Table of Contents

I. FLUID FLOW AND FLUID DYNAMICS..........................................................................2

II. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................3
III. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................3
A. FLUID-FLOW MEASUREMENT.................................................................................3
a. Flow meters........................................................................................................3
b. Device coefficients...........................................................................................20
c. Reynolds number.............................................................................................20
d. Mach number...................................................................................................21
e. Equation of continuity of mass.........................................................................21
f. Head losses in pipes.........................................................................................21
g. Drag Force........................................................................................................25
h. Aerodynamic lift...............................................................................................25
B. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS...........................................................................................26
IV. EXPERIMENTS......................................................................................................28
A. Experiment 1. Flow meters.................................................................................28
B. Experiment 2. Open channel flow Measurement using Weirs............................34
C. Experiment 3. Viscous, Turbulence, and Supersonic flow...................................36
D. Experiment 4. Pipe Friction Losses......................................................................37
E. Experiment 5. Characteristics of Nozzles and Jets..............................................42
F. Experiment 6. Drag coefficient-Determination of the Drag Coefficient of a Sphere
46
V. REFERENCES..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

1
I. FLUID FLOW AND FLUID
DYNAMICS

2
II. INTRODUCTION
Recent developments in both the theory and the application of fluid
mechanics have greatly increased the importance of this subject to
mechanical engineers. Aerodynamic and jet devices, gas turbines, turbo
compressors, fluid couplings and torque converters--- these and many other
applications are commanding the engineer’s attention.
Any effort to isolate the applications of fluid mechanics and treat them
separately becomes an illustration of the very close relationship with the
other fields of mechanics and with thermodynamics.
Fluid mechanics is one of the basic studies for all mechanical engineers.
Fortunately, most of the problems involved maybe solved tough the
application of a few simple laws, including the principles of statics, Newton’s
law of motion, the equation of continuity of mass, and the conservation of
energy as expressed I the general energy equation. Many terms will be
defined and discussed as required in this report, such as Reynolds number,
Mach number and others.

III. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

A. FLUID-FLOW MEASUREMENT

The importance of flow measurement in the industry has grown in the

past 50 year, not just because it was widespread use for accounting
purposes, such as custody transfer of fluid from supplier to customers, but
also because of its application in manufacturing processes. Examples of the
industrial involvement in flow measurement includes food and beverage, oil
and gas industrial, medical, petrochemical, power generation, and water
distribution and etc.
Flow measurement is the determination of the quantity of a fluid, either a
liquid, or vapor, that passes through a pipe, duct or open channel. Flow may
be expressed as a rate of volumetric flow (such as gallons per minute, cubic
meters per minute, cubic feet per minute), mass rate of flow (such as
kilograms per hour, pounds per hour), or in terms of a total volume or mass
flow (integrated rate of flow for a given period of time).
Fluid flow measurement can be divided into several types; each type
requires specific considerations of such factors as accuracy requirements,
cost considerations, and use of the flow information to obtain the required
end results. Normally the flow meter is measure flow indirectly by measuring
a related property such as a differential pressure across a flow restriction or

3
a fluid velocity in a pipe. A number of different fundamental physical
principles are used in flow measurement devices.

a. Flow meters
A flowmeter is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear,
mass or volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas.

1. Types of flowmeters

1.1.Rotameter

The rotameter is a tapered tube and a float. It is the

most widely used variable-area flow meter because
of its low cost, simplicity, low pressure drop,
relatively wide rangeability, and linear output.

1.2.Piston-type flowmeters

Piston-type flowmeters use an annular orifice formed by a piston

and a tapered cone. The piston is held in place at
the base of the cone (in the "no flow position") by a
calibrated spring. Scales are based on specific
gravities of 0.84 for oil meters, and 1.0 for water
meters. Their simplicity of design and the ease with
which they can be equipped to transmit electrical
signals has made them an economical alternative to rotameters
for flowrate indication and control.

1.3. Mass Gas flowmeter

Thermal-type mass flow meters operate with minor

dependence on density, pressure, and fluid
viscosity. This style of flowmeter utilizes either a
differential pressure transducer and temperature
sensor or a heated sensing element and
thermodynamic heat conduction principles to
determine the true mass flow rate. Many of these
mass flowmeters have integral displays and analog outputs for
data logging. Popular applications include leak testing and low
flow measurements in the milliliters per minute.

1.4.The ultrasonic doppler flow meters

The ultrasonic doppler flow meters are commonly

used in dirty applications such as wastewater and

4
 other dirty fluids and slurries which ordinarily cause damage to
conventional sensors. The basic principle of operation employs
the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal when
it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles
(discontinuities) in motion.

1.5.Turbine Flow meters

The turbine meter can have an accuracy of 0.5% of

the reading. It is a very accurate meter and can be
used for clean liquids and viscous liquids up to 100
centistokes. A minimum of 10 pipe diameters of
straight pipe on the inlet is required. The most
common outputs are a sine wave or squarewave frequency but
signal conditioners can be mounted on top for analog outputs
and explosion proof classifications. The meters consists of a
multi-bladed rotor mounted at right angles to the flow and
suspended in the fluid stream on a free-running bearing.

1.6.Paddlewheel Sensors

It is one of the most popular cost effective

flowmeters for water or water like fluids. Many are
offered with flow flittings or insertions styles.
These meters like the turbine meter require a
minimum of 10 pipe diameters of straight pipe on
the inlet and 5 on the outlet. Chemical
compatibility should be verified when not using
water. Sine wave and Squarewave pulse outputs are typical but
transmitters are available for integral or panel mounting. The
rotor of the paddlewheel sensor is perpendicular to the flow and
contact only a limited cross section of the flow.

1.7.Positive Displacement Flowmeters

These meters are used for water applications

when no straight pipe is available and turbine
meters and paddlewheel sensor would see too
much turbulence. The positive displace ment are
also used for viscous liquids.

1.8.Vortex Meters

The main advantages of vortex meters are their

low sensitivity to variations in process conditions

5
 and low wear relative to orifices or turbine meters. Also, initial
and maintenance costs are low. For these reasons, they have
been gaining wider acceptance among users. Vortex meters do
require sizing, contact our flow engineering.

1.9.The Orifice Plate

An orifice is an opening (usually circular) with a closed perimeter

through which fluid flows. It used primarily to
measure or to control the flow fluid. The
upstream face of the orifice maybe rounded or
sharp. An orifice with prolonged side, such as
piece of pipe, having a length of two or three
times its diameter, is called a short tube. Longer
tubes such as culverts under embankments are
usually treated as orifice although they may also
be treated as short pipes.
The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular
hole drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the
orifice plate and another just downstream. There are in general
three methods of placing the taps. The coefficient of the meter
depends upon the position of tap
Advantages
• The orifice meter is recommended for clean and dirty liquids and
some slurry services.
• The rangeability is 4 to 1
• The pressure loss is medium
• Typical accuracy is 2 to 4% of full scale
• The required upstream diameter is 10 to 30
• The viscosity effect is high
• The relative cost is low
Equation
Theoretical velocity, υt = 2gh
Actual velocity, υ = Cυ2gh
Theoretical discharge, Qt=A2gh
Actual discharge, Q=CA2gh
H=h+υA22g+PAγ-PBγ
H=Head Upstream-Head Downstream
1.1.The Venturi Meter

6
 Venturi meter is an instrument used in measuring
the discharge through pipes. It is consist of a
converging tube which is connected to the main pipe at
the inlet and ending I a cylindrical section called the
throat and a diverging sectionwhich is connected again
to the main pipe at the outlet. The angle of divergence
is kept small to reduce the head lost caused by
turbulence as the velocity is reduced. In the venturi
meter the fluid is accelerated through a converging
cone of angle 15-20o and the pressure difference
between the upstream side of the cone and the throat
is

measured and provides a signal for the rate of flow.

High pressure and energy recovery makes the venturi meter

suitable where only small pressure heads are available.A
discharge coefficient cd = 0.975 can be indicated as standard,
but the value varies noticeably at low values of the Reynolds
number.The pressure recovery is much better for the venturi
meter than for the orifice plate.
• The venturi tube is suitable for clean, dirty and viscous liquid
and some slurry services.
• The rangeability is 4 to 1
• Pressure loss is low
• Typical accuracy is 1% of full range
• Required upstream pipe length 5 to 20 diameters
• Viscosity effect is high
• Relative cost is medium

7
 Equation:
υ122g+P1γ+Z1=υ222g+P2γ+Z2
Neglecting head lost, the increase in kinetic energy is equal to
the decrease in potential energy. This statement is shown as the
venture principle.

1.1.The Nozzle

A nozzle is a converting tube installed at the end of a pipe or

hose for the purpose of increasing the velocity of the issuing jet.
Nozzles used for determining fluid's flow rate through pipes can be in
three different types:

• The ISA 1932 nozzle - developed in 1932 by the International

Organization for Standardization or ISO. The ISA 1932 nozzle is
common outside USA.
• The long radius nozzle is a variation of the ISA 1932 nozzle.
• The venturi nozzle is a hybrid having a convergent section similar
to the ISA 1932 nozzle and a divergent section similar to a venturi
tube flowmeter.
Advantages
○ The flow nozzle is recommended for both clean and dirty
liquids
○ The rangeability is 4 to 1
○ The relative pressure loss is medium
○ Typical accuracy is 1-2% of full range
○ Required upstream pipe length is 10 to 30 diameters
○ The viscosity effect high
○ The relative is medium
The discharge through a nozzle can be calculated using the
equation

Q=CAn2gh

1.1.Pitot Tube
Pitot tube is a bent (L-shaped or U-shaped) tubes with both
ends open and is used to measure the velocity of fluid flow or
velocity of air flow as used in airplane speedometer. When the tube
is placed in a moving stream with open end oriented into the
direction flow, the liquid enters the opening until the surface in the
tube rises a distance above the stream surface. An equilibrium

8
 condition is then established, and the quantity of liquid in the tube
remains steady. The face of the tube facing the stream is called the
stagnation point.

Equation:
υ=2gh
a. Anemometer
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a
common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek
word anemos, meaning wind. The first known description of an anemometer
was given by Leon Battista Alberti in around 1450[1].
Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the
wind's speed, and those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a
close connection between the pressure and the speed, an anemometer
designed for one will give information about both.
An anemometer is an apparatus that is employed to determine the
wind's velocity (direction and speed) and pressure. Most anemometers only
measure one of these factors. Since wind velocity and wind pressure are
closely connected; pressure, direction and speed can be derived
mathematically from an anemometer that is only specifically devised to
measure wind velocity.
Anemometers can be built from scratch utilizing some materials found
at home and a few electrical and electronic parts that can be easily obtained
from hardware and electronics stores. A home-made anemometer will
usually have a main rotating shaft supported by bearings. On top would be at
least three horizontal spokes, and at the end of each spoke would be cups to
catch the wind. The main rotating shaft is attached to a dynamo which
produces electricity when the main shaft rotates. The output in electricity
then passes through a connected small circuit board and finally on to a
measurement display.
The main component of the circuit board is a microcontroller unit,
which is a vastly simplified cousin of the PC's microprocessor. It's available to
consumers and electronics hobbyists and is found in various appliances like
remote controls, power tools and even toys. The type of microcontroller
often used for home-made anemometers is one that can release proportional
voltage based on incoming electrical frequency. The rotation of the main
shaft affects the electrical frequency put out by the dynamo; the resulting
output voltage from the microcontroller is then registered on an attached
measurement display, which can be as generic as a multimeter.
These types of home-made anemometers need to be calibrated,
meaning a proportional relationship between wind speed and electrical
voltage needs to be established. Wind speed is measured in kilometers per
hour or meters per second, and although this is evident in the rotation of the
main shaft, quantifying this would entail setting up a mechanical device that
directly measures the number of rotations the shaft makes in a given time

9
period. Mechanical means of measurement are usually prone to error when
dealing with something as turbulent as wind. To test and calibrate your
home-made anemometer, you can simulate various wind speeds by driving
around in your car with the apparatus attached outside the car.
Velocity anemometers
Cup anemometers

A simple type of anemometer is

the cup anemometer, invented (1846)
by Dr. John Thomas Romney
Robinson, of Armagh Observatory. It
consisted of four hemispherical cups
each mounted on one end of four
horizontal arms, which in turn were
mounted at equal angles to each
other on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal
direction turned the cups in a manner that was proportional to the
wind speed. Therefore, counting the turns of the cups over a set
time period produced the average wind speed for a wide range of
speeds. On an anemometer with four cups it is easy to see that
since the cups are arranged symmetrically on the end of the arms,
the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it and is
blowing on the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross.

Windmill anemometers

The other forms of mechanical

velocity anemometer may be
described as belonging to the
windmill type or propeller
anemometer. In the Robinson
anemometer the axis of rotation is
vertical, but with this subdivision the
axis of rotation must be parallel to
the direction of the wind and
therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction
and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other
contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. An
aerovane combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain
accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from
the same instrument. In cases where the direction of the air motion

10
is always the same, as in the ventilating shafts of mines and
buildings for instance, wind vanes, known as air meters are
employed, and give most satisfactory results.

Hot-wire anemometers

Hot wire anemometers use a very

fine wire (on the order of several
micrometers) electrically heated up to
some temperature above the ambient.
Air flowing past the wire has a cooling
effect on the wire. As the electrical
resistance of most metals is dependent
upon the temperature of the metal
(tungsten is a popular choice for hot-
wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the
wire and the flow speed. Additionally, PWM (pulse-width
modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is
inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that
brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a
threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have
extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution
compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost
universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or
any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest.

Laser Doppler anemometers

Laser Doppler
anemometers use a
beam of light from a
laser that is split into two
beams, with one
propagated out of the
anemometer.
Particulates (or
deliberately introduced
seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the
beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector,
where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the
particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for
measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate
the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the
anemometer.

11
Sonic anemometers

Sonic anemometers, first developed in

the 1970s, use ultrasonic sound waves to
measure wind velocity. They measure wind
speed based on the time of flight of sonic
pulses between pairs of transducers.
Measurements from pairs of transducers can
be combined to yield a measurement of
velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. The
spatial resolution is given by the path length
between transducers, which is typically 10 to
20 cm. Sonic anemometers can take
measurements with very fine temporal
resolution, 20 Hz or better, which make them well suited for
turbulence measurements. The lack of moving parts makes them
appropriate for long term use in exposed automated weather
stations and weather buoys where the accuracy and reliability of
traditional cup-and-vane anemometers is adversely affected by
salty air or large amounts of dust. Their main disadvantage is the
distortion of the flow itself by the structure supporting the
transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel
measurements to minimize the effect. An international standard for
this process, ISO 16622 Meteorology—Sonic
anemometers/thermometers—Acceptance test methods for mean
wind measurements is in general circulation.

Ping-pong ball anemometers

A common anemometer for basic use is

constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a
string. When the wind blows horizontally, it
presses on and moves the ball; because ping-
pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily
in light winds. Measuring the angle between the
string-ball apparatus and the line normal to the ground gives an
estimate of the wind speed.

Plate anemometers

These are the earliest anemometers and are simply a flat

plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In
1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first
mechanical anemometer; in 1664 it was re-invented by Robert
Hooke (who is often mistakenly considered the inventor of the first

12
 anemometer). Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate,
either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind
vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring.
The compression of the spring determines the actual force which
the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a
suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not
respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and
are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have
been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.

Tube anemometers

James Lind's anemometer of 1775

consisted simply of a glass U tube
containing liquid, a manometer, with one
end bent in a horizontal direction to face
the wind and the other vertical end remains
parallel to the wind flow. Though the Lind
was not the first it was the most practical
and best known anemometer of this type. If
the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it
causes an increase of pressure on one side
of the manometer. The wind over the open
end of a vertical tube causes little change in
pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting liquid
change in the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. Small
departures from the true direction of the wind cause large
variations in the magnitude.

b. Weir

A weir, also known as a lowhead dam, is a small overflow-type dam

commonly used to raise the level of a river or stream. Weirs have
traditionally been used to create mill ponds in such places. Water flows over
the top of a weir, although some weirs have sluice gates which release water
at a level below the top of the weir. The crest of an overflow spillway on a
large dam is often called a weir.
Weirs are overflow structure which are built across an open channel for
the purpose of measuring or controlling the flow of liquids. Weirs have been
commonly used to measure the flow water, but are now being adopted to
measure the flow of other liquids.

Classification of weirs

13
 According to shape, weirs may be rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal, circular, parabolic or of any other regular form. The
most commonly used shapes are the rectangular, triangular and the
trapezoidal shapes. Weirs may be sharp-crested or broad-crested.
The flow over a weir may either be free or submerged. If the
water surface downstream from the weir is lower than the crest, the
flow is free, but the surface is higher than the crest, the flow is
submerged.

Types

There are different types of weir. It may be a simple metal

plate with a V-notch cut into it, or it may be a concrete and steel
structure across the bed of a river. A weir which causes a large
change of water level behind it, compared to the error inherent in
the depth measurement method, will give an accurate indication of
the flow rate.

Broad-crested weir
A broad-crested weir is a flat-
crested structure, with a long crest
compared to the flow thickness (Chanson
1999,2004, Henderson 1966, Sturm
2001). When the crest is “broad”, the
streamlines become parallel to the crest
invert and the pressure distribution
above the crest is hydrostatic. The
hydraulic characteristics of broad-crested
weirs were studied during the 19th and 20th centuries. Practical
experience showed that the weir overflow is affected by the
upstream flow conditions and the weir geometry.

Sharp crested weir (fayoum weir)

A sharp-crested weir allows the

water to fall cleanly away from the weir.
Sharp crested weirs are typically 1/4" or
thinner metal plates. Sharp crested
weirs come in many different shapes
such as rectangular, V-notch and
Cipolletti weirs.

Combination weir

14
 The sharp crested weirs can be considered into three groups
according to the geometry of weir: a) the rectangular weir, b) the V
or triangular notch and c) special notches, such as trapezoidal,
circular or parabolic weirs. For accurate flow measurement over a
wider range of flow rates, a combination weir combines a V-notch
weir with a rectangular weir. An example is manufactured by Thel-
Mar Company and has flow rates engraved along the side of the
weir. This is typically used in pipes ranging from 4" to 15" in
diameter.

V-notch weir

The V-notch weir is a triangular channel section, used to

measure small discharge values. The upper edge of the section is
always above the water level, and so the channel is always
triangular simplifying calculation of the cross-sectional area. V-
notch weirs are preferred for low discharges as the head above the
weir crest is more sensitive to changes in flow compared to
rectangular weirs.

Equation

For rectangular weir:

Q=23C2g L[(H+hυ)32-(hυ)32]

It is a common practice to combine 232gh into a single

coefficient Cw called the weir factor. The general formula for a
discharge through a rectangular weir considering velocity of
approach then becomes,
Q=CwL[(H+hυ)32-(hυ)32]
Where:
Q- discharge
Cd- coefficient of discharge
Cw- weir factor
L- length
H- total height
h- height

a. Viscous, Turbulent and Supersonic flow

Laminar and turbulent flow

If we were to take a pipe of free flowing water and inject a dye

into the middle of the stream, what would we expect to happen?

15
This

this

or this

Actually both would happen - but for different flow rates. The
top occurs when the fluid is flowing fast and the lower when it is
flowing slowly.

16
 The top situation is known as turbulent flow and the lower as
laminar flow.
In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very
orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe
walls. But what is fast or slow? And at what speed does the flow
pattern change? And why might we want to know this?
The phenomenon was first investigated in the 1880s by
Osbourne Reynolds in an experiment which has become a classic in
fluid mechanics.

He used a tank arranged as above with a pipe taking water from the
centre into which he injected a dye through a needle. After many
experiments he saw that this expression

where r = density, u = mean velocity, d = diameter and m = viscosity

would help predict the change in flow type. If the value is less than
about 2000 then flow is laminar, if greater than 4000 then turbulent and
in between these then in the transition zone. This value is known as the
Reynolds number, Re:

17
Laminar flow: Re < 2000
Transitional flow: 2000 < Re < 4000
Turbulent flow: Re > 4000
What are the units of this Reynolds number? We can fill in the
equation with SI units:

i.e. it has no units. A quantity that has no units is known as a

non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity. Thus the Reynolds
number, Re, is a non-dimensional number.
We can go through an example to discover at what velocity
the flow in a pipe stops being laminar.
If the pipe and the fluid have the following properties:
water density r = 1000 kg/m3
pipe diameter d = 0.5m
(dynamic) viscosity, m = 0.55x103 Ns/m2
We want to know the maximum velocity when the Re is 2000.

If this were a pipe in a house central heating system, where

the pipe diameter is typically 0.015m, the limiting velocity for
laminar flow would be, 0.0733 m/s.
Both of these are very slow. In practice it very rarely occurs in
a piped water system - the velocities of flow are much greater.
Laminar flow does occur in situations with fluids of greater viscosity
- e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant.

18
 At small values of Re above 2000 the flow exhibits small
instabilities. At values of about 4000 we can say that the flow is
truly turbulent. Over the past 100 years since this experiment,
numerous more experiments have shown this phenomenon of limits
of Re for many different Newtonian fluids - including gasses.
What does this abstract number mean?
We can say that the number has a physical meaning, by doing
so it helps to understand some of the reasons for the changes from
laminar to turbulent flow.

It can be interpreted that when the inertial forces dominate

over the viscous forces (when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is
larger) then the flow is turbulent. When the viscous forces are
dominant (slow flow, low Re) they are sufficient enough to keep all
the fluid particles in line, then the flow is laminar.
In summary:
Laminar flow
• Re < 2000
• 'low' velocity
• Dye does not mix with water
• Fluid particles move in straight lines
• Simple mathematical analysis possible
• Rare in practice in water systems.
Transitional flow
• 2000 > Re < 4000
• 'medium' velocity
• Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly.
Turbulent flow
• Re > 4000
• 'high' velocity
• Dye mixes rapidly and completely
• Particle paths completely irregular
• Average motion is in the direction of the flow

19
 • Cannot be seen by the naked eye
• Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must use laser.
• Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures
are used
• Most common type of flow.
Laminar Flow
Where the Reynolds number is less than 2300 laminar flow
will occur and the resistance to flow will be independent of the pipe
wall roughness.

Turbulent flow
Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number exceeds
4000.

Viscous
A type of fluid movement in which all particles of the fluid,
flow in a straight line parallel to the axis of a containing pipe or
channel with little or no mixing or turbidity. The flow of a fluid
through a duct under conditions such that the mean free path is
small in comparison with the smallest, transverse section of the
duct.
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is
being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday
terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is "thickness". Thus, water is
"thin", having a lower viscosity, while honey is "thick", having a
higher viscosity. Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to
flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For
example, high-viscosity magma will create a tall, steep
stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-
viscosity lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. Put
simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of
movement (fluidity).[1] All real fluids (except superfluids) have some
resistance to stress, but a fluid which has no resistance to shear
stress is known as an ideal fluid or in viscid fluid.
The study of viscosity isknown as rheology.

Viscosity coefficients can be defined in two ways:

• Dynamic viscosity, also absolute viscosity, the more usual one;
• Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the
density.
υ =µρ
Turbulent flow

20
 In fluid dynamics, turbulence or turbulent flow is a fluid
regime characterized by chaotic, stochastic property changes. This
includes low momentum diffusion, high momentum convection, and
rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time. Nobel
Laureate Richard Feynman describes turbulence as "the most
important unsolved problem of classical physics."[1] Flow that is not
turbulent is called laminar flow. While there is no theorem relating
Reynolds number to turbulence, flows with high Reynolds numbers
usually become turbulent, while those with low Reynolds numbers
usually remain laminar. For pipe flow, a Reynolds number above
about 4000 will most likely correspond to turbulent flow, while a
Reynold's number below 2100 indicates laminar flow. The region in
between (2100 < Re < 4000) is called the transition region. In
turbulent flow, unsteady vortices appear on many scales and
interact with each other. Drag due to boundary layer skin friction
increases. The structure and location of boundary layer separation
often changes, sometimes resulting in a reduction of overall drag.
Although laminar-turbulent transition is not governed by Reynolds
number, the same transition occurs if the size of the object is
gradually increased, or the viscosity of the fluid is decreased, or if
the density of the fluid is increased.

Supersonic flow
Fluid motion in which the Mach number M, defined as the
speed of the fluid relative to the sonic speed in the same medium, is
more than unity. It is, however, common to call the flow transonic
when 0.8 < M < 1.4, and hypersonic when M > 5

a. Device coefficients
Coefficient of discharge, Cd

Cd=actual dischargetheoretical discharge

Coefficient of velocity, Cv

Cv=actual velocitytheoretical velocity

Coefficient of contraction, Cc

Cc=area of the stream or jetarea of opening

21
 b. Reynolds number

Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter equal to the ratio of the

inertia forces to the friction forces.

Re=VDµk=VDρµd=VDɤµdg

Where:
V= velocity
D= diameter
µk=kinematic viscosity
µd= dynamic viscosity
ρ= density
ɤ= sp. Weight
g= acceleration due to gravity

For non-circular pipes, use D=4R, then he formula becomes;

Re=4VRρµd=4VRµk
R=cross-sectional area of pipe, Apipe perimeter, P

c. Mach number

Mach number measures the elastic or compressibility forces as compared

with inertia forces. For air flow higher than 0.3 Mach, the flow is considered
compressible. It means that there is a noticeable change in density.

Mach number =flow velocity(V)speed of sound(Va)=VkRT

d. Equation of continuity of mass

p1A1V1=p2A2V2

e. Head losses in pipes

Head losses in pipes may be classified into two; the major head loss,
which is caused by pipe friction along straight sections of pipe of uniform
diameter and uniform roughness, and minor head loss, which are caused by
changes in the velocity or directions of flow, and are commonly expressed in
terms of kinetic energy.

1. Major Head Loss

1.1.Darcy-Weisbach Formula (pipe friction equation)
hf=fLV2D2g=fL8Q2π2gD5=0.0826fLQ2D5

22
 Where:
f= coefficient of friction or friction factor
L= length of the pipe
D= pipe diameter
V= velocity
Q= dicharge
hf= friction loss

Value of f:
For laminar flow:
f=64Re hf=32µdLV2D2g

For turbulent flow:

In smooth and rough pipes, where Vs=friction velocity

f=8Vs2V2

For smooth pipes, Re between 3,000 and 100,000

f=0.316Re0.25

For smooth pipes with Re up to about 3,000,000

1f=2logRef- 0.80
I.2.Manning Formula
The manning formula is one of the best-known open-channel formulas
and is commonly used in pipes.
V=1nR2/3S1/2 (SI units)
V=1.486nR2/3S1/2 (English units)

hf=6.35n2LV2D4/3 (SI units)

Where:
n= roughness coefficient
R=hydraulic radius
S= slope of energy grade line=hf/L
V= velocity

Table 1.2. Values of n to be used with Manning formula

Nature of surface n
min max
Neat cement surface 0.010 0.013
Wood-stave pipe 0.010 0.013
Plank fumes, planed 0.010 0.014
Vitrified sewer pipe 0.010 0.017
Metal fumes, smooth 0.011 0.015
Concrete, precast 0.011 0.013

23
 Cement mortar surfaces 0.011 0.015
Plank fumes, unplaned 0.011 0.015
Common-clay drainage tile 0.011 0.017
Concrete, monolithic 0.012 0.016
Brick with cement mortar 0.012 0.017
Cast iron- new 0.013 0.017
Cement rubble surfaces 0.017 0.030
Riveted steel 0.017 0.020
Corrugated metal pipe 0.021 0.025
Canals and ditches, smooth 0.017 0.025
earth
Metal fumes, corrugated 0.022 0.030
Canals:
Dredged in earth, smooth 0.025 0.033
In rock cuts, smooth 0.025 0.035
Rough beds and weeds on 0.025 0.040
sides
Rough cuts, jagged and 0.035 0.045
irregular
Natural steams:
smoothest 0.025 0.033
roughest 0.045 0.060
Very weedy 0.075 0.150

I.3.Hazen Williams Formula

V=1.318C1R0.63S0.54 (English units)
V=0.849C1R0.63S0.54 (SI units)
For circular pipes flowing in full,
Q=0.4322C1D2.63S0.54 (English units)
Q=0.278C15D2.63S0.54 (SI units)
And,
hf=10.67LQ1.85C11.85D4.87

Where:
C1=Hazen William coefficient
D= pipe diameter
R= hydraulic radius
S= slope of the EGL

Table 1.3. value for C1for Hazen Williams Formula

Description of pipe C1
Extremely smooth and straight pipe 140
New, smooth cast iron pipes 130
Average cast iron pipes 110
Vitrified sewer pipe 110
cast iron pipes 100
cast iron pipes 80

24
 New riveted steel 110
Smooth wooden or wood stave 120

1. Minor Head Loss

1.1.Sudden Enlargement
hL=V1-V222g, in m
1.2.Gradual enlargement
hL=kV1-V222g, in m
1.3.Sudden Contraction
hL=kcV22g
V= velocity of the smaller pipe
Kc= coefficient of sudden contraction

D2/D1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 .07 .08 0.9 0.1
Kc 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0
0 5 2 9 6 3 8 2 5 6 0

A special case of sudden contraction is the entrance loss for pipes

connected to a reservoir; the values of Kc are as follows:

Flush connection……………………………...0.50
Projecting connection……………………...0.10
Rounded connection………………………..0.05
Pipe projecting into reservoir…………..0.80
Slightly rounded entrance………………..0.25
Sharp-cornered entrance………………..0.05

a. Drag Force

The drag coefficient is a well known parameter used to characterize the

drag force a body immersed in a fluid experiences due to relative motion
between the body and the fluid. Before using data collected from a wind
tunnel experiment for complex shapes, the data for the drag force on a
sphere should be analyzed and compared to results published in authoritative
references. Published results are most often expressed in terms of a plot or
mathematical correlation between the drag coefficient and the Reynolds
number.

Fd=CdɤAPV22g=CdAPρV22g

Where:
Fd= drag force
CD is a dimensionless drag coefficient,
A is the frontal area of the body exposed to the flow (πD2/4 for a sphere),

25
 gcis the gravitational constant which allows the left hand side to be
expressed in units of force.
V= velocity

b. Aerodynamic lift

To assist in determining the properties of the working fluid, air, several

proven governing equations can be used, including the ideal gas law,
Sutherland’s viscosity correlation, and Bernoulli’s equation. These
relationships are valid for steady, incompressible, irrotational flow at nominal
temperatures with negligible body forces. The ideal gas law can be used to
relate the following

p=ρRT

where p is the pressure of the fluid, R is the universal gas constant (287 J/
(kg K)), and T is the temperature of the gas. This expression establishes the
relationship between the three properties of air that are of interest for use in
this experiment.

Another parameter needed is the viscosity of the working fluid.

Sutherland’s viscosity correlation is readily available for the testing
conditions and can be expressed as
µ=bT21+ST

where b is equal to 1.458 x 10-6 (kg)/(m s K^(0.5)) and S is 110.4

K. Finally, Bernoulli’equation defines the total stagnation pressure as
po=p+ρV22

Using the previous governing equations, we can use the Reynolds

number. The Reynolds Number is important because it allows the results
obtained in this laboratory procedure to be scaled to larger scenarios. The
Reynolds number can be expressed as
Re=ρVcµ
where c is a characteristic dimension of the body. For a cylinder,
this dimension will be the diameter. As a result, the Reynolds number
based on diameter is referenced as ReD.

Aerodynamic Coefficients

Three aerodynamic coefficients are used to explore the lift and drag
forces on the test cylinder. First, the pressure coefficient expresses the
difference in local pressure, the pressure at one discrete point on the
cylinder, over the dynamic pressure.
CP=p-p͚(ρV22)͚

The theoretical value for Cp can be calculated as

Cp=1-4sin2(180-β)

26
 The pressure coefficient can be used in the determination of the 2-D lift
coefficient, Cl.

Cl=cos(α)xcxcCplower-Cpupperdxc

A. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Oil having sp. Gr. Of 0.869 and dynamic viscosity of 0.0814 Pa-sec flows through
a cast iron pie at a velocity of 1 m/s. the pipe is 50 m long and 150 in diameter.
Find the head lost due to friction.
Solution

Re=VDρµd=10.151000(0.869)0.0814=1,601<2000, laminar
f=64Re=641,601=0.04
hf=fLV2D2g=0.0450(1)20.152(9.81)=0.68 m

2. What commercial size of new cast iron pipe shall be used to carry 4,490 gpm
with a lost of head of 10.56 feet per mile? Assume f= 0.019

Solution
Q=4,490 gpm=0.284 m3/s
L=1609.76 m
hf=10.56ft= 3.22 m

Re=0.0826fLQ2D5

3.22=0.0826 0.0191609.76(0.284)2D5

D=576 mm

3. The accepted reynold’s for flow in a circular pipe is 2300. For flow through
a 5-cm dimeter pipe at what velocity will this occur at 20®C for water
flow?
Solution
µ= .001kg/(m.s)
ρ=998kg/m3

Re=ρVdµ = 998V(.05).001 = 2300 ; V = 0.046

4. During a test on a 2.4m suppressed weir 900 mm high, the head was
maintained constant 1t 300 mm. In 38 seconds, 28,800 liters of water
were collected. What is the weir factorCw?

27
 Solution
Q=CwL[(H+hυ)32-(hυ)32]

Q=volumetime (since the flow is steady)

=28,80038=757.9L/s

Velocity of approach, υa=QA=0.75792.4(1.2)

υa=0.26316

hυ=υa22g=(0.26316)22g
Q=Cw(2.4)[(0.3+0.00353)32-0.00353)32=0.7579
Cw=1.891

I. EXPERIMENTS

A. Experiment 1. Flow meters

Calibrating A Pipe Flow Meter

Sketch of Experimental Set-Up

28
Commonly Used Empirical Equation

Photo of Our Set-Up

29
Weight, Time, and Head Experimental Data

30
Each Team Will Calibrate One Device

Photo of the Three Flow Meters

31
Photo: Select a Head Measurement Pair

Calculate Q From Weight & Time

32
 Calculate Delta H & Area

Equations For Requested Results

33
B. Experiment 2. Open channel flow Measurement using Weirs

Objective
The purpose of this lab is to become familiar with (and verify)
equations used for estimating flow rate over weirs. This will be done by
comparing two different methods for estimating the flow rate over a weir
in the lab.

Report

For each weir and for each sets of measurements for a different Q,
present the data in a tabular form. Show the values measured during the
laboratory experiments, namely Q (from the orifices in the open channel),
flow depth upstream of the weir, head on the weir, weir height, Cd
determined from the laboratory measurements, and Cd determined from
the textbook. Also show all intermediate values needed in the
computations.
See how well your experimental data fits with the empirical weir curve
that was created from other researcher’s data. You need to figure out how
best to graph and present this comparison. Do not forget to estimate the

34
uncertainty.Include sample calculations for the first set of measurements
for each weir.

Include sample calculations for the first set of measurements for each
weir.

35
36
C. Experiment 3. Viscous, Turbulence, and Supersonic flow

Object

This experiment is intended as an introduction to the characteristics of fluid

streams, with demonstrations of the effects of stream velocity and calculations
of Reynolds number and Mach number.

Apparatus

Two separate pieces of equipment are suggested for this experiment, one
using water flow, the other air. The first is a setup similar to that originally used
by Osborne Reynolds for demonstrating the critical range between viscous and
turbulent flow, shown in Fig. 152. The working section is a clear plastic or glass
tube, about 1 ½ in. in diameter, and the dye emerges from a small glass nozzle
(Fig. 153) and a compressed-air supply sufficient for steady flow through the
nozzle at 50 psig or higher.
The nozzle is equipped with upstream and throat static taps and gages,
and discharges to atmosphere. An upstream thermometer is provided, and a
thermocouple is used for obtaining impact temperatures in jet.

Instructions

37
 With the Reynolds demonstration apparatus, establish laminar flow; then
increase the rate of flow until a definite disturbance of the dye stream is
produced. Make a test at this flow rate and compute the Reynolds number.
Establish pure turbulent flow, and then reduce the rate of flow slowly until the
steady dye stream appears. Make a test at this flow rate and compute the
Reynolds number. Repeat both this procedures at least twice and discuss the
procedures.

Conclusion

Laminar flow can be determine if the value of the Reynolds number is less
than 2000, and turbulent flow can be determine if the value of the Reynolds
number is higher than 2000.

D. Experiment 4. Pipe Friction Losses

Objective

To observe the head loss that occurs in a pipe due to frictional

resistance, hydraulic gradient, and the relationship between head loss
and the Reynold’s number.

Experimental Procedure

1. Level the apparatus on the bench so the manometer stand is vertical.

(Assume it is level when we start the lab.)

2. Check to see what manometer is turned on (mercury or water?). The

water or mercury manometer is introduced into the circuit by directing
the lever on the tap towards the relevant connecting pipe. Select the
water manometer on first.

3. Turn on the flow rate in your tub. There is a small knob on the
apparatus used to adjust the flow rate. Open this supply valve to allow
water to enter the apparatus.

4. Turn the supply valve off. The levels in the two limbs of the inverted U-
tube should settle on the same value. If not, check that the flow from
the tub has not stopped, or that there are no air bubbles in the system.

38
 If this does not work, open the bleed valves slightly to release pressure
(please see your TA before you do this).

5. Fully open the needle valve to obtain the maximum differential head
(approximately 400 mm).

6. Find the flow rate using the volume-time method by timing the
collection of a suitable amount of water in a graduated cylinder.

7. Record the temperature of the water filling up the graduated cylinder.

8. Record the pressure heads.

9. Repeat steps 5, 6, and 8 while decreasing the difference in

manometer readings by 50 mm down to 300 mm, then by 40 mm
down to 180 mm, then by 20 mm down to 100 mm, and then by 10
mm down to 0 mm.

10. Switch to the mercury manometer. Increase the flow until a pressure
difference of 10 mm is obtained. Again, measure flow rate and
temperature.

11.Repeat step 10 (except only measure temperature for the first trial)
increasing the difference by 10 mm up to 60 mm, then by 20 mm up to
200 mm, and then 30 mm up to the maximum difference possible.

CALCULATIONS

GIVEN:
• 1 m3 = 1*106 ml
• Pipe is made of brass
• Length of pipe between piezometer tappings, dl = 524 mm
• Nominal Diameter of the pipe, D = 0.003 m
• Cross-sectional area of the pipe, A = 7.07 . 10-6 m2

Water Manometer:
1. Calculate the Hydraulic Gradient, iH2O, for the water manometer

The hydraulic gradient is equal to the change in hydraulic head per unit
length, and is usually a negative number as hydraulic head decreases in the
direction of the flow. The hydraulic head is the sum of elevation and pressure
that is measured by thee manometer tube, or in other words, the driving force
of the fluid flow. The hydraulic gradient can be written as:

i=dhdl=h1-h2.524m

39
 2. Calculate the Hydraulic Gradient, iHg, for the mercury manometer

Mercury’s density is 13.6 times that of water, which must be taken into
account when finding the hydraulic gradient.

i=dhdl=Δh(13.6-1).524m

3. Solve for the flow rate, Q, found by using the volume-time method where:

Q=VT

V = Volume of water filled in the graduated cylinder, and

T = The time it takes to fill the graduated cylinder to the volume

4. Using the continuity equation, calculate the velocity of the water through
the apparatus.
Q=AV

a. LAMINAR FLOW CALCULATIONS:

In laminar flow, the fluid particles move in straight lines.

1. Calculate the coefficient of absolute viscosity, , from Poiseuille’s equation,

using each value of i in the laminar region as indicated in your graph.
µ=iρgD232V

where:
i = hydraulic gradient
ρ= density (dependent on temperature so use the tables in the
back of the book to find this)
g= gravity = 9.81 m/s2
D = inside diameter = 0.003 m
V = velocity (from step 4)

2. Average the absolute viscosity values for the laminar region, avg

3. Calculate a Reynold’s number for each flow rate in the laminar region.
R=ρVDµ
4. Make sure that all Reynold’s numbers calculated are less than 2000 as this is
the definition for laminar flow. If some of your flow rates are greater than
2000, then they are turbulent and your transition point is incorrectly place.
Move your transition point, move the points that were greater than 2000 to
your turbulent calculations, and recalculate avg and R for your laminar
flow points that are remaining.

5. Knowing that the flow is laminar under pressure in a circular pipe, the
friction factor can be solved for using the following equation:

40
 f=64R
a. TURBULENT FLOW CALCULATIONS:
In turbulent flow, the fluid particles follow random paths.
1. Determine the absolute viscosity, µ, of the turbulent flow region by
interpolation using the values from Table 1.

Table 1: Absolute Viscosity Chart

Temperature (deg C) µ*10-4 (Ns/m2)

0 17.90

10 13.10

20 10.10

30 8.00

40 6.56

2. Calculate a Reynold’s number for each flow rate in the turbulent region.
R=ρVDµ
3. Make sure that all Reynold’s numbers calculated are greater than 2000, as
this is the definition for turbulent flow. If some of your Reynold’s numbers
are less than 2000, then they are laminar and your transition point is
incorrectly placed. Move your transition point, and move the points that had
R < 2000 to your laminar calculations.
4. Use Darcy’s equation to calculate the friction factor at each flow rate in the
turbulent flow region.
f=igD2V2
COMPARE AND CONTRAST:
Compare and contrast experimental with theoretical values.
a. Theoretical and experimental slopes
- Theoretical Laminar = 1.0
- Theoretical Turbulent = 1.85

b. Reynold’s Number, R, at the transition point

- Experimental versus 2000

c. Friction factor, f, at the transition point

- Experimental versus Moody Diagram at R = 2000

d. Absolute viscosity, 
- Experimental versus lab handout interpolation

EXAMPLE TABLES:

41
Table 1: Water Friction Loss Data Sheet
Uavg of Laminar Flow 9.34E-04 (Ns/m2)

Table 2: Mercury Friction Loss Data Sheet

Volume Time Temp. h1 h2 dh Q V I R f u

(ml) (s)

110 22.83 24 0.192 0.183 0.113 4.82E06 0.682 0.216 2252.35 0.028 9.05E04
170 22.07 24 0.199 0.178 0.26 7.70E06 1.089 0.505 3600.77 0.018
220 22.43 24 0.210 0.170 0.504 9.81E06 1.387 0.962 4585.03 0.014 9.05E04

240 21.36 24 0.220 0.160 0.756 1.12E05 1.589 1.443 5252.41 0.012 9.05E04

300 23.08 24 0.230 0.150 1.008 1.30E05 1.839 1.924 6076.23 0.011 9.05E04

350 24.83 24 0.240 0.142 1.235 1.41E05 1.994 2.356 6589.31 0.010 9.05E04

400 23.99 24 0.262 0.123 1.751 1.67E05 2.358 3.342 7794.32 0.008 9.05E04

450 23.55 24 0.280 0.108 2.167 1.91E05 2.703 4.136 8932.44 0.007 9.05E04

500 23.99 24 0.300 0.092 2.621 2.08E05 2.948 5.002 9742.90 0.007 9.05E04

500 22.13 24 0.325 0.070 3.213 2.26E05 3.196 6.132 10561.7 0.006 9.05E04
8
550 22.40 24 0.343 0.052 3.667 2.46E05 3.473 6.997 0.006 9.05E04
11477.9
600 23.02 24 0.358 0.040 4.007 2.61E05 3.687 7.647 0.005 9.05E04
2
9.05E04
12184.1
3

42
Volu Tim Tem h1 h2 dh Q V I R f u
me e p. (m) (m) (m) (m/ (Ns/m
(m3/s
(ml) (s) s) 2)
)

200 21.1 24 0.50 0.05 0.45 9.47E 1.33 0.87 4424. 0.01 9.05E
3 24 8 0 8 06 9 4 65 4 04
200 24.4 24 0.42 0.04 0.72 3822. 0.01 9.05E
6 0.38 8.18E 1.15
150 5 5 5 28 7 04
22.6 24 0 06 7
2 0.39 0.19 0.38 3099. 0.02 9.05E
150 24.9 0 0 2 90 1 04
24 0.20 6.63E 0.93
150 7 0 06 8
24 0.37 0.20 0.33 2808. 0.02 9.05E
28.0 8 5 0.17 6.01E 0.85 0 16 3 04
100
9 24
3 06 0
0.36 0.22 0.28 2496. 0.02 9.05E
100
24 8 0
21.8 0.14 5.34E 0.75 2 25 6 04
100 6 8 06 5
24 0.35 0.23 0.22 2071. 0.03 9.49E
40 26.4 0 3 0.11 4.57E 0.64 3 29 1 04
24
4 7 06 7
30 0.34 0.25 0.18 1712. 0.03 9.32E
35.6 5 0 0.09 3.78E 0.53 1 49 7 04
8 5 06 5
0.33 0.26 0.13 1269. 0.05 9.27E
23.6 3 3 0.07 2.80E 0.39 4 01 0 04
5 0 06 6
0.32 0.27 0.08 765.8 0.08 9.22E
25.3 0 8 0.04 1.69E 0.23 0 1 4 04
7 2 06 9
0.31 0.28 0.05 535.4 0.12 9.42E
5 5 0.03 1.18E 0.16 7 2 0 04
0 06 7

43
Table 3: Final Results Table

Property Experimental Theoritical % Difference

R 2071.29 2000 3.56

f 0.031 0.030 3.33

uavg 9.34E-04 9.05E-04 3.20

EXAMPLE GRAPH:

44
 A. Experiment 5. Characteristics of Nozzles and Jets

Objective

To demonstrate the effect of compressibility on the flow equations for a

convergent flow.

Apparatus

Armfield Compressible Flow Bench, convergent-divergent duct, two

inclined tube manometers, mercury manometer.

Figure 1 : The compressible Flow Bench

Procedure

1. An inclined tube manometer to read P0-P1 using the 12.7mm range is

connected.

45
 2. Another inclined tube manometer to read P0-P2 using the 25.4mm range is
connected.

(P0-P1) kPa Theoretical Vin Vout

12.7mm (P0-P2) value (m/s) (m/s)

mmH2O kPa 25.4mm (P0-P2)

kPa

20 0.196 0.000 7.984 0.0623 0.0000

40 0.392 0.010 15.967 0.0879 0.0140

60 0.588 0.020 23.951 0.1077 0.0199

80 0.784 0.025 31.935 0.1244 0.0222

100 0.980 0.040 39.919 0.1391 0.0281

20 1.176 0.045 47.902 0.1524 0.0298

140 1.372 0.050 55.886 0.1646 0.0314

160 1.568 0.060 63.869 0.1759 0.0344

180 1.764 0.070 71.854 0.1866 0.0372

200 1.960 0.080 79.837 0.1967 0.0397

3. The flow to give approximately equal increments of (P0-P1) is adjusted.

4. The readings of both manometers are read for each flow rate.

46
 5. Using the 50.8mm range of an inclined tube manometer and with mercury
manometer to measure P0-P1, the steps were repeated.

Results and Calculation

At 1000rpm,

Conversion of unit : mmH2O to kPa

Theoretical value:
P0-P2 = (A1/A2)2 (P0-P1)
= (40.733) (0.196kPa)
= 7.984 kPa

Vin = √ (2(P0-P1)/ P0) ; P0 = 101.325kPa

= √ (2(0.196)/ 101.325)

= 0.0622 m/s
Vout = √ (2(P0-P2)/ P0)
= √ (2(0)/ 101.325)
= 0 m/s

Graph 1

Dicussion

The experiment used inclined manometer test set to measure pressure.

From the graph 1, we can see as the different in pressure at convergent duct
increase, the pressure of air flow also increase. This is due to the increasing of
velocity after passing through the throat although the flow area increases
rapidly in the region. When the fluid density decrease, the velocity passing the
throat also increase.

A plot of pressure distribution along the nozzle provides a good way of

summarizing its behavior. To understand how the pressure behaves there are a
few basic rules to remember :

-When the flow accelerates (sub or supersonically) the pressure drops

-The pressure rises instantaneously across a shock
-The pressure throughout the jet is always the same as the ambient (i.e. the
back pressure) unless the jet is supersonic and there are shocks or expansion
waves in the jet to produce pressure differences.
-The pressure falls across an expansion wave. Often viscous effects are not
important in compressible flows, since the boundary layers are very thin. Flows
in the nozzle are easily controlled by varying the backpressure.

47
 From the graph we can see that it is different from the theoretical values that
were calculated. This might be due to some misconduct or the condition of the
instrument. Apart from that it can also be due to the readings that we have
done (parallax) or even the connections between the pipes are not well
connected.
Conclusion

From this experiment, we were able to demonstrate the effect of

compressibility on the flow equations for a convergent flow and how it varied at
different points for example from the plot of pressure difference, we could
understand how the pressure behaves in a nozzle.

A. Experiment 6. Drag coefficient-Determination of the Drag

Coefficient of a Sphere

Abstract

The drag force on a sphere in an air stream was measured at various free
stream velocities below 100 ft/sec. This was done in a low speed wind tunnel
using an integral balance system to measure the drag force and a pitot tube
and venturi meter to measure the velocity.
The raw data were processed according to classical equations of fluid
mechanics which define the Reynolds number and drag coefficient. An
expression for the drag coefficient in terms of the Reynolds number was
developed using a least squares curve fit to the experimental data.
The experimental results are compared to published results over the range
tested.

Description of Experimental Setup

Figure1 Low speed wind tunnel

A manually controlled variable speed

wind tunnel similar to that shown in
Error: Reference source not found

Error: Reference source not found

was used in this experiment. The

48
 wind tunnel was equipped with an in manometer. A mercury
integral force balance which barometer was used to measure
measured both drag and lift the atmospheric pressure and a
forces and a multistation thermometer was used to
manometer tube bank to measure measure the air temperature
the velocity of the air stream. A
separate pitot tube was used to
verify the calibration of the built-

List of Equipment Used

1. Flotek 250 wind tunnel located in the Mechanical Engineering

Laboratory (S/N FT250-2784)
2. 2.5-inch diameter smooth calibration sphere wind tunnel accessory
3. Pitot tube and differential manometer (Property tag BSW365-22984)
4. Mercury barometer fixed to the wall near the wind tunnel.

5. Mercury thermometer (Sargent brand, no tag or serial number)

Procedure

Step 1: The atmospheric pressure and temperature were recorded at the

beginning of data collection.
Step 2: The venturi meter velocity gage built in to the wind tunnel was
calibrated by inserting the pitot tube at the center of the wind tunnel test
section and varying the fan speed so as to produce 0.05-inch changes in
the differential manometer attached to the pitot tube. At low speeds (less
than 25 miles per hour) the built-in venturi meter was below the first scale
reading, thus the pitot tube was used to adjust the fan speed while taking
drag measurements. At air speeds greater than 25 miles per hour, the
venturi meter was very reliable, so it was used to adjust the fan speed
setting during drag force measurements. A calibration table was made
that correlated venturi air speed readings with desired pitot tube
differential pressure values.
Step 3: The fan speed was set to produce a pitot differential pressure of
0.025 inches.
Step 4: The drag force of the specimen mounting stand was measured
using the force balance and recorded on the data sheet. The 2.5-inch
spherical test specimen was then mounted and the drag force was
measured and recorded on the data sheet.

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 Step 5: The test specimen was removed from the test stand and the fan
was shut off and the drag force indicator was checked to make sure it
read zero.
Step 6: The fan was restarted and its speed was adjusted so as to
produce a pitot differential pressure of 0.05 inches, then steps 4 and 5
were repeated. This process was continued, increasing the pitot
differential pressure by 0.05 inches each run until the differential pressure
reached 0.35 inches. At this point, the fan speed was adjusted by
referring to the air speed calibration table that was made earlier.
Measurements were made up to the maximum free stream air speed
capability of the wind tunnel, which was 52 miles per hour (1.50 inches of
pitot tube differential pressure).
Step 7: The entire data collection process was repeated in reverse, i.e.,
starting with the fan running at maximum speed, and lowering the speed
by to match those used previously for each drag force reading.
Step 8: The atmospheric pressure and temperature were recorded at the
conclusion of the last measurements.

Data
Temperature at start of experiment: 77° F
Barometric pressure at start of experiment: 29.80 inches of mercury
Pitot Tube Venturi Going Up Coming Down
Differentia Meter
l Pressure- Reading Mounting Total Mounting Total
Δh Stand Drag Stand Drag
(miles/ho
(inches) ur) Drag Drag
(lbf) (lbf)
(lbf) (lbf)
0.025 N/A 0.00 0.010 0.00 0.007
0.05 N/A 0.002 0.010 0.002 0.010
0.10 N/A 0.003 0.015 0.003 0.017
0.15 N/A 0.004 0.020 0.004 0.020
0.20 N/A 0.005 0.020 0.005 0.030
0.25 N/A 0.007 0.030 0.007 0.037
0.30 N/A 0.009 0.035 0.009 0.040
0.35 25.0 0.011 0.045 0.011 0.045
0.40 26.8 0.013 0.050 0.013 0.050

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 Pitot Tube Venturi Going Up Coming Down
Differentia Meter
l Pressure- Reading Mounting Total Mounting Total
Δh Stand Drag Stand Drag
(miles/ho
(inches) ur) Drag Drag
(lbf) (lbf)
(lbf) (lbf)
0.45 29.0 0.015 0.060 0.015 0.060
0.50 30.6 0.018 0.070 0.018 0.070
0.55 31.2 0.021 0.075 0.021 0.075
0.60 33.6 0.024 0.080 0.024 0.080
0.65 34.8 0.027 0.080 0.027 0.085
0.70 35.2 0.030 0.085 0.030 0.085
0.75 36.5 0.033 0.090 0.033 0.090
0.80 37.5 0.036 0.095 0.036 0.100
0.90 40.0 0.039 0.105 0.039 0.105
1.00 43.0 0.042 0.120 0.042 0.120
1.10 45.2 0.045 0.130 0.045 0.135
1.20 47.8 0.050 0.145 0.050 0.145
1.30 49.0 0.055 0.150 0.055 0.150
1.40 50.6 0.060 0.150 0.060 0.160
1.50 52.5 0.065 0.165 0.065 0.160
Temperature at end of experiment: 77° F
Barometric pressure at end of experiment: 29.80 inches of mercury
Analysis of Data

1. List of Variables:
FD - drag force in lbf
CD - drag coefficient
Re - Reynolds number
D - diameter of sphere in inches
ρ - density of air in lbm/ft3
u∞ - velocity of air stream in ft/sec2
P - atmospheric pressure in lbf/ft2
Δp - pressure difference in manometer in lbf/ft2
Δh - difference in heights of liquid in manometer in inches
T - atmospheric temperature in °R
μ - viscosity of air in lbm/ft-hr

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 ρo - density of oil in manometer in lbm/ft3
2. Calculated Results
The following values were used to compute the values in the data reduction
equations:

, Applying equation , the

T = 77° F = 537° R, lb m lbf
µ = 0.0444 P = 29.802 in⋅ Hg = 2105 .
hr⋅ ft ft 2

density is calculated as The calculated values of free stream air velocity

lb m
0.07349 .
ft 3
(u∞), Reynolds number (Re), and drag coefficient (CD) are given in the table below.

Pitot Tube Free Stream Reynolds Drag

Differential Air Velocity- u∞ Number-Re Coefficient-CD
Pressure-Δh
(inches) (ft/sec)

0.025 9.70 12,302 2.223

0.050 13.72 17,398 1.046

0.100 19.40 24,604 0.8501

0.150 23.76 30,134 0.6975

0.200 27.43 34,795 0.6539

0.250 30.67 38,902 0.6932

0.300 33.60 42,616 0.6212

0.350 36.29 46,030 0.6352

0.400 38.80 49,209 0.6049

0.450 41.15 52,193 0.6539

0.500 43.38 55,017 0.6801

0.550 45.49 57,702 0.6421

0.600 47.52 60,268 0.6103

0.650 49.46 62,729 0.5584

0.700 51.32 65,097 0.5138

0.750 53.13 67,382 0.4970

0.800 54.87 69,592 0.5027

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 0.900 58.20 73,813 0.4796

1.000 61.34 77,806 0.5101

1.100 64.34 81,603 0.5202

1.200 67.20 85,232 0.5177

1.300 69.94 88,712 0.4779

1.400 72.58 92,061 0.4437

1.500 75.13 95,292 0.4251

The calculated values for drag coefficient versus Reynolds number are plotted
on the next page. A least-squares best fit logarithmic equation for the
experimental data was found to be

C D = 407.87 Re −0.5978 .

3. Uncertainty Analysis
The uncertainty associated with each of the measured variables is given in the
table below. These values were chosen based on the stated accuracy of the
instrument, if available. Otherwise, they are reasonable estimates based on
values typically reported.

Uncertainty Symbol Numerical Value

Description
Pitot tube differential 0.05 inch
U ∆h
pressure
Drag force 0.005 lbf
U FD

Sphere diameter 0.01 inch

UD

Atmospheric pressure 0.005 inch Hg = 0.353

UP
lbf/in2
Temperature 1°F
UT

Manometer oil density 3.12 lbm/ft3

U ρo

53
 Viscosity of air lbm/hr-ft
Uµ −5
6.4 ×10

The detailed calculations of the uncertainty associated with the calculated variables
(in accordance with Reference 1) are given in the Appendix. The table below
summarizes the results of these calculations.
Uncertainty Symbol Numerical Value
Description
Air density lbm/ft3
Uρ
1.883×10−4

Manometer pressure psi

U ∆P
difference 1.774 ×10−3

Free stream air velocity 2.52 ft/sec

U u∞

Reynolds number 3181

U Re

Drag coefficient 0.131

U CD

Figure 2 Plot of Drag Coefficient versus Reynolds Number

A. Discussion of Results
The results of this experiment are best depicted in Figure 2. Over the air speed range tested, the drag
coefficient generally decreases as the Reynolds number increases. Similar results are reported in
Reference 2 (shown in Figure 3). Owing to the limitations of the low speed wind tunnel used in this
experiment, comparison of results is possible over only a single decade The results
(105 ≤ Re ≤ 106 ).
calculated using the present experimental data compare very favorably at the upper end of this region,

54
 where both curves show At the lower end of the region, the present experimental data yielded
Re ≈ 0.4.
values of CD near unity, while those reported in Reference 2 remained considerably less than unity.
An examination of the uncertainty in the values of the drag coefficient provides some interesting
information. At the lowest velocity the uncertainty calculation yields a probable error of 2.625, which
exceeds the calculated value. At the highest velocity the probable error is 0.044, or only approximately
10%. This is so because the uncertainty in the velocity changes relatively little even though the velocity
itself increases greatly. The principal factor contributing to this, and therefore to the greater reliability of
the values of drag coefficient at higher velocities was the uncertainty in the reading of the manometer
tube, which did not vary with velocity. Therefore, the uncertainty due to this factor represented a greater
percentage of the velocity and thus the drag coefficient at low velocities that at the higher velocities. For
the same reasons the uncertainties in the higher values of the Reynolds number would be less on a
percentage basis that those at lower values.

Figure 3 Experimental Values of Drag Coefficient vs. Reynolds Number for a Sphere (from Reference 2)
Conclusions

The results of this experiment show that the drag coefficient for a sphere can
be calculated reasonably accurately using a low speed wind tunnel. The results
obtained agree with other published results at the higher range of velocities
used. More accurate results at lower velocities would probably require a more
sensitive force balance and air speed indicator.

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REFERENCES

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