A

REPORT ON
STUDENTS’ WORK EXPERIENCE PROGRAMME
(SWEP)
UNDERTAKEN AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA

BY

ODUMOSU TAIWO OLAWALE

MATRIC NUMBER: 070635

OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA
OGUN STATE

APRIL 2009
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project “A TECHNICAL REPORT BASED ON

STUDENT WORK EXPERINENCE PROGRAMME” was carried out by me:
ODUMOSU TAIWO OLAWALE with matriculation number: 070635 of the,
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE and was
thoroughly supervised by

________________ __________________

Engr. G.A. Bolaji Engr. I. A.

Adejumobi

SWEP Co-ordinator Head of Department

 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated firstly, to ALMIGHTY GOD for sparing my life till
today. My thanks also go to my loving, caring and active parents Mr. and
Mrs. Odumosu, the best brother Kehinde Odumosu and my loving
sisters. Special thanks goes to my loving mother who goes to any length to
see that I get all that is needed in my academic endeavour. Also my sincere
appreciation goes to Mr and Mrs Fayemi, Mrs Odumosu-Ayanu and Mr
Laide Osijonwo and my friends Paul Ogomigo, Aloba Kayode, Seyi
Okuselu and Ologun Korede. Also Adeola Majekodunmi, Dairo
Fajuyitan thanks for your never ending support and for being there for me
always and for those who believe in knowledge.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely show my appreciation to the ALMIGHTY GOD who gave me the

opportunity to participate in this year’s (SWEP) programme. While my
unlimited gratitude goes to my loving caring and active parents for their
financial support towards my academic pursuit in this great institution, what
I can say is that “God rewards those that seek progress for others”.

My appreciation is incomplete without thanking the Management of the

different units visited during the SWEP for the knowledge I acquired during
the period of working with them,

I also thank the authority of the University of Agriculture Abeokuta especially

those in the Department of Electrical/ Electronics. The H.O.D, Engr.I.A
Adejumobi and the other staff, I thank them for the knowledge they
imparted on me.

Also my indebtedness gratitude goes to all 200L engineering students; I

thank you all for your encouragement. You are the best one can have
around. I love you all.

Lastly my appreciation goes to my friends and course Mates: Paul Ogomigo,

Seyi Okuselu, Korede Ologun, Aloba Kayode and the others. I pray that you
will all succeed in your academic endeavor.
 ABSTRACT

This report covers essentially the knowledge and experience acquired during
the course of training at various units of the SWEP programme such as the
ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS LABORATORY, THE TRACTOR UNIT,
WORKS AND SERVICES, THE CENTRAL WORKSHOP, and the PHYSICAL
PLANNING UNIT.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE

CERTIFICATION

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 - TRACTOR UNIT

1.1.0 - INTRODUCTION TO TRACTOR UNIT

1.1.1 - SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

• Human safety

• Machine Safety

• Care of tools

1.1.2 - INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP TOOLS

• Spanners

• Pliers

• Chisels

• Screwdrivers
 • Hammer

• Socket wrench and sockets

• Toolbox

1.1.3 - MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING OF MACHINE TOOLS

• Types of Maintenance

• Engine oil

• Filters

1.2.1 - NUTS AND BOLTS

• Bolts

• Nuts

• Studs

1.2.2 - WASHERS

• Spring Washer

• Plain Washer

• Fibre Washer

1.2.3 - BEARINGS

• Roller Bearing

• Tapered Roller Bearing

• Ball Bearing

• Plain Bearing

• Needle Bearing

1.3.1 - METHODS OF TRANSMITTING MOTION IN A MACHINE

• Belt and Pulley

• Chain and Sprocket

 • Shaft and Splines

• Keys and Keyways

• Gears

1.3.2 - IDENTIFICATION OF ENGINES

• Type of Fuel used

• Method of Cooling

• Number of Cylinder

• Stroke

1.3.3 - FOUR STROKE ENGINE CYCLE

• Induction Stroke

• Compression Stroke

• Power Stroke

• Exhaust Stroke

1.4.1 - SYSTEMS ON A TRACTOR / AUTOMOBILE

• Ignition System

• Fueling System

• Lubrication System

• Cooling System

• Electrical System

• Transmission System

• Steering System

• Braking System

• Hydraulic System
CHAPTER 2 - PHYSICAL PLANNING UNIT

CHAPTER 3 - ELECTRICAL / ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

CHAPTER 4 - CENTRAL WORKSHOP

4.1.1 - SAFETY IN THE WROKSHOP

4.2.1 - BENCHWORK / FITTING SECTION

4.3.1 - MACHINE SECTION

4.4.1 - WELDING SECTION

CHAPTER 5 - WORKS AND SERVICES

INTRODUCTION
The Students’ Work Experience Programme (SWEP) was set up with a view of giving
training to students so that they would be able to appreciate and relate the
practical knowledge to the theoretical knowledge which they have gone through
during the course of study in their institution.

Also it exposes us as students to various conditions and guides that are required of
us to perform our duties in a formal way as we were posted to various locations to
receive training which will assist in acquiring knowledge and experience.

Finally, as an individual, the SWEP programme has given me the ample opportunity
to learn so much about the ethics of the engineering profession and mystery.

CHAPTER ONE
TRACTOR UNIT

1.1.O INTRODUCTION TO TRACTOR UNIT

A tractor is a self-powered work vehicle, designed for pulling or pushing special

machinery or heavy loads over land. They are widely used in agriculture, building
and road constructions, as well as for specialized service in industrial plants, railway
freight stations, and docks. Applications also include snowplows and bulldozers.

TYPES OF TRACTORS

There are two types of tractors:

• Wheeled tractors

• Crawler (track-laying) tractors

Wheeled tractors generally have two large rear wheels with pneumatic tyres or
ground-gripping metal lugs; they operate much like an automobile with a gearshift
drive. Power is usually provided by a diesel or a gasoline engine.

Crawler tractors are used for heavy pulling or pushing or for adverse terrain
conditions. These tractors move on heavy, metal tracks that form a loop around
large geared wheels; the wheels drive the metal tracks, and the tracks distribute
the weight over a wide area. Crawler tractors are well adapted to rough terrain,
rice-land cultivation, and tillage operations in loose and sandy soil. Lighter crawler
tractors are frequently used for work on the sides of steep hills where they are less
likely to overturn than wheeled tractors.

USES OF A TRACTOR

Farm tractors are used for plowing, cultivating, grading, or cutting, or for driving
various agricultural machines (see Agricultural Machinery). The use of tractors has
revolutionized agriculture. The power capability of the modern tractor has led to
higher productivity with a significantly reduced workforce. Early agricultural tractors
were lumbering, heavy steam-engine vehicles moving on spiked or cleated metal
wheels. The engine, in addition to providing pulling power, also drives a number of
power take-off (PTO) shafts that can be used to operate accessory machinery. Large
or special purpose tractors may also have a hydraulic power system that can be
used to deploy or move various attachments such as bulldozer blades or
snowplows. In recent years there has been a trend from four-wheeled to three-
wheeled vehicles, where a single, central front wheel can operate more successfully
among crops planted or cultivated in rows.

Crawler tractors are employed extensively in the building industry, where cranes
or hoists are usually mounted directly on the tractor frame. The small,
comparatively low-powered electric tractor, deriving its motor power from a storage
battery, has been put to many specialized uses, such as handling freight and
express material at railroad stations and steamship piers, and shifting material in
large industrial plants and warehouses. Electric tractors are usually equipped with
rubber-tired wheels. Other specialized tractors have been designed for numerous
applications. For example, specialized tractors are used in mining operations, for
many different forms of earth moving, and in the steel industry, where overhead
tractors operate on tracks.

1.1.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

There are three levels of safety. They are:

• Human safety
• Machine safety
• Safety of tools

HUMAN SAFETY: The personal safety rules include the following;

 Consciousness of personal safety and that of others working with you.

 Be conscious of what you are doing and the consequence of your actions.

 Do not wear loose garments around moving parts of a machine.

 Keeping of long nails is prohibited.

 Put on covered shoes or protective shoes to prevent legs from been hurt in

the event of a tool falling down.

 Always wipe oil or grease from the floor surface to prevent a slip which can

cause fracture of some body parts.

 Do not panic, always have self confidence in yourself.

 Tomfooling and horse-play should be avoided in the workshop.

MACHINE SAFETY: These rules must be observed when operating machines in the
workshop. Machine and industrial safety rules include;

 Do not start any machine without properly identifying its ON and OFF button.

 Machines must not be operated without having the technical know-how.

 Spare parts should be kept clean during servicing.

  Dismantled components must be kept in an orderly manner and in a well
cleaned compartment.

 Oil-spillage must be avoided in the workshop so as to erase the havoc of

slippery.

 Do not rest against or lie under suspended heavy duty machine.

 Always do the routine check on machines before operation is carried out.

 Always watch safety signs when in workshop.

CARE OF TOOLS: Tools are indispensable in engineering operations, so they must

be well handle to avoid damage, loss and injury. The following are safety rules
pertinent to care for tools;

 At the end of each day’s work, the tools should be cleaned and properly

stored.

 Tools must be properly placed on the workbench to prevent them from

falling; it could cause injuries or get damaged.

 Always use the right tools for the right job.

 Do not hammer on a spanner when trying to loosen a bolt or nut instead put

penetrating oil, the spanner could get damaged if hammered.

 Do not place tools on top of each other.

1.1.2 INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP TOOLS

Workshop tools are used in the production of machine parts and components. The
following are examples of workshop tools:

• SPANNERS: They are used to loosen and tighten mechanical fasteners.

There are various types of spanners and they vary in sizes from 12-13, 15-17,
19-21 etc. Some examples are
 o Combination spanners- is a double ended tool with one open end
and the other like a ring. Both ends fit the same size of a bolt or nut.

o Flat spanner- is a one piece spanner with a u-shaped opening that

grips two opposite faces of a bolt or nut. It has a different size opening
at each end.

o Ring spanner- has two enclosed openings that grip the faces of the bolt
or nut. It hexagonal in shape at its ends.

• PLIERS: are hand tools used to hold objects firmly for cutting and bending
tough materials such as wires. There are different types

o Gripping pliers: it adjusts automatically to the size of any object

within its range.

• CHISELS: they are used to cut cold metals. Types are flat chisel, cross cut
chisel, half round chisel etc.

• SCREWDRIVERS: they are used to drive screws into machine parts. Types of
screwdrivers are flat and star.

• HAMMER: the hammer consists of a hardened and tempered steel head

firmly fixed on a wooden handle. It is used to strike metals or drive nails
into wood.
 • SOCKET WRENCH AND SOCKETS: a long handled wrench with
interchangeable heads that fits over nuts and bolts of various
sizes.

• TOOLBOX: The toolbox contains all the tools (hand tools). A standard
toolbox should contain at least 30-50 tools.

Other tools are the Allen key, hacksaw

The Allen key

1.1.3 MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING MACHINE TOOLS

There are various types of maintenance. They are

o Periodical maintenance

o Seasonal maintenance

o Predictive maintenance

o Damage maintenance

o Preventive maintenance

o Daily maintenance

ENGINE OIL

In servicing of machine tools, oil is used to service some machine parts. The
viscosity of the oil determines its grade. It is graded in SAE numbers. E.g. SAE 40,
SAE 30, SAE 50 etc. The higher the grade number, the thicker the oil. The different
types of oils are.

o Petrol engine oil

 o Diesel engine oil

o Gear oil

o Steering oil

o Hydraulic oil

o Axle oil

FILTERS: Filters are used to filter oil and remove or prevent dirt from entering the
machine. Types are: fuel filter, engine oil filter, hydraulic filter, dry air filter, wet air
filter.

1.2.1 NUTS AND BOLTS

• BOLTS: A bolt is a hexagonal shaft having external threading at one end.
They are used majorly to hold machine parts together. They vary
in size from very small to large sizes. There is a special type of
bolt called the u-bolt. It is used to hold axles.

• NUTS: A nut is a hexagonal shaft having internal threading. It is used with

bolts to fasten mechanical parts together. They vary in size.

• STUDS: A stud is a shaft that has threading at both ends of its length. They
are used to hold components at both ends together with a bolt.
1.2.2 WASHERS
A Washer is a thin plate with a hole that is normally used to distribute load of a
threaded fastener. Washers have two general purposes:

o They are used as spacers to achieve a very good tightening.

o To achieve air tight surfaces which prevent fuel leakage.

There are three types of washers:

o Spring washer

o Plain washer

o Fibre washer: this is made of brass and copper. It is used along

fuel lines.

Types of washers

1.2.3 BEARINGS
Bearings are components of a machine or machinery that support the rotating parts
in the machines. Every revolving shaft must have bearing supporting their
rotational motion. Bearing (mechanics), mechanical device for decreasing friction in
a machine in which a moving part bears—that is, slides or rolls while exerting force
—on another part. Usually in a bearing the support must allow the moving part one
type of motion, for example, rotation, while preventing it from moving in any other
way, for example, sidewise. The commonest bearings are found at the rigid
supports of rotating shafts where friction is the greatest.

TYPES OF BEARING

The different types of bearings are:

a) Roller bearing; the roller bearing has the same diameter both for it top and
the base and it is being guarded by a Cole. A roller bearing is similar to a ball
bearing, except that small steel cylinders, or rollers, are substituted for the
balls. A needle bearing is a roller bearing in which the rollers are extremely
long and thin. An ordinary roller bearing may have 20 rollers, each twice as
long as it is wide; whereas a needle bearing may have 100 needles, each 10
times as long as it is wide. Needle bearings are particularly useful when
space is limited.

b) Tapered roller bearing; The diameter of the top is more than that of its
bottom. It is used when the revolving shaft is expected to speed and carry
load. It is usually found at the front wheels of a vehicle. The position where
the wheels are fixed is called a hub. A hub is housing or a unit that allows
component to rotate. All hubs must have two tapered roller bearings and
shaft.

c) Ball bearing; it has balls as bearings; example is the life grease ball bearing.
It is usually found in machines where large amount of load is to be carried. It
can be found at the rear wheel of a tractor. In a ball bearing, a number of
balls rotate freely between an inner ring, which is rigidly fixed to a rotating
shaft, and an outer ring, which is rigidly fixed to a support. Both balls and
rings are made of hardened alloy steel, usually finished to extremely fine
tolerances. The balls are generally held in position by a cage or separator
that keeps them evenly spaced and prevents them from rubbing against each
other. The bearing is lubricated with grease or oil.

d) Needle bearing. This is found at the universal joint of a propeller shaft. It is

used when very high speed is required
 e) Plain bearing; it acts as a bearing and spacer to prevent metal to metal
contact. It can be found at the crankshaft as and connecting rod.

f) Bushing; it is made from brass material. It prevents metal to metal contact

during rotational motion. It has groove or shut which helps it to trap down
grease.

1.3.1 METHODS OF TRANSMITTING MOTION IN A

MACHINE

This involves the methods of transferring motion to movable parts of component

machines. There are five ways of transmitting motion:

a) Belt and pulleys method: this involves transmission of drive from one
pulley to another by a connecting medium called the belt. For example the
crankshaft generates drive and it is transmitted to the pulley of an alternator
through the use of a belt. When the belt is twisted the sense of the drive we
change. The types of pulleys are; the groove and flat pulleys. A groove
pulley uses groove belt while a flat pulley uses flat belt. Belt and pulleys
method is applied were less power is to be transmitted. Grinding machine,
block-making machine, grain Sheller machine and milling machine use this
method for the transmission of drive.

b) Chain and sprocket method; this is used when great power is to be

transmitted. The chain moves at a lower speed compare to belt. This
mechanism can be found in bicycle and motorcycle. For bicycle, drive is
generated by pedaling and it is transferred through the chain to the sprocket.
For motorcycle drive is not generated by pedaling. Also combine grain sheller
uses chain and sprocket and also this method can be found in Xerox
machine. Types of chains include; the needle chain, the roller chain and
the Gunter chain.
c) Keys and Key-ways method; this method is often used when drive is to be
transmitted from the shaft to the pulley; the key is locked to the pulley
through key-ways. There are different types of keys for different purposes.
These are the Allen key, bolt, flat keys, round key and the half-round
key. The different types of keyways are, the internal and external key
ways. This method can be found in the tractor and slasher.

d) Shaft and splines. A spline is a flat, relatively narrow key that is integral to
a shaft, produced by milling a longitudinal groove while shaft is a rotating rod
that provides motion or power. This method enhances the transfer of power
from the source of the power to other part. There are external and internal
splines the power-take-off shaft.

External spline internal spline

e) Gears: Any meshing gears move in opposite direction. The diameters of the

two gears involved may be different or the same. Bevel gears are employed
 to transmit motion between shafts that do not have parallel axes and hence

can be used to change direction. Gears can be classified into driving and

driven gear.

1.3.2 IDENTIFICATION OF ENGINES

Engines can be identified in four major ways.

1. TYPE OF FUEL USED: the engine may have a petrol engine or a

diesel engine.

2. METHODS OF COOLING: the engine can be identified if the engine

uses either an air cooling engine or water cooling engine.

3. NUMBER OF CYLINDERS: the number of cylinders in a engine can be

used to identify it. This range from 4-12 cylinders.

4. BY THEIR STROKE: some engines are either two or four stroke

engines. A stroke is the distance travelled when the piston moves from
the top dead centre to the bottom dead centre.

1.3.3 FOUR STROKE ENGINE CYCLE

A four stroke engine must complete four strokes to complete a cycle.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 o Stroke: this is the distance travelled by the piston from the top dead
centre to the bottom dead centre and vice versa.

o Top dead centre: this is the highest height the piston can travel to.

o Bottom dead centre: this is the lowest depth the piston can travel to.

o Piston: metal cylinder that slides up and down inside a tubular housing,
receiving pressure from or exerting pressure on a fluid,
especially one of several in an internal combustion engine.

o Connecting rod: connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It

can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the
piston moves and the crankshaft rotates.

o Inlet valve: this allows air to come in and mix with fuel.

o Exhaust valve: this allows gases after combustion to leave the

combustion chamber.

The four stages in the completion of the four stoke cycle are

STAGE 1 - INDUCTION STROKE

The inlet valve is opened while the exhaust valve is closed. The open inlet valve
allows a mixture of air and petrol to flow in and the piston moves from the top dead
centre to the bottom dead centre.

STAGE 2 – COMPRESSION STROKE

The piston moves from the bottom dead centre to Top dead centre where the fuel
is compressed, the volume is reduced and pressure is increased and so the fuel
mixture temperature is increased. The two valves closed during this stroke.
STAGE 3 – POWER STROKE

In this stroke, the spark plug ignites the fuel. Current is released from the battery
and the current tries to jump the two electrodes at the base of the plug thereby
producing a spark. The fuel air mixture is combusted or explodes thereby pushing
the piston downward from top dead centre to the bottom dead centre.

It should be noted that in compression ignition engines i.e. diesel engines, it is

diesel which is sprayed into combustion chamber that acts like a spark plug
because it is the air which is compressed that is already at a high temperature. The
power stroke is the useful stroke because the crankshaft is turned in this stroke.
The inlet valves and exhaust valves are also closed here.

STAGE 4 – EXHAUST STROKE

The gases left by the burned fuel are pushed out of the cylinder and the piston rises
again moving from the bottom dead centre to the Top dead centre. The exhaust
valves opens to let the fumes escape while the inlet valves remain closed, thereby
bringing an end to the cycle and the whole process starts all over again.

1.4.1 SYSTEMS IN A TRACTOR / AUTOMOBILE

Systems are components combined together for a particular purpose in the vehicle.
There are nine systems in tractors or automobiles. They are as follows:
 • Ignition System

• Fueling System

• Lubrication System

• Cooling System

• Electrical System

• Transmission System

• Steering System

• Braking System

• Hydraulic System

IGNITION SYSTEM

The system by which the compressed fuel in the cylinder is being ignited is referred
to as the ignition system. In the ignition system, the positive terminal of the battery
is connected to the kick or starter motor which is like a switch and the negative is
earthed. From the positive terminal of the battery is connected a wire to the ignition
coil. The ignition coil is made of primary and secondary windings, it serves as a
multiplier effect on the voltage supplied. A high tension goes from the ignition coil
to the distributor cap. Inside the distributor cap we have the contact set and a rotor,
the negative terminal of the ignition coil is connected to the contact set.

The current in the distributor unit gets to the rotor which has a pointed end and the
rotor rotates among the four ends or plug points which later leads to the spark plug.
There is a notable distance between the four plug points and

the current that passes through this distance is not useful and is picked up by the
contact set and returned back to the coil. The contact also controls the timing of the
distribution among the four spark plugs.

Also, there is a condenser whose function is to arrest the current and the noisy
sound produced in engines which is always irregular is caused by a damaged
condenser. There is also a firing order for the cylinders which could either be
“1,3,4,2” or “1,2,3,4” it should be observed that “4” always come at the third
position.
FUELING SYSTEM

This is the system that deals mainly with how the fuel in the tank gets to the
cylinders of the engine. It consists of a tank, fuel filter fuel pump or lift pump,
injection nozzles e.t.c For a tractor the fuel filter comprises of both primary and
secondary filter, in this system fuel from the tank goes to the fuel pump (to increase
the pressure of the fuel) since a liquid naturally flows from top to bottom but the
movement of the fuel is in the opposite direction so a fuel pump is needed.

From the fuel pump or lift pump which has a priming lever that is actuated by
cranking the engine, the fuel moves into the primary and secondary filter, the
primary filter been the one closest to the lift pump and directly to it. Leaving the
secondary filter the fuel goes to the injector pump, the injector pump has four
nozzles or pipes coming out of it and then the injector pump then distributes the
fuel to the next nozzle to fire. The injection nozzles are also called atomizers as they
spray fuel through three tiny holes.

Difference between a carburetor engine and an injector engine

A carburetor mixes fuel with air and releases it in the form of liquid while fuel
injectors spray the exact quantity of fuel needed into the cylinders and thus making
it more efficient and consistent than a carburetor. All modern cars are equipped
with fuel injection systems
Since air goes to the engine through the intake manifold, there is a need for us to
ensure that clean air gets to the cylinders and hence the use of air cleaners. There
are two types of cleaners 1) dry cleaner 2) wet cleaner

The wet cleaner has oil at its base which traps dust and then goes to the inlet
manifold which later goes into the cylinders, while the dry cleaner is devoid of oil.

A major problem with the diesel engine is when the fuel finishes in the tank and air
fills the pipe that lead to the injection nozzles. This occurrence is termed ENGINE
AIRLOCK or that the engine is “air locked.” The process whereby air is removed
from the fuelling system is called “BLEEDING.”

Bleeding

The bleeding process involves;

Fill the tank with fuel

Prime by pressing the priming lever to actuate it.

Open the bolt after secondary filter

Continue priming

Unscrew the bleeding screw

Loosen the number 1 nozzle.

We then continue priming until fuel comes out of the number 1 nozzle. It should be
noted that number 1 nozzle is always the longest and if fuel should come out of it, it
means that fuel has already replaced the air in the other nozzles and so air has
been completely removed from the fuelling system.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM

The lubricating system is a system whereby all the moving parts are oiled. This is to
reduce friction and heat generated. The lubricating system has a oil reservoir where
the engine oil is put. An oil pump is used in moving the oil from low level to high
level. The main lubricant in an automobile engine is the motor oil which is held in an
oil pan underneath the engine which is called the sump. From the pump the oil goes
through an oil filter which strains particle and dirt thereby giving the oil an
exceptional purity. It goes from the oil filter to the rocker shaft. The shaft holding
the rockers is called the rocker shaft.

Between the cylinder head and engine block is the top cylinder gasket which
prevents oil mixing water. If this happens the water in the radiator becomes a
mixture of oil and water but if water mixes with oil the dipstick looks milky. The
dipstick is used to check the gauge of oil in the sump. The rubber material found
around the rocker cover is called sealant and is to prevent loss of oil. There is a
drain plug which is a very big bolt compared to the other bolts which is used to
drain oil.

Maintenance cultures

There are basically three types of maintenance culture

Daily maintenance

Weekly maintenance

Periodic maintenance

Daily maintenance: (1) check the water level (2) check the engine oil level

(3) Check the brake oil level.

Weekly maintenance: in addition to the daily maintenance we include checking

the gear oil level.

Periodic maintenance: this is mainly about servicing and the vehicle plugs are
changed along with the engine oil and the oil filters.

COOLING SYSTEM

It is a system whereby the temperature of the engine is been controlled to prevent

overheating. Overheating may result in the melting of the metals that were used in
the making of the engine.

The cooling system consists of the radiator, water pump, fan thermostat, water
ways e.t.c. The radiator is the water reservoir; it consists of up-tank and bottom
tank. The bottom tank has an outlet orifice which goes to the engine. Also, since
water is moving in the opposite direction there is need for a pump and specifically a
water pump is used to pump the water from low level to high level. The radiator
also consists of the radiator tube and the radiator fins which helps in cooling the
water. The process involves hot water entering the up-tank and as it goes through
the radiator tube, the fan blows it and its cooled, so cooled water enters the engine
through the outlet orifice and the cycle continues.
How to diagnose fault on overheating

The two possible reasons are;

The fan is not working

The water pump is damaged.

It should be noted that the radiator cap is different from other caps because it has a
spring which enables it to relief pressure from the heat of the vapour of the hot
water and hence it does not damage the radiator by flying of suddenly. This cap is
called pressure relief cap and it has a relieve hole that gases passes out. The
purpose of the thermostat is to conserve heat within engine and not allowing it to
get to the top tank very fast. The thermostat is mainly used in the temperate
regions not here in the equatorial regions.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Basically, the electrical system can be defined as a system which shows how
electricity is transferred to the required components coupled in an automobile. The
electrical components can be grouped into three stages; 1) cranking stage 2)
lightning system 3) charging system.

Cranking stage/system: Wire comes from the positive terminal of the battery to
the kick starter, from the kick starter a tiny wire goes to the ignition key. When the
key is switched on 12V is drawn from the battery which is naturally not enough to
drive the flywheel. The kick starter is made up of magnets and solenoid that we
multiply the 12V to become 1200V and this voltage can now drive the flywheel.

There is a spring attached to the ignition key which returns the key to a particular
position after cranking. Thus, the cranking stage is about how the engine comes to
live through the ignition key (switch).

Lightning system: All the other accessories that require lightning are involved in
this stage. Examples are the horn radio the head lamps trafficator, inner lights e.t.c
are all dependent on the battery.

Charging system: The continuous usage of the battery without recharge makes
the battery go flat with time. The device solely responsible for recharging the
battery is the alternator. There is a pulley of the alternator which is connected to a
solenoid and from the alternator there is a red wire that connects back to the kick
starter. When the battery has filled back to 12V, There is a device in the alternator
called voltage regulator which cuts the recharging process to prevent the battery
from over charging. In older cars like the 1967 Volkswagen beetle a generator is
used and this voltage regulator is commonly referred to as cut-out. The alternator
might not be working sometimes and all the work load comes to the battery which
goes flat after two to three days. The ways of checking whether the alternator is
working are;

After starting the engine you remove the positive terminal cap of the battery and
see if the engine is still working if the engine is still working then the alternator is
working but if not then the alternator is not working. This method is used in petrol
engines.
 CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL PLANNING UNIT