AIM & GENERAL INTRODUCTION

AIM: - Investigation on the foaming capacity of different detergents and the effect of additions of sodium
carbonate on them.

General Introduction: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids such as Lauric acid
(C11H23COOH), Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH),
Stearic acid or Linolcic acid (C17H31COOH).

Sodium soaps are hard whereas potassium soaps are soft. Soaps are generally obtained by the hydrolysis of
oils and facts. The oils and fats generally used for the manufacture of soaps are tallow, lard, olive oil,
linseed.

CH2OCOR CH2OH

CHOCOR + 3NaOH CHOH +3RCOONa

Soap
(Saponification)
CH2OCR CH2OH
Oil or Fat Glycerol
Where R=C17H35 OR C17H33 OR C15H31 OR C11H23

Cleaning action of soaps: It is not the soap which directly washes away the dirt or oil when applied on dirty
or oily clothes. It is the foam or the later which carries away the dirt by foaming emulsions when excess of
water is put
On the dirty clothe along with soaps. Foam or lather being formed of dissolutions of soap in water. More
over hard water in not suitable for washing purposes. Hard water doesn’t give lather with soap because
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in it prevents the release of stercate or Palmitic ions by forming curd
precipitates with these.
2C17H35COONa (aq) + Ca (aq)  (C17H35COO) 2Ca(S)
2C17H35COONa (aq) + Mg (aq)  (C17H35COO) 2Mg(s) +2Na (aq)

Thus thw washing or cleaning capacity of soaps depends upon the extent to which the soap can furnish
lather with water i.e. upon the foaming capacity of soaps. A soap which produces more foam is more
effective in cleansing.

MANUFACTURE OF DETERGENTS

Detergent manufacturing consists of a broad range of processing and packaging operations. The size and
complexity of these operations vary from small plants employing a few people to those with several hundred
workers. Products range from large volume types like laundry detergents that are used on a regular basis to lower
volume specialties for less frequent cleaning needs.

Cleaning products come in three principal forms: bars, powders & liquids. Some liquid products are so viscous
that they are gels. The first step in manufacturing all three forms is the selection of raw materials. Raw materials
are chosen according to many criteria, including their human and environmental safety, cost, compatibility with
other ingredients and the form and performance characteristics of the finished product. While actual production
processes may vary from manufacture to manufacture, there are steps which are common to all products of a
similar form. Powder detergents are produced by spray drying, agglomeration dry mixing or combination of
these methods.
 In the spray drying process, dry and liquid ingredients are first combined into slurry, or thick suspension, in a
tank called a crutcher. The slurry is heated and then pumped to the top of a tower where it is sprayed through
nozzles under high pressure to produce small droplets. The granules are collected from the bottom of the spray
tower where they are screened to achieve a relatively uniform size. After the granules have been cooled, heat
sensitive ingredients that are compatible with the spray drying temperature (such as bleach, enzymes and
fragrance are added. traditional spray drying produces relatively low density powders.

Agglomeration, which leads to higher density powders, consists of bleaching dry raw materials with liquid
ingredients. Helped by the pressure of a liquid binder, rolling or shear
mixing causes the ingredients to collide and adhere to each other, foaming larger particles. Dry mixing or dry
blending is used to blend dry raw materials; small quantities of liquids may also be added.

Both batch and continuous blending processes are used to manufacture liquid and gel cleaning products.
Stabilizers may be added during manufacturing to ensure the uniformly and stability of the finished product. In a
typical continuous process, dry and liquid ingredients are added and blended to a uniform mixture using in-line
or static mixers.
PACKAGING OF DETERGENTS

The final step in the manufacturing of soaps and detergents is packaging .Bar soaps and either wrapped or
cartooned in single packs or multipacks. Detergents including household cleaner are packaged in cartons, bottles,
pouches, bags, or cans. The selection of packaging material and containers involves considerations of product
compatibility and stability, cost, packaging safety, solid waste impact, shelf appeal and case of use.
INSECT CONTROL: SOAP AND DETERGENTS

Quick facts

Soaps can be used to control a wide range of plants pests. Small soft bodied arthropods such as aphids,
mealy bugs, psyllids and spider mites are most susceptible to soaps.
The ease of use, safety and selective action of soaps appeal to many people.
Limitations of soaps include the need to wet the insect during application, absence of ant residual
effectiveness and potential to damage some plants.
Soaps or detergents used for control of insects are applied as dilute sprays, mixed with water to produce
a concentration of about 2 percent.

Soaps have been used to control insects for more than 200 years. Recently there has been increases interest in and
used of these products. This change is due to better understanding of how to use soaps most effectively and a
desire to use insecticides that are easier and safer to use than many currently available alternatives.

How soaps and detergents kill insects is still poorly understood. In most cases control results from disruption of
the cell membranes of the insect. Soaps and detergents may also remove the protective waxes that cover the insect
causing death through excess loss of water.

Soap – Detergent Sprays

Soaps and detergents act strictly as contact insecticides, with no residual effect. To be effective, sprays must be
applied directly to and thoroughly cover the insect.
Several insecticidal soaps are distributed for control of insects and mites. Available under a variety of trade names,
the active ingredients of all is potassium salt of fatty acids. However there are many features of commercial
insecticidal soap products that distinguish them form the dishwashing liquids or soaps that are sometimes
substituted. Insecticidal soaps sold for control of insects.
  Are selected to control insects.
 Are selected to minimize potential plant injury and
 Are to consistent manufacture.

Susceptible Insects
Most research with insecticidal soaps and detergents has involved control of plant
pests. In general, these sprays are effective against most small soft-bodied arthropods, such as aphids, young
scales, whiteflies, psyllides, mealy bugs and spider mites. Larger insects such as caterpillars, sawflies and beetle
larvae generally are immune to soap sprays. Insecticidal soaps are considered selective insecticides because of
their minimal adverse effects on other beneficial insects and not very susceptible to soap sprays. Predatory mites,
often important in control of spider mites, are an exception: a beneficial group of organisms easily killed by soaps .

Application
One of the most serious potential drawbacks to the use of soap- detergent spray is potential to cause plant injury –
their phytotoxicity. Certain plants are sensitive to these sprays and may be seriously injured. For example, most
commercial insecticidal soaps list plants such as hawthorn, sweet pea, cherries and plum as being sensitive to
soaps. Protulaca and certain tomato varieties also sometimes damages be insecticidal soaps. The risk of plant
damage is greater with homemade preparations
of household soaps or detergents. When in doubt, test soap – detergents sprays for phytotoxicity problems on a
small are a day or two before an extensive area is treated.
Using sprays that are diluted more than 2 to 3 percent suggested on label instructions can reduce plant injury. To
reduce leaf injury, wash plants within a couple of hours after the application. Limiting the number of soap
application can also be important, as leaf damage can accumulate with repeated exposure.

However, because of the short residual action, repeat application may be needed at relatively short interval (four
to seven days) to control certain pests, such as spider mites and scale crawlers. Also, application must be
thorough and completely wet the pest. This usually means spraying undersides of leaves and other protected
sites. Insects that cannot be completely wetted, such as aphids within curled leaves, will not be controlled.

Environment factors also affect use of soaps. In particular, soaps (but not synthetic detergents) are affected by
the presence of minerals found in hard water, which results in chemical changes producing insoluble soaps (soap
scum).control decreases if hard- water sources are used. Insecticidal soaps may also be more effective if drying
is not overly rapid, such as early or late in the dry.
INGREDIENTS OF A DETERGENT

DETERGENTS AND SURFACTANTS:-No matter how much fun we have squishing our toes in the mud, we
love to be clean. We want our clothes to be fresh, our dishes to be spotless and our cars to be shiny. We continue
to invent new ways to make things clean and soap was probably discovered only shortly after cooking as the fats
from the flood hit the ashes from the fire.

DETERGENTS: - Detergents have molecules with one side that prefers water (hydrophilic) and another side
that prefers oils and fats (hydrophobic). The hydrophilic side attaches to water molecules and the hydrophilic
side attaches the oil molecules. This action allows the oil droplets to break up into smaller droplets, surround by
water. These smaller droplets are no longer struck to the material to be cleaned and are washed away.

Surfactants detergents and soaps are surfactants, short for surface-active agent. Surfactants have a hydrophilic
side of the molecule attaches to water and a hydrophobic side of the molecule that avoids water. In the absence
of oils, the hydrophobic side sticks out of the surface of the eater drop. There is no longer any water at the
surfaces to form a strong surface tension, so the water no longer beads uo but spreads. The hydrophobic end of
the molecules is also free to attach to grease, fat or oil on the surface, aiding in the spreading.
Emulsifiers: - Some detergents and surfactants are use as emulsifying agents. An emulsifier keeps oil droplets
and water droplets from joining together, so thick mixture of oil and water will not separate. Examples of
emulsions are mayonnaise, butter, cream homogenized milk and salad dressings.

Soaps: - Soap is made from a fatty acid that is reacted with an alkali. The acid end of the fatty acid reacts with
the alkali to form a salt that is water-soluble. The other end is the fatty end which repels water and is attracted to
fats and oils. The process of making soap is called saponication. One kind of soap is sodium stereate. Beef fat
reacting to alkaline wood ashes created the earliest soap and it was the cleaning product of choice for millennia.

Types of detergents: - German scientists created the first detergent during the shortages of World War II. These
were called branched-chain alkyl benzene sulphonates. Like soap, they could take hard minerals out of water,
leaving it soft, as with soap, the minerals formed a scum, familiar to anyone who has seen a bathtub ring.

Microbes could not break down branch-chain detergents, so they left foam in river water. They were replaced by
straight-chain alkyl benzene sulphonates, such as Sodium dodecylbenzinesulfonate and sodium
xylenesulfonate.

Straight-chain detergents don’t work in hard water. Phosphates were added to detergents to soften the water but
phosphates are excellent fertilizer for algae in rivers and oceans. The algae blooms deplete the oxygen in the
water, killing fish. Phosphates were replaced with other water softeners such as sodium carbonate

Later, surface-acting polyglucosides were created. These sugar- based detergents are easily broken down by
microbes, leaving no traces in the environment. They consist of a pair of glucose molecules, with hydrocarbon
side chain attached to act as the hydrophobic ends. They are milder than soaps and work in hard water. Another
type of detergent in a group called the pyrrolidones. There are complex molecules that dissolve in both water and
organic solvents.

ADDITIVES: - Some laundry detergents contain “optical brighteners”. These are fluorescent dyes that glow
blue-white in ultraviolet light. The blue-white color makes yellowed fabrics appear white. Laundry detergent
may also contain polyethylene glycol, a polymer that prevents dirt from re-depositing on the clothes. This
function used to be job of phosphates. Another polymer used for this purpose is carboxyl methyl cellulose. This
is derived from natural cellulose, but is very soluble in water. Yet another ingredient in laundry detergents is
Diethyl Ester Dimethyl Ammonium chloride (DEEDMAC). It is a fabric softener. It is a cationic surfactant that
is rapidly biodegradable. It works by reducing the friction between fibers and between fibers and the skin.
Cationic surfactants are those where the hydrophilic part (in this case the ammonium chloride) is positively
charged and is attracted to substrates that are negatively charged, such as proteins and many synthetic fabrics.
Hair conditioners use this trick also. You can think of a hair conditioner as fabric softener for your head.

Some examples of detergents and surfactants are:

 Ammonium Lauryl Sulfate

 Laurly Glucoside

GETTING RID OF DIRT

The soaps and detergents industry is a major customer of the soda ash manufactured by Tata chemicals.

Soda ash is used as a builder or filler, to deliver a smoother surface in the formulation of soaps,
detergents and other cleaning compounds. It is also used as an alkali in pH adjustment. In addition, soda
ash is used to manufacture ultramarine, which gives white clothes a sparkling look; shampoos use soda
ash as a pH modifier, while soda ash precipitate is used as a soft abrasive in toothpaste.
 Detergents require light soda ash with chloride percentage of 0.4 to 1.0 percent. The bulk density of this
soda ash ensures volume benefits, while the low chloride content make it ideal for use I washing
machines.

In the detergent-manufacturing process, soda ash can be hydrated to carry water as in expensive filler and
to enhance the storage and dissolving properties of the detergent.

Soda ash is used in a slew of laundry and cleaning compound formulations: as a builder to emulsify oil
stains, to reduce the deposit of dirt during washing and rinsing, to provide alkalinity for cleaning and to
soften laundry water. Additionally, soda ash is a compound of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), another
major builder in detergent formulations.

In powdered laundry detergent, soda ash conditions the water and enhances the processing and
performance of formulated cleaning products.

DETERGENT “ALTERNATIVES” – THE FACTS

Washing with detergent “alternatives” will have the same environmental impact as washing with water alone.
But then, they only get clothes as clean as washing with clean water.

More importantly, the ingredients used in laundry detergents are carefully selected and researched to be safe for
the environment. Laundry detergents are a mix of ingredients typically including surfactants, builder and entire
deposition agents, processing aids, washing protection agents and water. In some detergents other ingredients are
included to provide additional benefits such as better fabric whitening or brightening, improved strain removal
and fabric.

Chemicals are either inorganic or organic. Inorganic, like sodium carbonate, silicate are sulfate are found in
nature. There materials, once they go down the drain, return to nature and cause no detrimental effects to the
environments, much the same as and minerals settle back the ocean floor.

Organic chemicals are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Detergents formulators are careful
to select organic compounds that readily biodegrade. This means they are broken down by the action of
microorganisms in municipal sewage treatment plants are septic tank systems to carbon dioxide, water and
minerals. In this way, the organic ingredients are sufficiently removed so that any residual, discharged into the
environment are at such low levels they do not pose a risk to aquatic life.

Some detergent “alternatives” claim that phosphate in laundry detergents causing environmental problems. This
in not true, because phosphates are nutrients, they were though to contribute to the eutrophication of lakes and
streams, that is, causing algae to grow 5%of the country’s phosphate addition to waterways (human and animal
wastes and fertilizer being the main contributors), the industry has lessened the phosphate impact by lowering
laundry detergent phosphate levels since 1972, with major manufacturers finally eliminating phosphate in 1944.

As a result, it is totally false and misleading to describe laundry detergents as being toxic of pollutants. They are
designed to go down the drain when their cleaning job is done and safely treated in municipal sewage treatment
facilities or in septic tank systems. Detergents and their ingredients are well researched by toxicologists and
environmental scientists, the fate in the environment is know and they can be used by consumers with confidence
in the human and environment safety.

SYNTHETIC SURFACTANT OR SOAP?

You may well ask why soap, which served well for so many years, was eventually displaced. Soaps are cheap and
they are manufactured from a renewable source, whereas many of the synthetic detergents are made from the
petrochemicals. Soaps also biodegradable; that is, they are readily broken down by bacteria and thus they do not
pollute river. However, due to the gelling properties, soaps do have a greater tendency to clog sewerage reticulation
systems. The grease trap of a non-sewered house was often laden with soap. But the most important reason for the
displacement of soap is the fact that, when carboxylic acid soap is used in hard water precipitation occurs. The
calcium and magnesium ions, which gives hardness to the water, form insoluble salts with the fatty acid in soap and
a curd-liquid precipitate occurs and settles, of source, on what ever is being washed. By using a large excess of soap,
it is possible to re-disperse the precipitate, but it is extremely sticky and difficult to move. This problem with soap
can be demonstrated by a simple experiment in which a concentrated solution of hard water salts is added to a 0.1%
solution of soap and alter to a 0.1% solution of synthetic surfactant. The soap precipitates, but the synthetic
surfactant remains clear because it’s salt are water soluble.

You may live in an area where the water is extremely soft. But calcium and magnesium ion are present in the dirt
that you wash out of your clothes, so that some precipitate still occurs if soap is used and gradually deposits are built
up in the fabric.

There are other disadvantages with soap; it deteriorates on storage, and it lacks cleaning power when compared with
the modern synthetic surfactants, which can be designed to perform specialized cleaning tasks. Finally and very
importantly from a domestic laundry point view, soap does not rinse out; it tends to leave a residue behind in the
fabric that is being washed. A residue gradually builds up and causes bad odour, deterioration of the fabric and other
associated problems.

What’s the difference between a surfactant and soap?

In general terms, the difference can be linked to the difference between cotton and nylon. On the other hand, soap
and cotton are produce from natural products by a relatively small modification. On the other hand, synthetic
surfactants and nylon are produced entirely in chemical factory. Synthetic surfactant was produced in the form of a
sulfated castor which was used in the textile industry.

The petroleum industry had, as a waste product, the compound propylene CH3-CH=CH2, which used to be burnt
off. By joining four of these propylene molecules together and if benzene is attached at the double bond, the
resulting compound reacts with the sulphuric acid. Then sodium hydroxide is added to neutralize the sulphonic acid
a sodium salt is obtained.

DETERGENT FORM LEVEL: - The relationship between foaming power and detergency has always been of
interest and foaming power has become associated in many consumers minds with high detergent power. The first
liquid detergent on the Australian market was “Trix”. It was non-foaming, was soon replaces because of consumer
resistance. However, it is generally concede by detergents technologists that foam height has no direct relationship to
cleaning power in ordinary fabric washing systems. In systems where the amount of washing fluid is low: foam may
play an important role. The individual foam films tend to take up and deposited and allowing them to be washed or
scraped away. Front loading washing machines work by bashing clothes against the side of the tub- the high tech
version of beating clothes or rocks. Front loaders clean clothes better that top loaders but only if a low- suds
detergent is used, because the suds cushion the impact and reduce the cleaning action.

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS: - Synthetic detergents dissolve or tend to dissolve in water or other solvents.
To enable them to do this, they require distinct chemical characteristics. Hydrophilic (water loving) groupings in
their molecules structure and hydrophobic (water hating) groupings, help the detergent in it “detergency” action.

This detergency depends on the balance of the molecular weight of the hydrophobic to the hydrophilic portion. This
is called the HLB value and can range from 1 upwards. HLB is Hydrophilic- Lypophilic Balance. As the OHLB
value increases, the product can tend towards being a paste or solid. The lower number HLB values tend to be less
water soluble and more oil soluble. Higher the HLB the more water soluble the product is.
Mixtures of low and high HLB detergents produce good detergents to handle oil; fat and grease, the higher HLB
detergent helps solubilise the less water soluble, low HLB detergent into an aqueous system.

THE DISPOSAL OF SOAP & DETERGENTS

WHAT DOES “BIODEGRADABLE” MEAN?

The term “BIODEGRADABLE” refers to the ability of material to be broken down, by a group of biological
organism called decomposers, into various other compounds. Decomposers are a necessary component of a balanced
ecosystem present in natural water and sediments, and are encouraged in sewage treatment works. Bacteria are the
most common decomposers.
The Australian Standard for biodegradability requires 80% of mixtures to be degraded within 21 days if the product
is to carry the label ‘biodegradable’.
Sometimes, biodegradation can change materials such as phosphate compounds from a biologically unavailable form
into a foam that can be taken up and used by organisms.

PHOSPHATE DETERGENTS: When phosphate detergents are used, disposal of the wastewater in an issue. The
breakdown of phosphate complexes in detergent wastewater (and other household products, as well as human and
industrial wastes that contain phosphates) creates freely available phosphates: these can contribute to an oversupply
of phosphate in waterways and cause an imbalance of the aquatic ecosystem, with the following results:

 Excessive algal growth (sometimes in form of algal blooms) can occur with the addition of available
phosphates to the fresh water system. Generally, the naturally low level of phosphates in our soils and waters
limit the phosphate in the fresh water bodies of southern Australian.
 Blooms of cyan bacteria (blue-green algae) may also be toxic. This toxicity may be acute (short-term
severe) or chronic (longer-term low level (, and can be for carcinogenic.
 Decomposer organisms that require oxygen may increase, which can deplete the amount of oxygen
dissolved in the water. Excessively large numbers of decomposers may reduce the oxygen levels to the extent
that other aquatic organisms die from lack of oxygen.
 Decomposers populations grow in response to an increase in their food, such as detergent components
and, in the drier summer months. The drying excess algae.
 Using biodegradable phosphate detergents is advantageous only if detergent wastewater is directed to
the sewage system and the treated effluent is re-used to grow plants. The government plans to increase the
reuse program can have an overall beneficial effect on the environment.

PHOSPHATE-FREE DETERGENTS: - Disposal of phosphate free detergent wastewater is also an environmental

issue. As an alternative to phosphates manufacturing can use a builder or combination of builders, including zeolites
(Aluminosilicates), sodium citrate and nitrilotriacetate (NTA). Detergent wastewater containing alternative builders
also have environmental impacts and must be treated by sewage treatment works. Some of them (alkyl phenols) are
estrogen mimics that can have serious detrimental effects on populations of aquatic animals, such as decreasing their
ability to reproduce. Even after treatment. The environmental impacts of some alternative builders remain.

HOW CAN WE HELP?

Biodegradable detergents cause problems if they enter our streams, rivers and ultimately the oceans. No matter
which detergent you use, always direct your wastewater to the sewer or use it to irrigate your garden (without
allowing any runoff)
Both phosphates and phosphate-free detergent wastewater have negative impacts on our wastewater, whether on not
they are biodegradable. Directing the wastewater to the sewer allows wastewater treatment plants to remove up to
90% of phosphates.

Help the environment by making sure contaminated water does not pollute our storm water system.

FOLLOW THE STEPS FOR KEEPING YOUR STREAMS AND RIVERS CLEAN

 Wash your car on the lawn or take it to a commercial car wash that recycles its wastewater.
 Dry-sweep footpaths and driveways and place sweeping in the bin.
 Place an absorbent material, such as sand or kitty litter, on grease patches then scrape it up and place it
in a bin.
 Do not hose down paths or driveways. Mop or scrub and direct the wastewater into the sewer as you
would when cleaning inside your house.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

In primitive societies, even today, clothes are cleaned by beating them on rocks near a stream. Certain plants, such
as soapworts, have leaves that produce sapiens, chemical compounds that give a soapy lather. These were probably
the first detergents people used.

If you look up detergent in a dictionary it is simply defined as cleaning agent. During the last two to three decades,
however, the word detergent has tended to imply synthetic detergent or syndic for short, rather than the older soap.
In fact, commercial formulations consist of a number of components, and we shall use the term surface-active
agent, or its abbreviation surfactant, to describe the special active ingredients that give detergents their unusual
properties.

Soap, by this definition is a detergent. In fact, it is the oldest one and has been in use for 4599 years. Some soap
manufacture took place in Venice and Savanna in the fifteenth century and in Marseilles in the seventeenth
century. By the eighteenth century, manufacture was widespread throughout Europe and North America and by the
nineteenth century the making of soap had become a major industry. As a matter of fact, soap became a detergent
in 1907 when a German company put the product “Persil” on the market. In addition to the carboxylic acid soap,
“Persil” contained sodium per borate, sodium silicate and sodium carbonate.
OBJECTIVE 1: To compare the foaming capacities and cleaning effects of different samples of detergent.

Theory: There is no quantitative method for the determination of foaming capacity of detergent. However, the
foaming capacity of different detergent can be compared qualitatively by comparing the time taken for the
disappearance of foam produced by equal amount of various samples with the same force. Less will be taken for
the foam of a sample to disappears, the lower will be its foaming capacity or less efficient it will be as cleaning
agent.

Apparatus Required:
1. Four test tubes
2. Four beakers(250 ml capacity)
3. glass rod
4. Wire gauze
5. Tripod stand
6. 25ml graduated cylinder
7. Stop watch

Chemicals Required:
 1. Given samples of detergent
2. Distilled water

Procedure:
1. Take four 250ml beaker and number them 1, 2, 3 respectively.

2. Weigh 1g of each sample of the detergent and put on sample into one beaker.

3. Now add 25ml of distilled water in each beaker. Dissolve the detergent in it with the help of a glass rod
and by gentle heating of the beaker over the gauze.

4. Place four test tubes 1,2,3,4 in a test tube stand.

5. Pour 1ml, of the detergent solution prepared above in the test tube of corresponding number.

6. Now add 10ml of distilled water in each test tube.

7. Take one test tube. Place thumb on its mouth and shake it upside down and vice-versa five times. By this foam
will be produces, keep the test tube in the stand and immediately star a stopwatch. Note the time taken for the
disappearance of the foam.

8. Similarly, determine the time taken for the disappearance of the foam produced on other test tube. Shake every
test tube in similar fashion for equal number of times.

Observations:

1. Weight of each detergent sample taken = 1g

2. Volume of distilled water added = 25ml
3. Volume of each detergent solution taken = 1ml
4. Volume of distilled water added to the solution = 10ml
5. Number of times each tube shaken = 5 times

Detergent Time taken for

Sample disappearing of
Number foam

TIDE : 8min.30sec.

555 : 7min.20sec.

SURF EXCEL : 13min.19sec.

FENA : 6min.25sec.

CONCLUSIONS: The detergent for which time taken for the disappearing of the foam is maximum, has
maximum foaming capacity and is, therefore, beat cleaning agents among the given samples is SURF EXCEL.

Precautions:

1. Weigh and measure the volume accurately,

 2. Use same distilled water for every sample, as foaming capacity of detergent also depends upon the
nature of water used.
3. Shake every tube in a similar fashion for equal number of times.
4. Measure the time accurately of disappearance of foam.
OBJECTIVE II: To study the effect of addition of sodium carbonate on the foaming capacity of a given sample
of detergent.

Theory: Hard water does not give foam with soap. It is because of the fact that calcium and magnesium ions
present in hard water form insoluble salts which precipitates out in the form of a scum.

2Na-stearate (aq) + Ca (aq)  Ca-stearate (s) + 2Na + (aq)

Thus, presence of calcium or magnesium ions in water reduces the foaming capacity of detergent by formations of
scum’s

In order to enhance, the foaming capacity of detergent, there ions should be removed from water. One of the
methods of removing these ions is by addition of sodium carbonate solution. When sodium carbonate solution is
added to water containing calcium or magnesium ions, calcium or magnesium ions settle down as insoluble
carbonates and can be removed by filtrations.

Ca2+ (or Mg2+) (aq) + CO3 (MgCO3)

Apparatus Required:

1. Two Beakers
2. Three test tube
3. Test tube stand
4. Wire gauge
5. Tripod stand
6. Glass rod
7. Measuring cylinder
8. Stop watch

Chemical Required

1. Distilled Water
2. Hard Water
3. Sodium Carbonate
4. Given sample of detergent

Conclusion: Foaming capacity of a soap increase on addition of sodium carbonate solution in water especially if
the water is hard in nature.

Precautions:

1. Measure the volume and time accurately

2. Shake every test tube in the similar fashion.

LASSES OF DETERGENTS:-
  Alkyl benzene sulphonates (ABS). Branched-chain, anionic surfactants. Slow to biodegrade. Seldom
used.
 Linear Alkyl benzene sulphonates (LAS). Straight-chain anionic surfactants. Somewhat slow to
biodegrade. Most common surfactant in use.

 Alkyl phenoxy polyethoxy ethanol (alcohol ethoxylates). Also called nonyl phenoxy ethoxylate or
nonyl phenol. Slow to biodegrade. Nonionic surfactant. Used in dry detergents.

 Diethanolamine and Triethanolamine commonly used to neutralize acids in shampoos, to reduce

irritation (pH balanced shampoos). Slow to biodegrade.

 Alkyl ammonium chloride (Quaternion 15). Acts as a surfactant, disinfectant and deodorant.

 Alkyl glycosides quick to biodegrade. Made from oils and sugar.

DETERGENT ADDITIVES:-

 Mono Ethanol Amine (MEA). A solvent used to dissolve other laundry detergent ingredients. It also
lowers the freezing point of liquid laundry products to allow them to be transported in cold weather.

 Sodium carbonate peroxide, used as bleach. It breaks down into sodium carbonate and hydrogen
peroxide, which does the actual bleaching.

 Sodium sulfate. Used to dilute powdered detergents.

USE OF SOAP
Important of soap:-
Soap contains ingredients that will help to:
 Loosen dirt on your hands
 Soften water, making it easier to lather the soap over your hands
 Rinse your hands, having no residue to irritate and dry your skin.

Soaps can have different pH- they can be neutral, slightly alkaline or slightly acidic. That is why some soap
irritates some people and not others. Perfumes in soap can be another reason why some people have skin reactions.
Liquid soap is best because it is better to use liquid soap rather than bar soap, particularly at work. The benefits of
liquid soap include:

 Hygiene – it is less likely to be contaminated.

 Right amount – liquid soap dispensers do not dispense more that required(more is not better)
 Less waste- it is easier to use, with less wastage. ‘Drop in’ cassette dispensers use all the soap
 Saves time – liquid soap dispensers are easy and efficient to use.

Disposal liquid soap cassettes are convenient, as you do not have to wash and thoroughly dry the refillable
container before refilling. If you want to use refillable container, they must not be topped up. When they are empty
they must be thoroughly cleaned and dried before they are refilled to avoid contamination. At home, refillable
dispensers are likely to be used rather than ‘drop in’ cassettes, which are designed for commercial use. The
problems with bar soap- particularly in public places are:

 Bar soap can sit in pools of water and become contaminated with many harmful germs.
 People are less likely to use bar soap if it is ‘messy’ from sitting in water.
 Contaminated soap may spread germs and may be more harmful than not washing your hands.
 Bar soap can dry out- people are less likely to use it to wash their hands because it is difficult to later.