Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
H
Cl
+9
2e
7e
8e
1e
18e ISOELECTONIC
8e WITH Ne
2e
+19
ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ar
REPRESENTING ATOMS AND MOLECULES
USING ELECTRON DOT FORMULAE
(LEWIS DOT REPRESENTATIONS)
• LEWIS DOT FORMULAE USE THE ATOMIC
SYMBOL TO REPRESENT THE “KERNEL” OF THE
ATOM THAT IS THE NUCLEUS AND ALL INNER
ENERGY LEVEL ELECTRONS. DOTS ARE THEN
USED TO REPRESENT EACH OUTER ENERGY
LEVEL ELECTRON (VALENCE ELECTRONS)
• THE PAIRING OF THESE ELECTRON “DOTS”
APPROXIMATES THE PAIRINGS OF ELECTRONS IN
ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR (BONDING) ORBITALS
OF THE ATOM OR MOLECULE.
ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATIONS
FOR SOME COMMON ATOMS
(LEWIS DOT NOTATIONS)
COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
+9
2e
6e
7e
6e
7e
2e
+9
BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
COVALENT BONDING
(ELECTRON SHARING – DOUBLE BOND)
+8
2e
4e
6e
6e
4e
2e
+8
BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
COVALENT BONDING
(ELECTRON SHARING – TRIPLE BOND)
+7
2e
5e
2e
5e
2e
2e
+7
BOTH ISOELECTRONIC
WITH Ne
ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATIONS OF
POLYATOMIC MOLECULES AND IONS
OCTET (8)
FOR CARBON
HYDROGEN
REQUIRES
ONLY 2
ELECTRONS
RESONANCE BOND
RESONANCE STRUCTURES OCCUR WHEN A DOUBLE
OR TRIPLE BOND MAY EQUALLY WELL BE PLACED
AT MORE THAN ONE BONDING SITE
IT COULD -2
HAVE BEEN
PLACED HERE
OR HERE
WHEN RESONANCE OCCURS THE DOUBLE BOND
IS SAID TO BE DELOCALIZED WHICH MEANS
THAT IT MOVES CONTINUALLY FROM ONE
BONDING SITE TO THE NEXT.
-2
-2
-2
COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• COVALENT BONDS MAY BE POLAR OR NONPOLAR
• (1) POLAR BONDS OCCUR WHEN SHARED ELECTRON
PAIRS ARE SHIFTED AWAY FROM ONE OF THE
BONDED ATOMS AND TOWARDS THE OTHER. ONE
END OF THE BOND THEREFORE IS MADE MORE
NEGATIVE AND THE OTHER END OF THE BOND IS
LEFT MORE POSITIVE. THE GREATER THE ELECTRON
SHIFT, THE MORE POLAR THE BOND BECOMES.
• (2) NONPOLAR BONDS OCCUR WHEN ELECTRON PAIRS
ARE SHARED EQUALLY AND THE BOND PAIR IS
CENTRALLY LOCATED BETWEEN THE ATOMS. THIS
BOND HAS NO POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE END.
COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• THE DEGREE OF BOND POLARITY DEPENDS ON
HOW WELL ONE ATOM ATTRACTS ELECTRONS
AS COMPARED TO THE OTHER BONDED ATOM.
• MORE NONMETALLIC ATOMS (HIGH
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES) ATTRACT ELECTRONS
THE BEST WHILE METALLIC ATOMS (LOW
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES) ATTRACT ELECTRONS
MOST POORLY.
• WHEN BOTH BONDED ATOMS ARE
NONMETALLIC THEIR ELECTRONEGATIVITY
VALUES ARE COMPARED TO DETERMINE THE
DEGREE OF BOND POLARITY.
COMMON PROPERTIES AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT BONDS
(CONT’D)
• THE LARGEST POSSIBLE DIFFERENCE IN
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES BETWEEN BONDED ATOMS
IS THAT FOR A CESIUM FLOURINE BOND (∆ EN =3.3)
THIS REPRESENTS THE MOST IONIC POSSIBLE BOND.
• THE SMALLEST POSSIBLE DIFFERENCE IN
ELECTRONEGATIVITIES BETWEEN BONDED ATOMS
OCCURS IN ALL DIATOMIC MOLECULES. SINCE EACH
AOM HAS THE SAME ELECTRONEGATIVITY, THE
DIFFERENCE IS ZERO (∆ EN = 0). THIS REPRESENTS A
COMPLETELY NONPOLAR BOND.
• ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
THESE EXTREMES (3.3 AND 0) INDICATE THE
RELATIVE POLARITY OF A BOND
KINDS OF CHEMICAL BONDS
IONIC BONDING
∆ EN = (4.0 – 0.70) = 3.3
+δ -δ POLAR COVALENT
BONDING
∆ EN = (3.0 – 2.5) = 0.5
NON POLAR
COVALENT BONDING
∆ EN = (3.0 –3.0) = 0
BOND FORMATION AND HYBRIDIZATION
• ATOMS GENERALLY FORM AS MANY BONDS AS IS
POSSIBLE. OFTEN THE BONDING CAPACITY OF AN
ATOM CAN BE INCREASED BY A PROCESS KNOWN
AS HYBRIDIZATION.
• IN THIS PROCESS, ORBITALS THAT ARE CLOSE TO
EACHOTHER (IN TERMS OF ENERGY) MERGE
TOGETHER FORMING NEW ORBITALS CALLED
HYBRIDS. THE FORMATION OF THESE NEW HYBRIDS
ALLOW PREVIOUSLY PAIRED ELECTRONS TO
SEPARATE AN MOVE INTO NEW ORBITALS THEREBY
ALLOWING FOR MORE BONDS TO BE FORMED.
• ORBITALS COMMONLY ENGAGING IN THIS PROCESS
ARE S AND P ORBITALS AT THE SAME ENERGY
LEVEL. EVEN S, P AND D ORBITALS CAN HYBRIDIZE.
BOND FORMATION AND HYBRIDIZATION
(CONT’D)
WHEN BONDSPROMOTION
FORM WITH
NO ELECTRON 1
OR
HYDROGEN (H 1s )
HYBRIDIZATION OCCURS
COMPOUND
LiH
RESULTS
BONDING
ORBITAL 3P
2S
1S
BERYLLIUM
UNHYBRIDIZED IN HYBRIDIZED
BERYLLIUM STATE
(BEFORE REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING TWO BONDS)
COMPOUND
BeH2
BONDING
RESULTS
ORBITALS
3P
SP HYBRID ORBITALS
2S
1S
BORON IN
UNHYBRIDIZED HYBRIDIZED
BORON (BEFORESTATE
REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING THREE BONDS)
WHEN BONDS
ELECTRON FORM WITH
PROMOTION AND
HYDROGEN (H
HYBRIDIZATION 1s1)
OCCURS
COMPOUND
BH3
BONDING
RESULTS
ORBITALS 3P
SP2 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S
1S
UNHYBRIDIZED
CARBON CARBON (BEFORE
IN HYBRIDIZED REACTING)
STATE
(CAPABLE OF FORMING FOUR BONDS)
WHEN BONDS
ELECTRON FORM WITH
PROMOTION AND
1s1)
HYDROGEN (HOCCURS
HYBRIDIZATION
COMPOUND
CH4
RESULTS
BONDING
ORBITALS 3P
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S
1S
NITROGEN IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED NITROGEN
(CAPABLE OF FORMING(BEFORE REACTING)
THREE BONDS
WITH ONE LONE ELECTRON PAIR)
ELECTRON
WHEN BONDS
PROMOTION
FORM WITH
AND
HYBRIDIZATION
HYDROGEN (H 1s1)
OCCURS
LONE e-PAIR
BONDING COMPOUND
ORBITALS
3P NH3
RESULTS
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S
1S
OXYGEN IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED
(CAPABLE OXYGEN
OF FORMING (BEFORE
TWO BONDSREACTING)
WITH TWO
LONE ELECTRON PAIRS)
BONDING COMPOUND
ORBITALS H2O
3P RESULTS
SP3 HYBRID ORBITALS
2S
1S
FLOURINE IN HYBRIDIZED STATE
UNHYBRIDIZED CARBON (BEFORE REACTING)
(CAPABLE OF FORMING ONE BOND
WITH THREE LONE ELECTRON PAIRS)
ELECTRON PROMOTION
WHEN BONDS AND
FORM WITH
HYBRIDIZATION
HYDROGEN OCCURS
(H 1s1)
THREE LONE e-
PAIRS
COMPOUND
BONDING HF
ORBITALS RESULTS
3PORBITALS
SP3 HYBRID
2S
1S
COORDINATE COVALENT BOND FORMATION
LONE e- PAIR
HYDROGEN
ION WITH
NO ELECTRONS
AMMONIUM
AMMONIA
ION
NH3 IS
FORMED NH4+