diameter of the cylindrical member.

J = (π/32)D4 (Equation 2)

If the shear stress induced in the member is below the proportional limit of the
material, then Hooke’s Law may be applied so as to calculate the material’s modulus of
rigidity. In other words, if the stress causes only elastic or non-permanent deformation,
the materials torsional stiffness can be determined. To apply Hooke’s Law, the shear
stress is related to the shear strain by the following expression:

τ = Gγ (Equation 3)

where G is the modulus of rigidity and γ is the shear strain. Referencing Figure 1, a
geometric interpretation of the shear stain is represented as:

γ = ρ (Δφ / Δx)  γ = ρ (dφ / dx) (Equation 4)

Equation 4 implies that the shear strain is proportional to the product of the radius
of the member and the change in the angle of twist with respect to the longitudinal axis.
Substituting Equations 1 and 4 into Hooke’s Law (Equation 3) yields the separable
equation:

Tρ / J = G ρ (dφ / dx)  T/J = G (dφ / dx)  T / GJ = dφ / dx (Equation 5)

Separating Equation 5 and integrating with respect to the longitudinal axis will
yield an expression that describes the angle of twist, φ, for a member that is prismatic and
experiencing a constant internal torque.

∫ dφ = ∫L T/GJ dx  φ = TL / GJ (Equation 6)

2
 Procedure
Equipment:

TQ Hi-Tech Torsion Experiment Apparatus (SN: HFC.2)

Brass Rod
Steel Rod
Aluminum Rod
Weights in 2 lb increments up to 12 lbs.

Part I:

1) Place the torsion experiment apparatus on a hard, flat surface with the pulley
and load hanger over the edge of the table as seen in Figure 3.

2) Load a cylindrical specimen into the device by tightening the rod into the
chuck and clamp at either end of the apparatus.

3) Wind the cord of the load hanger in a clockwise fashion so as to ensure the
applied load on the hanger will induce a torque.

4) Position the two angle scales of the torsion experiment apparatus at an

arbitrary distance from one another on the rod. It is easier to use a round
number, such as 8 or 10 inches. Record this value as it will be used as the
length, L, needed to calculate the modulus of rigidity of the material.

5) Calibrate the pointers of the angle meters by placing the needles at zero.

6) Add two pounds of weight to the load hangar suspended from the pulley.
Ensure that the cord is still wrapped clockwise around the pulley. Record the
indicated angles on both of the angle scales, as this is the angle of twist.

7) Increase the load of the hangar by two pound and again record the indicated
angles on both angle indicators.

8) Continue to add two pound increments to the load hanger and record the
indicated angles until a total weight of twelve pounds has been achieved.

9) Repeat steps 5 through 8 for two to four trials. Take the average of the angles
for use in calculation.

10) After completing the desired number of trials for the specimen, change out
the cylindrical rod with another material specimen. Repeat steps 2 through 9
for each material.

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Part II:

1) Repeat Steps 1 through 3 for the aluminum specimen.

2) Position the load hanger ensuring the cord is wrapped in clockwise fashion
around the pulley. Zero the angle indicators.

3) Place 10 pounds of weight on the hangar.

4) Record the position of the angle indicators and the indicated angles on each.

5) Reposition the angle scales in increments of two inches up to twelve inches

apart while maintaining a load of ten pounds.

6) Repeat Steps 2 through 5 for a desired number of trials.

Figure 3: Diagram of torsion experiment apparatus (Adapted from Materials

Laboratory Manual, University of Memphis, Department of M.E.)

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 Results
Part I:

Brass Specimen

Table 1: Initial measurements of Brass rod and pulley

Length of Twist 10 in.
Polar Moment of Inertia 1.51 x 10-4 in4
Diameter of Pulley 3 in.
Diameter of Test Rod 0.198 in.

Table 2: Measurements of weight induced torsion and calculated modulus of rigidity for
cylindrical specimen of Brass. Note: Twist in A and B are the averages of two
trials.
Weight Twist at A Twist at B ΔAB Applied Torque
(lbs) (in degrees) (in degrees) (in radians) (lbf * in)
2 5 3.5 0.02618 3
4 10 5.5 0.07854 6
6 14 7.5 0.11345 9
8 18.25 9.5 0.15272 12
10 22.5 11.25 0.19635 15
12 27.5 14 0.23562 18

Brass Cylinder

18
y = 77.232x
16
Applied Torque (lbf * in)

14

12

10

2
0.01000 0.06000 0.11000 0.16000 0.21000
Angle of Twist (in radians)

Figure 4: Graph of angle of twist vs. applied torque of a cylindrical brass specimen
containing a trend line from which the experimental modulus of rigidity will be
calculated.

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 To calculate the modulus of rigidity of the brass rod, the slope of the line in the plot
of angle of twist and applied torque must be obtained. A linear trend line passing through
the origin is fitted to the plotted data and, using Excel, an equation of the line is
generated. The term in the equation before the variable x is the slope, m, of the line. The
slope is equivalent to the product of the modulus of rigidity and the polar moment of
inertia divided by the length between the angle indicators of the testing apparatus.

m = GJ / L (Equation 7)

Rearranging this expression algebraically to solve for the modulus of rigidity yields the
following expression:

G = mL / J (Equation 8)

Using Equation 8 to solve for the modulus of rigidity is as follows:

GBrass = (77.232 lbf in * 10 in.) / 1.51 x 10-4 in4 = 5.12 x 106 lbf/in2

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Steel Specimen

Table 3: Initial measurements of Steel rod and pulley

Length of Twist (in) 10
Polar Moment of Inertia (in4) 3.96E-04
Diameter of Pulley (in) 3
Diameter of Test Rod (in) 0.252

Table 4: Measurements of weight induced torsion and calculated modulus of rigidity for
cylindrical specimen of Steel. Note: Twist in A and B are the averages of two
trials.
Weight Twist at A Twist at B ΔAB Applied Torque
(lbs) (in degrees) (in degrees) (in radians) (lbf * in)
2 1 0.25 0.01309 3
4 1.75 0.75 0.01745 6
6 2 0.75 0.02182 9
8 3 1.25 0.03054 12
10 3.5 1.5 0.03491 15
12 4 1.75 0.03927 18

Steel Cylinder
20
18
y = 417.04x
16
Applied Torque (lbf * in)

14

12
10
8

6
4

2
0
0.01000 0.01500 0.02000 0.02500 0.03000 0.03500 0.04000 0.04500
Angle of Twist (in radians)

Figure 5: Graph of angle of twist vs. applied torque of a cylindrical Steel specimen
containing a trend line from which the experimental modulus of rigidity will be
calculated.

Again, using the slope of the trend line passing through the origin of the plot of
angle of twist and applied torque, the modulus of rigidity is calculated for the steel
specimen. Using Equation 8 to solve for the shear modulus is as follows:

GSteel = (417.04 lbf in * 10 in) / 3.96 x 10-4 in4 = 10.5 x 106 lbf/in2

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Aluminum Specimen

Table 5: Initial measurements of Aluminum rod and pulley

Length of Twist (in) 10
Polar Moment of Inertia (in4) 1.51E-04
Diameter of Pulley (in) 3
Diameter of Test Rod (in) 0.198

Table 6: Measurements of weight induced torsion and calculated modulus of rigidity for
cylindrical specimen of Aluminum. Note: Twist in A and B are the averages of
two trials.
Weight Twist at A Twist at B ΔAB Applied Torque
(lbs) (in degrees) (in degrees) (in radians) (lbf * in)
2 3.25 1.5 0.03054 3
4 6.75 3.25 0.06109 6
6 10.5 5 0.09599 9
8 14.25 6.75 0.13090 12
10 18 8.75 0.16144 15
12 21 10.25 0.18762 18

Aluminum Cylinder
20
18
y = 94.189x
16
Applied Torque (lbf * in)

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.02000 0.04000 0.06000 0.08000 0.10000 0.12000 0.14000 0.16000 0.18000 0.20000
Angle of Twist (in radians)

Figure 6: Graph of angle of twist vs. applied torque of a cylindrical Aluminum specimen
containing a trend line from which the experimental modulus of rigidity will be
calculated.

Using the slope of the trend line passing through the origin and Equation 8 to calculate
the modulus of rigidity of the aluminum specimen is as follows:

Galuminum = (94.189 lbf in * 10 in) / 1.51 x 10-4 in4 = 6.24 x 106 lbf/in2

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Part II:

Table 7: Measurements of 15 lbf*in torque over a variable

distance on aluminum specimen. Note: Twist in A and B
are the averages of two trials.
Distance Between ΔA-B
Angle A Angle B
Indicators A and B (In radians)
2 in 17 15 0.034906585
4 in 17 13 0.06981317
6 in 17 11 0.104719755
8 in 17 8.5 0.148352986
10 in 17 7 0.174532925
12 in 17 5 0.20943951

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12
y = 56.642x
10
Length (in inches)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Angle of Tw ist (in radians)

Figure 7: Plot of angle of twist vs. length over which a ten pound force is applied to a
cylindrical specimen of aluminum.

It is noted that the trend line passing through the origin fitted to the data set seen
in Table 7 yields a linear function. An increase in the length under which torque is
applied will yield an increase in the angle of twist of the test specimen. This occurrence
indicates that the specimen is under pure torsion.

To determine if the results of Part I of the experiment were statistically

significant, a Student’s t-Test was performed. There will be three tests performed: one
with brass and steel, one with brass and aluminum and another with steel and aluminum.

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Table 8: t-Test for Brass and Steel
t-Test Brass Steel
Mean 5.11E+06 1.09E+07
σ 57640.72812 3069965.933

df = 2
t stat = 2.646
t crit = 4.303

The calculated values for the modulus of rigidity of brass and steel for accepted as
tstat < tcrit.

Table 9: t-Test for Brass and Aluminum

t-Test Brass Aluminum
Mean 5.11E+06 6.26E+06
σ 57640.72812 415200.692

df = 2
t stat = 3.883
t crit = 4.303

The calculated values for the modulus of rigidity of brass and aluminum for accepted as
tstat < tcrit.

Table 10: t-Test for Steel and Aluminum

t-Test Steel Aluminum
Mean 1.09E+07 6.26E+06
σ 3069965.933 415200.692

df = 2
t stat = 2.097
t crit = 4.303

The calculated values for the modulus of rigidity of steel and aluminum for accepted as
tstat < tcrit.

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 Discussion & Conclusion
A material’s modulus of rigidity will influence how much twist will occur in a
member when a given torque is applied. A higher modulus will yield less of an angle of
twist for a specified torque. Conversely, a lower modulus of rigidity for a material
sustaining the same specified torque will deform to a greater extent along its longitudinal
axis.

It was noted post-experiment that the calculated modulus of rigidity, G, for the
aluminum specimen was not in agreement with the theoretical value. A percent error
calculation was then performed on all three test specimens to ensure Equation 8
performed as expected.

Table 8: Percent error in calculation of modulus of rigidity for test materials

Calculated Modulus Theoretical Modulus
Material % Error
of Rigidity (lbf/in2) of Rigidity (lbf/in2)
Brass 5.12E+06 5.50E+06 6.91%
Steel 1.05E+07 1.15E+07 8.70%
Aluminum 6.24E+06 3.80E+06 64.21%

As seen in Table 8, the calculated modulus of rigidity for brass and steel are within
acceptable values. However, the aluminum’s experimental value for modulus of rigidity
is well outside of any acceptable error range.

There are a multitude of reasons for the discrepancy between the theoretical and
calculated values of the modulus of rigidity for the aluminum specimen. A possible
source of this error could be that the material tested was, in fact, not aluminum. A for the
modulus of rigidity value of 6.26 x 106 lbf/in2 indicated that perhaps the test material was
a titanium alloy or zinc. Without further material analysis, it is impossible to state with
certainty what material was used in this experiment. Another possible cause for the
calculated value for the modulus of rigidity, G, being 64.2% different from the accepted
value for aluminum was perhaps the test rod specimen wasn’t of a consistent diameter. A
varying diameter throughout the length of the test specimen would interfere with an
accurate calculation by varying the polar moment of inertia, J. Instances of a varying J
value would yield unique G values.

Other sources of error are present in this experiment. The indicated angles are
only read to the nearest half degree. This limitation will prevent an accurate
measurement for the angle of twist of a specimen under torsion. Another source of error
in this experiment is that the samples tested have no record of use. The specimens may
have been put through other tests such as heat treatment or elongation that may have
altered their material properties.

Improvements for this experiment are in order. From an educational point of

view, the experiment would be more interesting if the calculated modulus was used to

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identify the test material. Another improvement would be to have clearly identified test
specimens. As seen with the discrepancy in theoretical and experimental G values for the
aluminum, it is difficult to perform this experiment successfully without the proper
materials present. One final improvement that should be made to this experiment would
be to use a strain gage and Hooke’s Law to calculate the modulus of rigidity. The use of
precise, digital instruments increases the attractiveness of an experiment.

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 Appendix

Data Usage

Sample calculation of the polar moment of inertia for the brass test rod:

J = (π/32) * (0.198 in)2 = 1.51 x 10-4 in4

Sample calculation of the applied torque on brass test rod at weight of 10 lbs:

T = (3.0 in / 2 ) * 10 lbf = 15 lbf*in

Sample calculation of the modulus of rigidity of the steel test specimen:

GSteel = (417.04 lbf in * 10 in) / 3.96 x 10-4 in4 = 10.5 x 106 lbf/in2

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Bibliography

Mechanics of Materials, 2nd Edition

Timothy A. Philpot (2011)

Fundamentals of Material Science and Engineering: An Integrated Approach

W.D. Callister, Jr and D.G. Rethwish (2008)

Materials Laboratory Manual, Fall 2010

University of Memphis, Department of Mechanical Engineering

Material Properties Table - An A-Z of engineering metal properties

http://www.engineerstudent.co.uk/material_properties_table.html

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