Water

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This article is about general aspects of water. For a detailed discussion of its properties, see
.(Properties of water. For other uses, see Water (disambiguation

Water in three states: liquid, solid (ice), and (invisible) water vapor in the air. Clouds are
.the accumulations of the droplets, condensed from vapor-saturated air

Water is a ubiquitous chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all
[
known forms of life.[1
In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and
a gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface[2]. On Earth, it is found
mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in
the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[3]
Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as
rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water is contained within biological
.bodies and manufactured products
Water on Earth moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration),
precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute to
.the precipitation over land
Clean, fresh drinking water is essential to human and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has
improved steadily and substantially over the last decades in almost every part of the world.[4][5] There is a
clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita.[6] However, some observers have
estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[7] A
recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water
demand will exceed supply by 50%.[8] Water plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions
as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation.
[
Approximately 70% of freshwater is consumed by agriculture.[9

Contents
[hide]

Chemical and physical properties 1•

Taste and odor 2•
 Distribution of water in nature 3•
Water in the universe 3.1○
Water and habitable zone 3.2○
Water on Earth 4•
Water cycle 4.1○
Fresh water storage 4.2○
Sea water 4.3○
Tides 4.4○
Effects on life 5•
Aquatic life forms 5.1○
Effects on human civilization 6•
Health and pollution 6.1○
Human uses 6.2○
Agriculture 6.2.1
Water as a scientific standard 6.2.2
For drinking 6.2.3
Hygiene 6.2.4
Chemical uses 6.2.5
As a heat transfer fluid 6.2.6
Extinguishing fires 6.2.7
Recreation 6.2.8
Water industry 6.2.9
Industrial applications 6.2.10
Food processing 6.2.11
Water law, water politics and water crisis 7•
Water in culture 8•
Religion 8.1○
Philosophy 8.2○
Literature 8.3○
See also 9•
Other topics 9.1○
References 10•
Further reading 11•
Water as a natural resource 11.1○
External links 12•

Chemical and physical properties

Main articles: Water (properties), Water (data page), and Water model
 Model of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water

Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary
.waves

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902

 Dew drops adhering to a spider web

Capillary action of water compared to mercury

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen
.atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom
Water appears in nature in all three common states of matter and may take many different forms on Earth:
water vapor and clouds in the sky; seawater and icebergs in the polar oceans; glaciers and rivers in the
.mountains; and the liquid in aquifers in the ground
:The major chemical and physical properties of water are
Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The color•
of water and ice is, intrinsically, a very light blue hue, although water appears
colorless in small quantities. Ice also appears colorless, and water vapor is essentially
[
invisible as a gas.[10
Water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live within the water because•
.sunlight can reach them. Only strong UV light is slightly absorbed
Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher•
electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas
the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an
electrical dipole moment. The net interactions between the dipoles on each molecule
cause an effective skin effect at the interface of water with other substances, or air at
the surface, the latter given rise to water's high surface tension. This dipolar nature
contributes to water molecules' tendency to form hydrogen bonds which cause water's
.many special properties.[11] The polar nature also favors adhesion to other materials
Each hydrogen nucleus is bound to the central oxygen atom by a pair of electrons that•
are shared between them; chemists call this shared electron pair a covalent chemical
bond. In H2O, only two of the six outer-shell electrons of oxygen are used for this
purpose, leaving four electrons which are organized into two non-bonding pairs. The
four electron pairs surrounding the oxygen tend to arrange themselves as far from
each other as possible in order to minimize repulsions between these clouds of
negative charge. This would ordinarily result in a tetrahedral geometry in which the
angle between electron pairs (and therefore the H-O-H bond angle) is 109.5°. However,
because the two non-bonding pairs remain closer to the oxygen atom, these exert a
stronger repulsion against the two covalent bonding pairs, effectively pushing the two
hydrogen atoms closer together. The result is a distorted tetrahedral arrangement in
[
which the H-O-H angle is 104.5°. [12
 A result of interplay of these properties, Capillary action refers to the tendency of•
water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property is relied
.upon by all vascular plants, such as trees
Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances•
that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially
oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving)
substances, while those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known
.as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances
All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also•
.dissolved in water
Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the•
.dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride
The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric•
pressure. For example, on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at about 68 °C (154 °F),
compared to 100 °C (212 °F) at sea level. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near
.geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid
Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any known substance, after•
ammonia, as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol−1), both of which are a
result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual
properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
.temperature
The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C (39.16 °F).[13] Water becomes even•
less dense upon freezing, expanding 9%. This results in an unusual phenomenon:
water's solid form, ice, floats upon water, allowing organisms to survive inside a
partially-frozen water body because the water on the bottom has a temperature of
.(around 4 °C (39 °F

ADR label for transporting goods dangerously reactive with water

Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a•
single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible
usually forming layers according to increasing density from the top. As a gas, water
.vapor is completely miscible with air
.Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents•
.Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen•
As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing•
compounds burn or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. Water is not a
fuel, it is an end-product of the combustion of hydrogen. The energy required to split
water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or any other means is greater than
[
the energy released when the hydrogen and oxygen recombine.[14
Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium,•
calcium, potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming
hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the
 reaction of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be violently
.explosive

Taste and odor

Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Humans and other animals
have developed senses which (more or less) enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding
water that is too salty or putrid. Humans also tend to prefer cold water to lukewarm water since cold water is
likely to contain fewer microbes. The taste advertised in spring water or mineral water derives from the
minerals dissolved in it: Pure H2O is tasteless and odorless. The advertised purity of spring and mineral
.water refers to absence of toxins, pollutants and microbes
Distribution of water in nature
Water in the universe
Much of the universe's water may be produced as a byproduct of star formation. When stars are born, their
birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material eventually
impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water
[
observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.[15
Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists in
abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most
abundant elements in the universe. Interstellar clouds eventually condense into solar nebulae and solar
.systems such as ours
:Water vapor is present in
Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's•
[
exosphere[16
Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%•
Earth's atmosphere: ~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1%-4% at surface•
Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%•
Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%•
Atmosphere of Saturn - in ices only•
Enceladus (moon of Saturn): 91%•
[
exoplanets known as HD 189733 b[17] and HD 209458 b.[18•
:Liquid water is present on
Earth - 71% of surface•
Moon - small amounts of water have been found (in 2008) in the inside of volcanic•
pearls brought from Moon to Earth by the Apollo 15 crew in 1971.[19] NASA reported
the detection of water molecules by NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard the Indian
[
Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009.[20
Strong evidence suggests that liquid water is present just under the surface of Saturn's moon Enceladus and
on Jupiter's moon Europa where it may exist as a 100 km deep ocean covering the whole moon which
.would amount to more water than is in all the Earth's oceans
:Water ice is present on
Earth - mainly as ice sheets•
polar ice caps on Mars•
Moon•
Titan•
Europa•
Enceladus•
.(Comets and comet source populations (Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects•
 Water ice may be present on Ceres and Tethys. Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the
.internal structures of Uranus and Neptune
Water and habitable zone

.The Solar System along center row range of possible habitable zones of varying size stars

The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the
existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if it
were slightly closer to or further from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the conditions
[
which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.[21][22
Earth's gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a
temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If
Earth were smaller, a thinner atmosphere would allow temperature extremes, thus preventing the
.(accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars
The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels
of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a
combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia
.hypothesis
The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet's gravity. If a
planet is sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures, because of the high
.pressure caused by gravity
.There are various theories about origin of water on Earth
Water on Earth
Main articles: Hydrology and Water distribution on Earth
 .A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; the oceans contain 97.2% of the Earth's water. The
Antarctic ice sheet, which contains 90% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom.
.Condensed atmospheric water can be seen as clouds, contributing to the Earth's albedo

Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth. The study
of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is
hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is limnology and distribution of oceans is
.oceanography. Ecological processes with hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology
The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called the hydrosphere.
Earth's approximate water volume (the total water supply of the world) is 1,360,000,000 km3
.((326,000,000 mi3
.Groundwater and fresh water are useful or potentially useful to humans as water resources
Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or
puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid, liquid,
.and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers
Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater is ubiquitous in rocks, and the pressure of
this groundwater affects patterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt that produces
volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in both chemical and physical
weathering processes. Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large
amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the earth. Deposition of transported sediment
.forms many types of sedimentary rocks, which make up the geologic record of Earth history
Water cycle
Main article: Water cycle
 Water cycle

The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water
.within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants
Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of following transfer
:processes
evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from•
.land plants and animals into air
.precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean•
.runoff from the land usually reaching the sea•
Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the same
rate as runoff into the sea, about 36 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute another
71 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 107 Tt per year over land, has several forms: most commonly rain,
snow, and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew. Condensed water in the air may also refract
.sunlight to produce rainbows
Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate
river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is hydrological transport model. Some of water
is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce.
Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil
and level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land, usually
low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its banks or flood from the sea. A drought is
an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. This occurs
.when a region receives consistently below average precipitation
Fresh water storage

.(High tide (left) and low tide (right

Main article: Water resources

Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during winter, and
in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. Water also infiltrates the
ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more
spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. This water
storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many parts
.of the world, it is in short supply
Sea water
Main article: Seawater

Sea water contains about 3.5% salt on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical
properties of sea water differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower temperature
(about -1.9C) and its density increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point, instead of reaching
 maximum density at a temperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major seas varies from about
.0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea
Tides
Main article: Tide

Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of Earth's ocean surface caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and
the Sun acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies and
produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The changing tide produced at a given location is the
result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects of Earth
rotation and the local bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low
.tide, the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides
Effects on life

An oasis is an isolated water source with vegetation in desert

Overview of photosynthesis and respiration. Water (at right), together with carbon dioxide
(CO2), form oxygen and organic compounds (at left), which can be respired to water and
.((CO2

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life
that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in
ways that ultimately allow replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a
solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many metabolic processes
within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed
from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions) in order to grow larger molecules
(e.g. starches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to
break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for
fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes.
 Therefore, without water, these metabolic processes would cease to exist, leaving us to muse about what
.processes would be in its place, such as gas absorption, dust collection, etc
Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off
water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form
glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize the hydrogen and carbon to capture
.(the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration
Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H+, that is, a
proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH−) to form water.
Water is considered to be neutral, with a pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. Acids
.have pH values less than 7 while bases have values greater than 7

Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef

Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can
temporarily be neutralized by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral
molecules water and the salt aluminum chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually
.performs optimally around a biologically neutral pH of 7.4
For example, a cell of Escherichia coli contains 70% of water, a human body 60–70%, plant body up to
.90% and the body of an adult jellyfish is made up of 94–98% water
Aquatic life forms
Main articles: Hydrobiology and Aquatic plant

Some marine diatoms - a key phytoplankton group

Earth's waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all fish live exclusively in
water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales that also live in the
water. Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on
 land. Plants such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems.
.Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain
Aquatic animals must obtain oxygen to survive, and they do so in various ways. Fish have gills instead of
lungs, although some species of fish, such as the lungfish, have both. Marine mammals, such as dolphins,
whales, otters, and seals need to surface periodically to breathe air. Smaller life forms are able to absorb
.oxygen through their skin
Effects on human civilization

Water fountain

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called
cradle of civilization, was situated between the major rivers Tigris and Euphrates; the ancient society of the
Egyptians depended entirely upon the Nile. Large metropolises like Rotterdam, London, Montreal,
Paris, New York City, Buenos Aires, Shanghai, Tokyo, Chicago, and Hong Kong owe their success in
part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports,
like Singapore, have flourished for the same reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East,
.where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development
Health and pollution

.Environmental Science Program, Iowa State University student sampling water

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or potable water. Water that is not potable can be
made potable by filtration or distillation (heating it until it becomes water vapor, and then capturing the
vapor without any of the impurities it leaves behind), or by other methods (chemical or heat treatment that
kills bacteria). Sometimes the term safe water is applied to potable water of a lower quality threshold (i.e., it
is used effectively for nutrition in humans that have weak access to water cleaning processes, and does more
good than harm). Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans when used for swimming or
bathing is called by various names other than potable or drinking water, and is sometimes called safe water,
or "safe for bathing". Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is used to make water safe for
bathing or drinking. Its use is highly technical and is usually monitored by government regulations (typically
1 part per million (ppm) for drinking water, and 1–2 ppm of chlorine not yet reacted with impurities for
.(bathing water
This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major social and
economic concern. Currently, about a billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most
 countries accepted the goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to
safe water and sanitation during the 2003 G8 Evian summit.[23] Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still
leave more than an estimated half a billion people without access to safe drinking water and over a billion
without access to adequate sanitation. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some five million
deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water. The World Health Organization estimates that safe
water could prevent 1.4 million child deaths from diarrhea each year.[24] Water, however, is not a finite
resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude
higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth
(about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is
a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce,
rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as
the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the
.manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams.[25] Some
50 countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population, also suffer from medium or high water stress,
and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles.[26] The
strain not only affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater
.resources
Human uses
Agriculture

Irrigation of field crops

The most important use of water in agriculture is for irrigation, which is a key component to produce
enough food. Irrigation takes up to 90% of water withdrawn in some developing countries[27] and significant
proportions in more economically developed countries (United States, 30% of freshwater usage is for
[
irrigation).[28
Water as a scientific standard
On 7 April 1795, the gram was defined in France to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure
water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a meter, and to the temperature of the melting ice."[29] For practical
purposes though, a metallic reference standard was required, one thousand times more massive, the
kilogram. Work was therefore commissioned to determine precisely the mass of one liter of water. In spite
of the fact that the decreed definition of the gram specified water at 0 °C—a highly reproducible
temperature—the scientists chose to redefine the standard and to perform their measurements at the
[
temperature of highest water density, which was measured at the time as 4 °C (39 °F).[30
The Kelvin temperature scale of the SI system is based on the triple point of water, defined as exactly
273.16 K or 0.01 °C. The scale is a more accurate development of the Celsius temperature scale, which was
.originally defined according the boiling point (set to 100 °C) and melting point (set to 0 °C) of water
Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also small quantity of
heavier isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium oxides or heavy water is very
small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium
than seawater. Therefore, standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
.specification
For drinking
 Main article: Drinking water

A young girl drinking bottled water

Water quality - percent of population using improved water sources by country

The human body is anywhere from 55% to 78% water depending on body size.[31] To function properly, the
body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount
depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through
foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by
healthy people, though most advocates agree that 6–7 glasses of water (approximately 2 liters) daily is the
minimum to maintain proper hydration.[32] Medical literature favors a lower consumption, typically 1 liter of
water for an average male, excluding extra requirements due to fluid loss from exercise or warm weather.[33]
For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm
humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than
necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication (hyperhydration), which
can be fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to
a scientific source.[34] There are other myths such as the effect of water on weight loss and constipation that
[
have been dispelled.[35

Hazard symbol for No drinking water

An original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National
Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food.
 Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods."[36] The latest dietary reference intake report by the
United States National Research Council in general recommended (including food sources): 2.7 liters of
water total for women and 3.7 liters for men.[37] Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need
additional fluids to stay hydrated. According to the Institute of Medicine—who recommend that, on
average, women consume 2.2 liters and men 3.0 liters—this is recommended to be 2.4 liters (10 cups) for
pregnant women and 3 liters (12 cups) for breastfeeding women since an especially large amount of fluid is
lost during nursing.[38] Also noted is that normally, about 20% of water intake comes from food, while the
rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Water is excreted from the body in
multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath.
With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as
.well
Humans require water that does not contain too many impurities. Common impurities include metal salts
and oxides (including copper, iron, calcium and lead)[39] and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some
[
solutes are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.[40
The single largest freshwater resource suitable for drinking is Lake Baikal in Siberia, which has a very low
.salt and calcium content and is therefore very clean
Hygiene
The ability of water to make solutions and emulsions is used for washing. Many industrial processes rely on
reactions using chemicals dissolved in water, suspension of solids in water slurries or using water to
.dissolve and extract substances
Chemical uses
Water is widely used in chemical reactions as a solvent or reactant and less commonly as a solute or catalyst.
In inorganic reactions, water is a common solvent, dissolving many ionic compounds. In organic reactions,
it is not usually used as a reaction solvent, because it does not dissolve the reactants well and is amphoteric
(acidic and basic) and nucleophilic. Nevertheless, these properties are sometimes desirable. Also,
acceleration of Diels-Alder reactions by water has been observed. Supercritical water has recently been a
.topic of research. Oxygen-saturated supercritical water combusts organic pollutants efficiently
As a heat transfer fluid

.Ice used for cooling

Water and steam are used as heat transfer fluids in diverse heat exchange systems, due to its availability and
high heat capacity, both as a coolant and for heating. Cool water may even be naturally available from a lake
or the sea. Condensing steam is a particularly efficient heating fluid because of the large heat of
vaporization. A disadvantage is that water and steam are somewhat corrosive. In almost all electric power
stations, water is the coolant, which vaporizes and drives steam turbines to drive generators. In the U.S.,
[
cooling power plants is the largest use of water.[28
 In the nuclear industry, water can also be used as a neutron moderator. In a pressurized water reactor,
water is both a coolant and a moderator. This provides a passive safety measure, as removing the water from
.the reactor also slows the nuclear reaction down
Extinguishing fires

.Water is used for fighting wildfires

Water has a high heat of vaporization and is relatively inert, which makes it a good fire extinguishing fluid.
The evaporation of water carries heat away from the fire. However, water cannot be used to fight fires of
electric equipment, because impure water is electrically conductive, or of oils and organic solvents, because
.they float on water and the explosive boiling of water tends to spread the burning liquid
Use of water in fire fighting should also take into account the hazards of a steam explosion, which may
occur when water is used on very hot fires in confined spaces, and of a hydrogen explosion, when
substances which react with water, such as certain metals or hot graphite, decompose the water, producing
.hydrogen gas
The power of such explosions was seen in the Chernobyl disaster, although the water involved did not
come from fire-fighting at that time but the reactor's own water cooling system. A steam explosion occurred
when the extreme over-heating of the core caused water to flash into steam. A hydrogen explosion may have
.occurred as a result of reaction between steam and hot zirconium
Recreation
(Main article: Water sport (recreation

Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these
include swimming, waterskiing, boating, surfing and diving. In addition, some sports, like ice hockey and
ice skating, are played on ice. Lakesides, beaches and waterparks are popular places for people to go to
relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound and appearance of flowing water to be calming, and
fountains and other water features in public or private decorations.. Some keep fish and other life in
aquariums or ponds for show, fun, and companionship. Humans also use water for snow sports i.e. skiing,
sledding, snowmobiling or snowboarding, which requires the water to be frozen. People may also use
.water for play fighting such as with snowballs, water guns or water balloons
Water industry
 A water-carrier in India, 1882. In many places where running water is not available, water
.had to be transported by people

A manual water pump in China

Water purification facility

Main articles: Water industry and :Category:Water supply and sanitation by country

The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to
households and industry. Water supply facilities include water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting,
water supply network, water purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including
.old aqueducts. Atmospheric water generators are in development
Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings (wells) in the ground, or
pumped from lakes and rivers. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce
more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources include rainwater
collection. Water may require purification for human consumption. This may involve removal of
undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand
which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes.
Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis.
.Desalination of abundant seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates
The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems, tanker delivery or as bottled
water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others
argue that the market mechanism and free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource and to finance the
.boring of wells or the construction of dams and reservoirs
Reducing usage by using drinking (potable) water only for human consumption is another option. In some
cities such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve
.fresh water resources
Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of
the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of
pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for
which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms'
profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by
humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they
.bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable
Wastewater facilities are storm sewers and wastewater treatment plants. Another way to remove pollution
.from surface runoff water is bioswale
Industrial applications
Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower.
Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is
a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun
.evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down

Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station

Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are
used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is
.also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating
Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat
exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is
pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal
pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification
.techniques both in water supply and discharge
Food processing
 .Water can be used to cook foods such as noodles

Water plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to
.understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their products
Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and
freezing points of water is affected by solutes. One mole of sucrose (sugar) per kilogram of water raises the
boiling point of water by 0.51 °C, and one mole of salt per kg raises the boiling point by 1.02 °C; similarly,
increasing the number of dissolved particles lowers water's freezing point.[41] Solutes in water also affect
water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth of microbes in food.[42] Water activity
can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to the vapor pressure of pure water.[41]
Solutes in water lower water activity. This is important to know because most bacterial growth ceases at low
levels of water activity.[42] Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food but also the preservation
.and shelf life of food
Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product
as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on the amounts of removable
calcium carbonate salt it contains per gallon. Water hardness is measured in grains; 0.064 g calcium
carbonate is equivalent to one grain of hardness.[41] Water is classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4 grains,
medium if it contains 5 to 10 grains and hard if it contains 11 to 20 grains.[vague] [41] The hardness of water
may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. The hardness of water also affects its pH
balance which plays a critical role in food processing. For example, hard water prevents successful
production of clear beverages. Water hardness also affects sanitation; with increasing hardness, there is a
[
loss of effectiveness for its use as a sanitizer.[41
Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water
.or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing
Water law, water politics and water crisis
 Best estimate of the share of people in developing countries with access to drinking water
.1970–2000

Main articles: Water law, Water right, Water politics, and Water crisis

See also: Water resources

Water politics is politics affected by water and water resources. For this reason, water is a strategic
resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. It causes health impacts and
.damage to biodiversity
billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990 [1]. The proportion of people in 1.6
developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30% in 1970[4] to 71% in
1990, 79% in 2000 and 84% in 2004. This trend is projected to continue.[5] To halve, by 2015, the proportion
of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water is one of the Millennium Development Goals.
.This goal is projected to be reached
A 2006 United Nations report stated that "there is enough water for everyone", but that access to it is
[
hampered by mismanagement and corruption.[43
The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment
Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to
decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal
hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from waterborne diseases (related to the consumption
of contaminated water) or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15
.seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet
Organizations concerned in water protection include International Water Association (IWA), WaterAid,
Water 1st, American Water Resources Association. Water related conventions are United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Ramsar Convention.
.World Day for Water takes place on 22 March and World Ocean Day on 8 June
.Water used in the production of a good or service is virtual water
Water in culture
Religion
Main article: Water and religion

Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Major faiths that incorporate ritual washing (ablution)
include Christianity, Hinduism, Rastafari movement, Islam, Shinto, Taoism, and Judaism. Immersion
(or aspersion or affusion) of a person in water is a central sacrament of Christianity (where it is called
baptism); it is also a part of the practice of other religions, including Judaism (mikvah) and Sikhism (Amrit
Sanskar). In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including
Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the five daily prayers can be done in most cases (see Tayammum) after
completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water (wudu). In Shinto, water is used in almost all
rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of misogi). Water is mentioned in the Bible 442 times
in the New International Version and 363 times in the King James Version: 2 Peter 3:5(b) states, "The
earth was formed out of water and by water" (NIV). In the Koran it is stated that "Living things are made of
.water" and it is often used to described Paradise
Philosophy
The Ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with
fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Water was considered
cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humors, water was associated with phlegm. The classical
element of Water was also one of the five elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth,
.fire, wood, and metal
Water is also taken as a role model in some parts of traditional and popular Asian philosophy. James Legge's
1891 translation of the Dao De Jing states "The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of
water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low
place which all men dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao" and "There is nothing in the world
more soft and weak than water, and yet for attacking things that are firm and strong there is nothing that can
[
take precedence of it—for there is nothing (so effectual) for which it can be changed."[44
Literature
Water is used in literature as a symbol of purification. Examples include the critical importance of a river in
.As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner and the drowning of Ophelia in Hamlet
See also
Water
portal

Main article: List of water topics

The Water (data page) is a collection of the chemical and physical properties of•
.water
:Water is described in many terms and contexts
according to state•
solid - ice○
liquid - water○
gaseous - water vapor○
plasma○
:according to meteorology•
hydrometeor○
precipitation
precipitation according to movement precipitation according to state

vertical (falling) precipitation• liquid precipitation•

rain○ rain○
freezing rain○ freezing rain○
drizzle○ drizzle○
freezing drizzle○ freezing drizzle○
snow○ dew○
snow pellets○ solid precipitation•
snow grains○ snow○
ice pellets○ snow pellets○
frozen rain○ snow grains○
hail○ ice pellets○
ice crystals○ frozen rain○
horizontal (seated)• hail○
precipitation ice crystals○
dew○
hoarfrost○
hoarfrost○
atmospheric icing○
atmospheric icing○
glaze ice○
glaze ice○
mixed precipitation•
in temperatures around 0 °C○
 •
levitating particles○
clouds
fog
mist
(ascending particles (drifted by wind○
spindrift
stirred snow 
according to occurrence•
groundwater○
meltwater○
meteoric water○
connate water○
fresh water○
surface water○
mineral water – contains many minerals○
brackish water○
dead water – strange phenomenon which can occur when a layer of fresh or○
brackish water rests on top of denser salt water, without the two layers mixing. It
.is dangerous for ship traveling
seawater○
brine○
according to uses•
tap water○
bottled water○
drinking water or potable water – useful for everyday drinking, without fouling,○
(it contains balanced minerals that are not harmful to health (see below
purified water, laboratory-grade, analytical-grade or reagent-grade water –○
water which has been highly purified for specific uses in science or engineering.
Often broadly classified as Type I, Type II, or Type III, this category of water
:includes, but is not limited to the following
distilled water
double distilled water
deionized water
according to other features•
soft water – contains less minerals○
hard water – from underground, contains more minerals○
distilled water, double distilled water, deionized water - contains no minerals○
Water of crystallization — water incorporated into crystalline structures ○
Hydrates — water bound into other chemical substances ○
heavy water – made from heavy atoms of hydrogen - deuterium. It is in nature○
in normal water in very low concentration. It was used in construction of first
.nuclear reactors
tritiated water○
 according to microbiology•
drinking water○
wastewater○
stormwater or surface water○
according to religion•
holy water○
Other topics
Sustainable development
portal

Dihydrogen monoxide hoax•

Water Pasteurization Indicator•
Water intoxication•
Water Pinch•

References
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CIA- The world fact book". Central Intelligence Agency." ^.2
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#Geo.
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Water Vapor in the Climate System, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked ^.3
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impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems".
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.PMID 17035955
Braun, Charles L.; Sergei N. Smirnov (1993). "Why is water blue?". J. Chem. Educ. 70 ^.10
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Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. ^.11
Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
.http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html
Lower, Stephen (2009-11-13). "Water and its structure". ^.12
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Kotz, J. C., Treichel, P., & Weaver, G. C. (2005). Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity. ^.13
.Thomson Brooks/Cole
Ball, Philip (14 September 2007). "Burning water and other myths". Nature News. ^.14
.http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070910/full/070910-13.html. Retrieved 2007-09-14
Gary Melnick, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and David Neufeld, Johns ^.15
Hopkins University quoted in: "Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests
Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System (sic)". The Harvard University Gazette. April 23,
1998. http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/1998/04.23/DiscoverofWater.html. "Space
Cloud Holds Enough Water to Fill Earth's Oceans 1 Million Times". Headlines@Hopkins,
JHU. April 9, 1998. http://www.jhu.edu/news_info/news/home98/apr98/clouds.html.
"Water, Water Everywhere: Radio telescope finds water is common in universe". The
Harvard University Gazette. February 25, 1999.
(http://www.hno.harvard.edu/gazette/1999/02.25/telescope.html. (linked 4/2007
MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere"." ^.16
Planetary Society. 2008-07-03.
http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html.
.Retrieved 2008-07-05
Water Found on Distant Planet July 12, 2007 By Laura Blue, Time ^.17
Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere - Space.com ^.18
Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser - Wissenschaft - Der Spiegel ^.19
- Nachrichten
http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules ^.20
Found on the Moon, NASA
E. Ehlers, T. Krafft., ed (2001). "J. C. I. Dooge. "Integrated Management of Water ^.21
Resources"". Understanding the Earth System: compartments, processes, and
.interactions. Springer. p. 116
Habitable Zone". The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight." ^.22
.http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/H/habzone.html
G8 "Action plan" decided upon at the 2003 Evian summit ^.23
.World Health Organization. Safe Water and Global Health ^.24
UNEP International Environment (2002). Environmentally Sound Technology for ^.25
Wastewater and Stormwater Management: An International Source Book. IWA
.Publishing. ISBN 1843390086. OCLC 49204666
Ravindranath, Nijavalli H.; Jayant A. Sathaye (2002). Climate Change and Developing ^.26
.Countries. Springer. ISBN 1402001045. OCLC 231965991
WBCSD Water Faacts & Trends ^.27
a b
Water Use in the United States, National Atlas.gov ^.28
Decree relating to the weights and measurements ^.29
here L'Histoire Du Mètre, La Détermination De L'Unité De Poids ^.30
Re: What percentage of the human body is composed of water? Jeffrey Utz, M.D., The ^.31
MadSci Network
Healthy Water Living"." ^.32
http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml. Retrieved
.2007-02-01
Rhoades RA, Tanner GA (2003). Medical Physiology (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Lippincott ^.33
.Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0781719364. OCLC 50554808
Drink at least eight glasses of water a day." Really? Is there scientific evidence for" ^.34
"8 × 8"? by Heinz Valdin, Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School,
Lebanon, New Hampshire
Drinking Water - How Much?, Factsmart.org web site and references within ^.35
Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary ^.36
Allowances.. National Research Council, Reprint and Circular Series, No. 122. 1945.
.pp. 3–18
Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate, Food ^.37
and Nutrition Board
Water: How much should you drink every day? - MayoClinic.com ^.38
Conquering Chemistry" 4th Ed. Published 2008" ^.39
Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, Maryanna ^.40
Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1. OCLC
.32308337
a b c d e
Vaclacik and Christian, 2003 ^.41
a b
DeMan, 1999 ^.42
UNESCO, (2006), Water, a shared responsibility. The United Nations World Water ^.43
.Development Report 2
Internet Sacred Text Archive Home ^.44

Further reading
:Find more about water on Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

.John M. DeMan (1999). Principles of Food Chemistry 3rd Edition •

Vickie A. Vaclavik and Elizabeth W. Christian (2003). Essentials of Food Science 2nd •
.Edition
OA Jones, JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water?•
TRENDS in Biotechnology 23(4): 163, 2005
Franks, F (Ed), Water, A comprehensive treatise, Plenum Press, New York, 1972–1982•
PH Gleick and associates, The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater•
Resources. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (published every two years, beginning in
(.1998
Marks, William E., The Holy Order of Water: Healing Earth's Waters and Ourselves. Bell•
Pond Books ( a div. of Steiner Books), Great Barrington, MA, November 2001 [ISBN 0-
[88010-483-X
Debenedetti, P. G., and Stanley, H. E.; "Supercooled and Glassy Water", Physics Today•
(56 (6), p. 40–46 (2003). Downloadable PDF (1.9 MB
Water as a natural resource
Anderson (1991). Water Rights: Scarce Resource Allocation, Bureaucracy, and the •
.Environment
Maude Barlow, Tony Clarke (2003). Blue Gold: The Fight to Stop the Corporate Theft of •
.the World's Water
Gleick, Peter H.. The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources.•
[Washington: Island Press. (November 10, 2006)| ISBN 9781597261050
Miriam R. Lowi (1995). Water and Power: The Politics of a Scarce Resource in the Jordan •
(River Basin. (Cambridge Middle East Library
William E. Marks (2001). The Holy Order of Water: Healing Earths Waters and •
.Ourselves
Postel, Sandra (1997, second edition). Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. New York:•
.Norton Press
.Reisner, Marc (1993). Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water •
Vandana Shiva (2002). Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution, and Profit. London: Pluto•
.Press [u.a.]. ISBN 0-7453-1837-1. OCLC 231955339
Anita Roddick, et al (2004). Troubled Water: Saints, Sinners, Truth And Lies About The •
.Global Water Crisis
Marq de Villiers (2003, revised edition). Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious •
.Resource
.Diane Raines Ward (2002). Water Wars: Drought, Flood, Folly and the Politics of Thirst •
Worster, Donald (1992). Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the •
.American West

CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere

a). Physical Properties of Water)
We live on a planet that is dominated by water. More than 70% of the Earth's surface is covered
with this simple molecule. Scientists estimate that the hydrosphere contains about 1.36 billion
cubic kilometers of this substance mostly in the form of a liquid (water) that occupies
topographic depressions on the Earth. The second most common form of the water molecule on
.our planet is ice. If all our planet's ice melted, sea-level would rise by about 70 meters
Water is also essential for life. Water is the major constituent of almost all life forms. Most
animals and plants contain more than 60% water by volume. Without water life would probably
.never have developed on our planet
Water has a very simple atomic structure. This structure consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded
to one oxygen atom (Figure 8a-1). The nature of the atomic structure of water causes its
molecules to have unique electrochemical properties. The hydrogen side of the water molecule
has a slight positive charge (see Figure 8a-1). On the other side of the molecule a negative
charge exists. This molecular polarity causes water to be a powerful solvent and is responsible
for its strong surface tension (for more information on these two properties see the discussion
.(below
 Figure 8a-1: The atomic structure of a water (or dihydrogen monoxide)
molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms joined to one oxygen (O)
atom. The unique way in which the hydrogen atoms are attached to the
oxygen atom causes one side of the molecule to have a negative charge
and the area in the opposite direction to have a positive charge. The
resulting polarity of charge causes molecules of water to be attracted to
.each other forming strong molecular bonds

When the water molecule makes a physical phase change its molecules arrange themselves in
distinctly different patterns (Figure 8a-2). The molecular arrangement taken by ice (the solid
form of the water molecule) leads to an increase in volume and a decrease in density. Expansion
.of the water molecule at freezing allows ice to float on top of liquid water
 Figure 8a-2: The three diagrams above illustrate the distinct
arrangement patterns of water molecules as they change their physical
state from ice to water to gas. Frozen water molecules arrange
themselves in a particular highly organized rigid geometric pattern that
causes the mass of water to expand and to decrease in density. The
diagram above shows a slice through a mass of ice that is one molecule
wide. In the liquid phase, water molecules arrange themselves into
small groups of joined particles. The fact that these arrangements are
small allows liquid water to move and flow. Water molecules in the
form of a gas are highly charged with energy. This high energy state
causes the molecules to be always moving reducing the likelihood of
.bonds between individual molecules from forming

:Water has several other unique physical properties. These properties are
Water has a high specific heat. Specific heat is the amount of energy required to change•
the temperature of a substance. Because water has a high specific heat, it can absorb large
amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. It also means that water releases heat
energy slowly when situations cause it to cool. Water's high specific heat allows for the
moderation of the Earth's climate and helps organisms regulate their body temperature
.more effectively

Water in a pure state has a neutral pH. As a result, pure water is neither acidic nor basic.•
Water changes its pH when substances are dissolved in it. Rain has a naturally acidic pH
.of about 5.6 because it contains natural derived carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide
 Water conducts heat more easily than any liquid except mercury. This fact causes large•
bodies of liquid water like lakes and oceans to have essentially a uniform vertical
.temperature profile

Water molecules exist in liquid form over an important range of temperature from 0 -•
100° Celsius. This range allows water molecules to exist as a liquid in most places on our
.planet

Water is a universal solvent. It is able to dissolve a large number of different chemical•

compounds. This feature also enables water to carry solvent nutrients in runoff,
.infiltration, groundwater flow, and living organisms

Water has a high surface tension (Figures 8a-3 and 8a-4). In other words, water is•
adhesive and elastic, and tends to aggregate in drops rather than spread out over a surface
as a thin film. This phenomenon also causes water to stick to the sides of vertical
structures despite gravity's downward pull. Water's high surface tension allows for the
formation of water droplets and waves, allows plants to move water (and dissolved
nutrients) from their roots to their leaves, and the movement of blood through tiny vessels
.in the bodies of some animals

Figure 8a-3: The following illustration shows how water molecules are
attracted to each other to create high surface tension. This property can
cause water to exist as an extensive thin film over solid surfaces. In the
.example above, the film is two layers of water molecules thick
 Figure 8a-4: The adhesive bonding property of water molecules allows
.(for the formation of water droplets (Photo © 2004 Edward Tsang

Water molecules are the only substance on Earth that exist in all three physical states of•
matter: solid, liquid, and gas. Incorporated in the changes of state are massive amounts
of heat exchange. This feature plays an important role in the redistribution of heat energy
in the Earth's atmosphere. In terms of heat being transferred into the atmosphere,
approximately 3/4's of this process is accomplished by the evaporation and condensation
.of water

The freezing of water molecules causes their mass to occupy a larger volume. When•
water freezes it expands rapidly adding about 9% by volume. Fresh water has a maximum
density at around 4° Celsius (see Table 8a-1). Water is the only substance on this planet
.where the maximum density of its mass does not occur when it becomes solidified
.Table 8a-1: Density of water molecules at various temperatures
(Temperature (degrees Celsius (Density (grams per cubic centimeter
(solid) 0 0.9150
(liquid) 0 0.9999
4 1.0000
20 0.9982
40 0.9922
60 0.9832
80 0.9718
(gas) 100 0.0006
 Properties of water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

H2O" and "HOH" redirect here. For other uses, see H2O (disambiguation) and HOH "
.((disambiguation

This article is about the physical and chemical properties of pure water. For general
discussion and its distribution and importance in life, see Water. For other uses, see Water
.((disambiguation

(Water (H2O

[show]
IUPAC name
Oxidane, Water

Dihydrogen Monoxide
Hydroxylic acid
Other names
Hydrogen Hydroxide
R-718

Identifiers

CAS number Y
7732-18-5

ChEBI 15377

RTECS number ZC0110000

Properties

Molecular
H2O
formula

Molar mass g/mol (33)18.01528

white solid or almost

colorless, transparent, with a
Appearance
slight hint of blue, crystalline
[
solid or liquid [1
 kg/m3, liquid (4 °C) 1000
Density ((62.4 lb/cu. ft
kg/m3, solid 917

Melting point [
C, 32 °F (273.15 K)[2° 0

Boiling point [
C, 212 °F (373.15 K)[2° 100

15.74
(Acidity (pKa
35-36~

(Basicity (pKb 15.74

Refractive index
1.3330
((nD

Viscosity Pa s at 20 °C 0.001

Structure

Crystal Hexagonal
structure See ice

Molecular shape bent

Dipole moment D 1.85

Hazards

Drowning (see also

Main hazards Dihydrogen monoxide
(hoax

NFPA 704
0
0
1

Related compounds

Hydrogen sulfide
Other cations Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen telluride

Related solvents acetone

 methanol

water vapor
Related
ice
compounds
heavy water

Except where noted otherwise, data are given

for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C,
(100 kPa

Infobox references

Water (H2O, HOH) is the most abundant molecule on Earth's surface, constituting about 70% of the
planet's surface. In nature it exists in liquid, solid, and gaseous states. It is in dynamic equilibrium between
the liquid and gas states at standard temperature and pressure. At room temperature, it is a nearly
colorless with a hint of blue, tasteless, and odorless liquid. Many substances dissolve in water and it is
commonly referred to as the universal solvent. Because of this, water in nature and in use is rarely pure and
some of its properties may vary slightly from those of the pure substance. However, there are many
compounds that are essentially, if not completely, insoluble in water. Water is the only common substance
found naturally in all three common states of matter—for other substances, see chemical properties.
[
Water is essential for life on Earth.[3] Water usually makes up 55% to 78% of the human body.[4

Contents
[hide]

Forms of water 1•
Physics and chemistry 2•
Water, ice and vapor 2.1○
Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion 2.1.1
Density of water and ice 2.1.2
Density of saltwater and ice 2.1.3
Miscibility and condensation 2.1.4
Vapor pressure 2.1.5
Compressibility 2.1.6
Triple point 2.1.7
Electrical properties 2.2○
Electrical conductivity 2.2.1
Electrolysis 2.2.2
Dipolar properties 2.3○
Hydrogen bonding 2.4○
Transparency 2.5○
Adhesion 2.5.1
Surface tension 2.5.2
Capillary action 2.5.3
Water as a solvent 2.6○
Water in acid-base reactions 2.7○
Ligand chemistry 2.7.1
Organic chemistry 2.7.2
 Acidity in nature 2.7.3
Water in redox reactions 2.8○
Geochemistry 2.9○
Heavy water and isotopologues 2.10○
History 3•
Systematic naming 4•
See also 5•
References 6•
External links 7•

Forms of water
Like many substances, water can take numerous forms that are broadly categorized by phase of matter.
The liquid phase is the most common among water's phases and is the form that's generally denoted by the
word "water." The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard,
amalgamated crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow. For a list of
the many different crystalline and amorphous forms of solid H2O, see the article ice. The gaseous phase of
water is known as water vapor (or steam), and is characterized by water assuming the configuration of a
transparent cloud. The fourth state of water, that of a supercritical fluid, is much less common than the
other three and only rarely occurs in nature. When water achieves a specific critical temperature and a
specific critical pressure (647 K and 22.064 MPa), liquid and gas phase merge to one homogenous fluid
phase, with properties of both gas and liquid. Since water only becomes supercritical under extreme
temperatures or pressures, it almost never occurs naturally. One example of naturally occurring supercritical
water is in the hottest parts of deep water hydrothermal vents, in which water is heated to the critical
temperature by scalding volcanic plumes and achieves the critical pressure because of the crushing weight
.of the ocean at the extreme depths at which the vents are located
In natural water (see Standard Mean Ocean Water), almost all of the hydrogen atoms are of the isotope
protium, 1H. Heavy water is water in which the hydrogen is replaced by its heavier isotope, deuterium,2H.
It is chemically similar to normal water, but not identical. This is because the nucleus of deuterium is twice
as heavy as protium, and thus causes noticeable differences in bonding energies and hydrogen bonding.
Heavy water is used in the nuclear reactor industry to moderate (slow down) neutrons. By contrast, the
term light water designates water containing the protium isotope, in contexts when such distinction is
.needed. An example is the term light water reactor to emphasize that the reactor type uses light water
Physics and chemistry
See also: water chemistry analysis

Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen
atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.[5] Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid at ambient
temperature and pressure, and appears colorless in small quantities, although it has its own intrinsic very
light blue hue. Ice also appears colorless, and water vapor is essentially invisible as a gas.[1] Water is
primarily a liquid under standard conditions, which is not predicted from its relationship to other analogous
hydrides of the oxygen family in the periodic table, which are gases such as hydrogen sulfide. Also the
elements surrounding oxygen in the periodic table, nitrogen, fluorine, phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine,
all combine with hydrogen to produce gases under standard conditions. The reason that water forms a liquid
is that oxygen is more electronegative than all of these elements with the exception of fluorine. Oxygen
attracts electrons much more strongly than hydrogen, resulting in a net positive charge on the hydrogen
atoms, and a net negative charge on the oxygen atom. The presence of a charge on each of these atoms gives
each water molecule a net dipole moment. Electrical attraction between water molecules due to this dipole
pulls individual molecules closer together, making it more difficult to separate the molecules and therefore
raising the boiling point. This attraction is known as hydrogen bonding. The molecules of water are
constantly moving in relation to each other, and the hydrogen bonds are continually breaking and reforming
at the timescales faster than 200 femtoseconds.[6] However, this bond is strong enough to create many of the
peculiar properties of water described in this article, such as the ones that make it integral to life. Water can
be described as a polar liquid that slightly dissociates disproportionately into the hydronium ion (H3O+(aq))
.((and an associated hydroxide ion (OH−(aq

(H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH− (aq 2

The dissociation constant for this dissociation is commonly symbolized as Kw and has a value of about 10−14
.at 25 °C; see "Water (data page)" and "Self-ionization of water" for more information
Water, ice and vapor
Heat capacity and heats of vaporization and fusion

Heat of
Temperatur
vaporization
(e (°C [
Hv (kJ mol−1)[7

0 45.054

25 43.99

40 43.35

60 42.482

80 41.585

100 40.657

120 39.684

140 38.643

160 37.518

180 36.304

200 34.962

220 33.468

240 31.809
 260 29.93

280 27.795

300 25.3

320 22.297

340 18.502

360 12.966

374 2.066

Main article: Enthalpy of vaporization

Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of all known substances, after ammonia, as well as a
high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ·mol−1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding
between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering
.large fluctuations in temperature
The specific enthalpy of fusion of water is 333.55 kJ·kg−1 at 0 °C. Of common substances, only that of
ammonia is higher. This property confers resistance to melting upon the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before
.(the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was in common use to retard food spoilage (and still is

Constant-pressure heat
Temperatur
capacity
(e (°C [
Cp (J/(g·K) at 100 kPa)[8

0 4.2176

10 4.1921

20 4.1818

30 4.1784

40 4.1785

50 4.1806
 [
(Temp (°C Density (kg/m3)[9][10
60 4.1843
100+ 958.4

70 4.1895 80+ 971.8

60+ 983.2
80 4.1963
40+ 992.2

90 4.205 30+ 995.6502

25+ 997.0479
100 4.2159
22+ 997.7735
Density of water and ice
20+ 998.2071
The density of water is dependent on its temperature, but the
relation is not linear and is not even monotonic (see right- 15+ 999.1026
hand table). When cooled from room temperature liquid
water becomes increasingly dense, just like other substances. 10+ 999.7026
But at approximately 4 °C, water reaches its maximum
density. As it is cooled further under ambient conditions, it 4+ 999.9720
expands to become less dense. This unusual negative thermal
expansion is attributed to strong, orientation-dependent, 0 999.8395
intermolecular interactions and is also observed in molten
[
silica.[11 10− 998.117
The solid form of most substances is denser than the liquid
phase; thus, a block of the solid will sink in the liquid. But, by 20− 993.547
contrast, a block of common ice floats in liquid water because
ice is less dense than liquid water. Upon freezing, the density 30− 983.854
[12]
of ice decreases by about 9%. The reason for this is the
'cooling' of intermolecular vibrations allowing the molecules The values below 0 °C refer to
to form steady hydrogen bonds with their neighbors and .supercooled water
thereby gradually locking into positions reminiscent of the
hexagonal packing achieved upon freezing to ice Ih. While
the hydrogen bonds are shorter in the crystal than in the liquid, this locking effect reduces the average
coordination number of molecules as the liquid approaches nucleation. Other substances that expand on
freezing are antimony, bismuth, gallium, germanium, silicon, acetic acid, and other compounds that form
.spacious crystal lattices with tetrahedral coordination
Only ordinary, hexagonal ice is less dense than the liquid. Under increasing pressure ice undergoes a number
of transitions to other allotropic forms with higher density than liquid water, such as high density
.(amorphous ice (HDA) and very high density amorphous ice (VHDA
Water also expands significantly as the temperature increases. Its density decreases by 4% from its highest
.value when approaching the boiling point
The melting point of ice is 0 °C (32 °F, 273 K) at standard pressure, however, pure liquid water can be
supercooled well below that temperature without freezing if the liquid is not mechanically disturbed. It can
remain in a fluid state down to its homogeneous nucleation point of approximately 231 K (−42 °C) [13]. The
melting point of ordinary hexagonal ice falls slightly under moderately high pressures, but as ice transforms
into its allotropes (see crystalline states of ice) above 209.9 MPa (2,072 atm), the melting point increases
.([markedly with pressure, i.e. reaching 355 K (82 °C) at 2.216 GPa (21,870 atm) (triple point of Ice VII[14
A significant increase of pressure is required to lower the melting point of ordinary ice —the pressure
exerted by an ice skater on the ice would only reduce the melting point by approximately 0.09 °C (0.16 °F).
[[citation needed
 These properties of water have important consequences in its role in the ecosystem of Earth. Water of a
temperature of 4 °C will always accumulate at the bottom of fresh water lakes, irrespective of the
temperature in the atmosphere. Since water and ice are poor conductors of heat[15] (good insulators) it is
unlikely that sufficiently deep lakes will freeze completely, unless stirred by strong currents that would mix
cooler and warmer water and accelerate the cooling. In warming weather, chunks of ice float, rather than
sink to the bottom where they might melt extremely slowly. These phenomena thus may preserve aquatic
.life
Density of saltwater and ice

.WOA surface density

The density of water is dependent on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature of the water. Ice
still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of
oceans lowers the freezing point by about 2 °C and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water
to the freezing point. That is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked
by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the
freezing point continues to sink. For this reason, any creature attempting to survive at the bottom of such
cold water as the Arctic Ocean generally lives in water that is 4 °C colder than the temperature at the
[
bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers in the winter.[clarification needed
As the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that
forms is essentially salt free with a density approximately equal to that of freshwater ice. This ice floats on
the surface and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of the seawater just below it, in a
process known as brine rejection. This denser saltwater sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is
subject to the same process. This provides essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the surface. The increased
density of the seawater beneath the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the
process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such
water away from the pole. One potential consequence of global warming is that the loss of Arctic ice could
result in the loss of these currents as well, which could have unforeseeable consequences on near and distant
.climates
Miscibility and condensation
 Red line shows saturation

Main article: Humidity

Water is miscible with many liquids, for example ethanol in all proportions, forming a single homogeneous
liquid. On the other hand water and most oils are immiscible usually forming layers according to increasing
.density from the top
As a gas, water vapor is completely miscible with air. On the other hand the maximum water vapor pressure
that is thermodynamically stable with the liquid (or solid) at a given temperature is relatively low compared
with total atmospheric pressure. For example, if the vapor partial pressure[16] is 2% of atmospheric pressure
and the air is cooled from 25 °C, starting at about 22 °C water will start to condense, defining the dew point,
and creating fog or dew. The reverse process accounts for the fog burning off in the morning. If one raises
the humidity at room temperature, say by running a hot shower or a bath, and the temperature stays about
the same, the vapor soon reaches the pressure for phase change, and condenses out as steam. A gas in this
context is referred to as saturated or 100% relative humidity, when the vapor pressure of water in the air is
at the equilibrium with vapor pressure due to (liquid) water; water (or ice, if cool enough) will fail to lose
mass through evaporation when exposed to saturated air. Because the amount of water vapor in air is small,
relative humidity, the ratio of the partial pressure due to the water vapor to the saturated partial vapor
pressure, is much more useful. Water vapor pressure above 100% relative humidity is called super-saturated
[
and can occur if air is rapidly cooled, say by rising suddenly in an updraft.[17
Vapor pressure
 Vapor pressure diagrams of water

Main article: Vapor pressure of water

Temperat [
Pressure[18
ure

in
C° K F° Pa atm torr psi
Hg

0.006 0.18 0.08

0 273 32 611 4.58
03 0 86

0.008 0.25 0.12

5 278 41 872 6.54
61 7 65

1,22 0.012 0.36 0.17

10 283 50 9.21
8 12 3 81

1,40 0.013 10.5 0.41 0.20

12 285 54
3 85 2 4 34

1,59 0.015 11.9 0.47 0.23

14 287 57
9 78 9 2 18

1,81 0.017 13.6 0.53 0.26

16 289 61
7 93 3 7 36

1,93 0.019 14.5 0.57 0.28

17 290 63
7 12 3 2 10
 2,06 0.020 15.4 0.60 0.29
18 291 64
4 37 8 9 93

2,19 0.021 16.4 0.64 0.31

19 292 66
7 68 8 9 87

2,33 0.023 17.5 0.69 0.33

20 293 68
8 07 4 1 92

2,48 0.024 18.6 0.73 0.36

21 294 70
6 53 5 4 06

2,64 0.026 19.8 0.78 0.38

22 295 72
4 09 3 1 34

2,80 0.027 21.0 0.83 0.40

23 296 73
9 72 7 0 74

2,98 0.029 22.3 0.88 0.43

24 297 75
4 45 8 1 28

3,16 0.031 23.7 0.93 0.45

25 298 77
8 27 6 5 94

Compressibility
The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At 0 °C in the limit of zero pressure
the compressibility is 5.1×10−10 Pa−1.[19] In the zero pressure limit the compressibility reaches a minimum of
4.4×10−10 Pa−1 around 45 °C before increasing again with increasing temperature. As the pressure is
increased the compressibility decreases, being 3.9×10−10 Pa−1 at 0 °C and 100 MPa. The bulk modulus of
water is 2.2 GPa.[20] The low compressibility of non-gases, and of water in particular, leads to their often
being assumed as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4
[
km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.[20
Triple point

[
The various triple points of water[21

Phases in stable Pressur Temperatur

equilibrium e e

liquid water, ice Ih, and 611.73 K 273.16

water vapor Pa ((0.01 °C
 liquid water, ice Ih, and ice 209.9
(K (-22 °C 251
III MPa

liquid water, ice III, and ice 350.1

C° 17.0-
V MPa

liquid water, ice V, and ice 632.4

C° 0.16
VI MPa

ice Ih, Ice II, and ice III MPa 213 C° 35-

ice II, ice III, and ice V MPa 344 C° 24-

ice II, ice V, and ice VI MPa 626 C° 70-

The temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water coexist in equilibrium is called
the triple point of water. This point is used to define the units of temperature (the kelvin, the SI unit of
.(thermodynamic temperature and, indirectly, the degree Celsius and even the degree Fahrenheit
.As a consequence, water's triple point temperature is a prescribed value rather than a measured quantity

water phase diagram: Y-axis = Pressure in pascals (10n), X-axis = temperature in kelvins, S
= solid, L = liquid, V = vapor, CP = critical point, TP = triple point of water

The triple point is at a temperature of 273.16 K (0.01 °C) by convention, and at a pressure of 611.73 Pa.
This pressure is quite low, about 1⁄166 of the normal sea level barometric pressure of 101,325 Pa. The
atmospheric surface pressure on planet Mars is remarkably close to the triple point pressure, and the zero-
elevation or "sea level" of Mars is defined by the height at which the atmospheric pressure corresponds to
.the triple point of water
 Although it is commonly named as "the triple point of water", the stable combination of liquid water, ice I,
and water vapor is but one of several triple points on the phase diagram of water. Gustav Heinrich Johann
Apollon Tammann in Göttingen produced data on several other triple points in the early 20th century. Kamb
[
and others documented further triple points in the 1960s.[21][22][23
Electrical properties
Electrical conductivity
.This section does not cite any references or sources
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
(material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009

Pure water containing no ions is an excellent insulator, but not even "deionized" water is completely free of
ions. Water undergoes auto-ionization in the liquid state. Further, because water is such a good solvent, it
almost always has some solute dissolved in it, most frequently a salt. If water has even a tiny amount of
such an impurity, then it can conduct electricity readily, as impurities such as salt separate into free ions in
.aqueous solution by which an electric current can flow
It is known that the theoretical maximum electrical resistivity for water is approximately 182 kΩ·m at 25 °C.
This figure agrees well with what is typically seen on reverse osmosis, ultra-filtered and deionized ultra-
pure water systems used, for instance, in semiconductor manufacturing plants. A salt or acid contaminant
level exceeding even 100 parts per trillion (ppt) in ultra-pure water begins to noticeably lower its resistivity
.(level by up to several kilohm-meters (or hundreds of nanosiemens per meter
The low electrical conductivity of water increases significantly upon solvation of a small amount of ionic
material, such as hydrogen chloride or any salt. Thus the risks of electrocution are much greater in water
with impurities. It is worth noting, however, that the risk of electrocution decreases when the impurities
increase to the point at which the water itself is a better conductor than the human body.[citation needed] For
example, the risks of electrocution in sea water may be lower than in fresh water, as the sea has a much
.higher level of impurities, particularly common salt. The main current path will seek the better conductor
Any electrical conductivity observable in water is the result of ions of mineral salts and carbon dioxide
dissolved in it. Carbon dioxide forms carbonate ions in Water. Water self-ionizes in which two water
molecules form one hydroxide anion and one hydronium cation, but not enough to carry enough electric
current to do any work or harm for most operations. In pure water, sensitive equipment can detect a very
slight electrical conductivity of 0.055 µS/cm at 25 °C. Water can also be electrolyzed into oxygen and
hydrogen gases but in the absence of dissolved ions this is a very slow process, as very little current is
conducted. While electrons are the primary charge carriers in water (and metals), in ice the primary charge
.(carriers are protons (see proton conductor
Electrolysis
Main article: Electrolysis of water

Water can be split into its constituent elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by passing an electric current through
it. This process is called electrolysis. Water molecules naturally dissociate into H+ and OH− ions, which are
pulled toward the cathode and anode, respectively. At the cathode, two H+ ions pick up electrons and form
H2 gas. At the anode, four OH− ions combine and release O2 gas, molecular water, and four electrons. The
gases produced bubble to the surface, where they can be collected. The standard potential of the water
.electrolysis cell is 1.23 V at 25 °C
Dipolar properties
An important feature of water is its polar nature. The water molecule forms an angle, with hydrogen atoms
at the tips and oxygen at the vertex. Since oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, the side of
the molecule with the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge. An object with such a charge difference is
called a dipole. The charge differences cause water molecules to be attracted to each other (the relatively
positive areas being attracted to the relatively negative areas) and to other polar molecules. This attraction
contributes to hydrogen bonding, and explains many of the properties of water, such as solvent action.
Water's dipolar nature can be demonstrated by holding an electrically charged object (such as a comb after
combing) near a small falling stream of water (e.g., from a faucet), causing the stream to be attracted
.towards the charged object
 Hydrogen bonding

Model of hydrogen bonds between molecules of water

A water molecule can form a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two and donate two
hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, methanol form hydrogen bonds but
they do not show anomalous behavior of thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those
observed in water. The answer to the apparent difference between water and other hydrogen bonding liquids
lies in the fact that apart from water none of the hydrogen bonding molecules can form four hydrogen bonds
either due to an inability to donate/accept hydrogens or due to steric effects in bulky residues. In water local
tetrahedral order due to the four hydrogen bonds gives rise to an open structure and a 3-dimensional
.bonding network, resulting in the anomalous decrease of density when cooled below 4 °C
Although hydrogen bonding is a relatively weak attraction compared to the covalent bonds within the water
molecule itself, it is responsible for a number of water's physical properties. One such property is its
relatively high melting and boiling point temperatures; more energy is required to break the hydrogen
bonds between molecules. The similar compound hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which has much weaker hydrogen
bonding, is a gas at room temperature even though it has twice the molecular mass of water. The extra
bonding between water molecules also gives liquid water a large specific heat capacity. This high heat
.capacity makes water a good heat storage medium (coolant) and heat shield
Transparency
Main article: Water absorption

Water is relatively transparent to visible light, near ultraviolet light, and far-red light, but it absorbs most
ultraviolet light, infrared light, and microwaves. Most photoreceptors and photosynthetic pigments
utilize the portion of the light spectrum that is transmitted well through water. Microwave ovens take
advantage of water's opacity to microwave radiation to heat the water inside of foods. The very weak onset
.(of absorption in the red end of the visible spectrum lends water its intrinsic blue hue (see Color of water
Adhesion

Dew drops adhering to a spider web

Water sticks to itself (cohesion) because it is polar. Water also has high adhesion properties because of its
polar nature. On extremely clean/smooth glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces
between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces. In biological
cells and organelles, water is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are hydrophilic; that is,
surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. Irving Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between
hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of water of
hydration—requires doing substantial work against these forces, called hydration forces. These forces are
very large but decrease rapidly over a nanometer or less. They are important in biology, particularly when
[
cells are dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to extracellular freezing.[24
Surface tension
Main article: Surface tension

Surface tension of water vs.

[
temperature.[25

Surface
.Temp
tension
(C°)
(mN/m)

0 75.83

5 75.09

10 74.36

15 73.62

20 72.88

21 72.73

22 72.58

23 72.43

24 72.29

25 72.14

26 71.99
27 71.84

28 71.69

29 71.55

30 71.4

35 70.66

40 69.92

45 69.18

50 68.45

55 67.71

60 66.97

65 66.23

70 65.49

75 64.75

80 64.01

85 63.28

90 62.54

95 61.8
 This paper clip is under the water level, which has risen gently and smoothly. Surface
.tension prevents the clip from submerging and the water from overflowing the glass edges

Temperature dependence of the surface tension of pure water

Water has a high surface tension of 72.8 mN/m at room temperature, caused by the strong cohesion
between water molecules, the highest of the non-metallic liquids. This can be seen when small quantities of
water are placed onto a sorption-free (non-adsorbent and non-absorbent) surface, such as polyethylene or
Teflon, and the water stays together as drops. Just as significantly, air trapped in surface disturbances forms
[
bubbles, which sometimes last long enough to transfer gas molecules to the water.[citation needed
Another surface tension effect is capillary waves, which are the surface ripples that form around the
impacts of drops on water surfaces, and sometimes occur with strong subsurface currents flowing to the
.water surface. The apparent elasticity caused by surface tension drives the waves
Capillary action
Main article: Capillary action

Due to an interplay of the forces of adhesion and surface tension, water exhibits capillary action whereby
water rises into a narrow tube against the force of gravity. Water adheres to the inside wall of the tube and
surface tension tends to straighten the surface causing a surface rise and more water is pulled up through
cohesion. The process continues as the water flows up the tube until there is enough water such that gravity
.balances the adhesive force
Surface tension and capillary action are important in biology. For example, when water is carried through
xylem up stems in plants, the strong intermolecular attractions (cohesion) hold the water column together
and adhesive properties maintain the water attachment to the xylem and prevent tension rupture caused by
.transpiration pull
Water as a solvent
 Presence of colloidal calcium carbonate from high concentrations of dissolved lime turns
.the water of Havasu Falls turquoise

Water is also a good solvent due to its polarity. Substances that will mix well and dissolve in water (e.g.
salts) are known as hydrophilic ("water-loving") substances, while those that do not mix well with water
(e.g. fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic ("water-fearing") substances. The ability of a substance to
dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the substance can match or better the strong attractive
forces that water molecules generate between other water molecules. If a substance has properties that do
not allow it to overcome these strong intermolecular forces, the molecules are "pushed out" from the water,
and do not dissolve. Contrary to the common misconception, water and hydrophobic substances do not
."repel", and the hydration of a hydrophobic surface is energetically, but not entropically, favorable
When an ionic or polar compound enters water, it is surrounded by water molecules (Hydration). The
relatively small size of water molecules typically allows many water molecules to surround one molecule of
solute. The partially negative dipole ends of the water are attracted to positively charged components of the
.solute, and vice versa for the positive dipole ends
In general, ionic and polar substances such as acids, alcohols, and salts are relatively soluble in water, and
non-polar substances such as fats and oils are not. Non-polar molecules stay together in water because it is
energetically more favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to engage in van
.der Waals interactions with non-polar molecules
An example of an ionic solute is table salt; the sodium chloride, NaCl, separates into Na+ cations and Cl−
anions, each being surrounded by water molecules. The ions are then easily transported away from their
crystalline lattice into solution. An example of a nonionic solute is table sugar. The water dipoles make
hydrogen bonds with the polar regions of the sugar molecule (OH groups) and allow it to be carried away
.into solution
Water in acid-base reactions
Chemically, water is amphoteric: it can act as either an acid or a base in chemical reactions. According to
the Brønsted-Lowry definition, an acid is defined as a species which donates a proton (a H+ ion) in a
reaction, and a base as one which receives a proton. When reacting with a stronger acid, water acts as a base;
when reacting with a stronger base, it acts as an acid. For instance, water receives an H+ ion from HCl when
:hydrochloric acid is formed
−
HCl (acid) + H2O (base) H3O+ + Cl

:In the reaction with ammonia, NH3, water donates a H+ ion, and is thus acting as an acid
−
NH3 (base) + H2O (acid) NH+4 + OH
 Because the oxygen atom in water has two lone pairs, water often acts as a Lewis base, or electron pair
donor, in reactions with Lewis acids, although it can also react with Lewis bases, forming hydrogen bonds
between the electron pair donors and the hydrogen atoms of water. HSAB theory describes water as both a
:weak hard acid and a weak hard base, meaning that it reacts preferentially with other hard species
+
H+ (Lewis acid) + H2O (Lewis base) → H3O

Fe3+ (Lewis acid) + H2O (Lewis base) → Fe(H2O)3+6

Cl− (Lewis base) + H2O (Lewis acid) → Cl(H2O)−6

When a salt of a weak acid or of a weak base is dissolved in water, water can partially hydrolyze the salt,
producing the corresponding base or acid, which gives aqueous solutions of soap and baking soda their
:basic pH

Na2CO3 + H2O NaOH + NaHCO3

Ligand chemistry
Water's Lewis base character makes it a common ligand in transition metal complexes, examples of which
range from solvated ions, such as Fe(H2O)3+6, to perrhenic acid, which contains two water molecules
coordinated to a rhenium atom, to various solid hydrates, such as CoCl2·6H2O. Water is typically a
.monodentate ligand, it forms only one bond with the central atom
Organic chemistry
As a hard base, water reacts readily with organic carbocations, for example in hydration reaction, in
which a hydroxyl group (OH−) and a an acidic proton are added to the two carbon atoms bonded together in
the carbon-carbon double bond, resulting in an alcohol. When addition of water to an organic molecule
cleaves the molecule in two, hydrolysis is said to occur. Notable examples of hydrolysis are saponification
of fats and digestion of proteins and polysaccharides. Water can also be a leaving group in SN2
.substitution and E2 elimination reactions, the latter is then known as dehydration reaction
Acidity in nature
Pure water has the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH−) equal to that of the hydronium (H3O+) or
hydrogen (H+) ions, which gives pH of 7 at 298 K. In practice, pure water is very difficult to produce. Water
left exposed to air for any length of time will dissolve carbon dioxide, forming a dilute solution of carbonic
acid, with a limiting pH of about 5.7. As cloud droplets form in the atmosphere and as raindrops fall through
the air minor amounts of CO2 are absorbed and thus most rain is slightly acidic. If high amounts of nitrogen
and sulfur oxides are present in the air, they too will dissolve into the cloud and rain drops producing acid
.rain
Water in redox reactions
Water contains hydrogen in oxidation state +1 and oxygen in oxidation state -2. Because of that, water
oxidizes chemicals with reduction potential below the potential of H+}/H2, such as hydrides, alkali and
alkaline earth metals (except for beryllium), etc. Some other reactive metals, such as aluminum, are
oxidized by water as well, but their oxides are not soluble, and the reaction stops because of passivation.
Note, however, that rusting of iron is a reaction between iron and oxygen, dissolved in water, not between
.iron and water
Na + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 2

Water can be oxidized itself, emitting oxygen gas, but very few oxidants react with water even if their
[
reduction potential is greater than the potential of O2/O2−. Almost all such reactions require a catalyst[26
AgF2 + 2 H2O → 4 AgF + 4 HF + O2 4

Geochemistry
Action of water on rock over long periods of time typically leads to weathering and water erosion, physical
processes that convert solid rocks and minerals into soil and sediment, but under some conditions chemical
reactions with water occur as well, resulting in metasomatism or mineral hydration, a type of chemical
 alteration of a rock which produces clay minerals in nature and also occurs when Portland cement
.hardens
Water ice can form clathrate compounds, known as clathrate hydrates, with a variety of small molecules
that can be embedded in its spacious crystal lattice. The most notable of these is methane clathrate,
.4CH4·23H2O, naturally found in large quantities on the ocean floor
Heavy water and isotopologues
.Several isotopes of both hydrogen and oxygen exist, giving rise to several known isotopologues of water
Hydrogen occurs naturally in three isotopes. The most common (¹H) accounting for more than 99.98% of
hydrogen in water, consists of only a single proton in its nucleus. A second, stable isotope, deuterium
(chemical symbol D or ²H), has an additional neutron. Deuterium oxide, D2O, is also known as heavy water
because of its higher density. It is used in nuclear reactors as a neutron moderator. The third isotope,
tritium, has 1 proton and 2 neutrons, and is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of 4500 days. T2O exists
in nature only in minute quantities, being produced primarily via cosmic ray-induced nuclear reactions in the
atmosphere. Water with one deuterium atom HDO occurs naturally in ordinary water in low concentrations
.((~0.03%) and D2O in far lower amounts (0.000003%
The most notable physical differences between H2O and D2O, other than the simple difference in specific
mass, involve properties that are affected by hydrogen bonding, such as freezing and boiling, and other
.kinetic effects. The difference in boiling points allows the isotopologues to be separated
Consumption of pure isolated D2O may affect biochemical processes - ingestion of large amounts impairs
kidney and central nervous system function. Small quantities can be consumed without any ill-effects, and
.even very large amounts of heavy water must be consumed for any toxicity to become apparent
Oxygen also has three stable isotopes, with 16O present in 99.76 %, 17O in 0.04%, and 18O in 0.2% of water
[
molecules.[27
History
The first decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, by electrolysis, was done in 1800 by William
Nicholson, an English chemist. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed
.(that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen (by volume
.Gilbert Newton Lewis isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933
The properties of water have historically been used to define various temperature scales. Notably, the
Kelvin, Celsius, Rankine, and Fahrenheit scales were, or currently are, defined by the freezing and boiling
points of water. The less common scales of Delisle, Newton, Réaumur and Rømer were defined similarly.
[
The triple point of water is a more commonly used standard point today.[28
Systematic naming
The accepted IUPAC name of water is oxidane[29] or simply water, or its equivalent in different languages,
[
although there are other systematic names which can be used to describe the molecule.[30
The simplest and best systematic name of water is hydrogen oxide. This is analogous to related compounds
such as hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen sulfide, and deuterium oxide (heavy water). Another systematic
name, oxidane, is accepted by IUPAC as a parent name for the systematic naming of oxygen-based
substituent groups,[31] although even these commonly have other recommended names. For example, the
name hydroxyl is recommended over oxidanyl for the –OH group. The name oxane is explicitly mentioned
by the IUPAC as being unsuitable for this purpose, since it is already the name of a cyclic ether also known
.as tetrahydropyran
The polarized form of the water molecule, H+OH-, is also called hydron hydroxide by IUPAC nomenclature.
[[32

Dihydrogen monoxide (DHMO) is an overly pedantic naming of water. This term has been used in parodies
of chemical research that call for this "lethal chemical" to be banned, such as in the dihydrogen monoxide
hoax. Other systematic names for water include hydroxic acid, hydroxylic acid, and hydrogen hydroxide.
Both acid and alkali names exist for water because it is amphoteric (able to react both as an acid or an
.alkali). While these names are technically not incorrect, none of them are used widely
[
Some material safety data sheets for water list drowning as a hazard.[33][34
 See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Water molecule

Water
portal

Double distilled water•

Flexible SPC water model•
Hydrodynamics•
Superheated water•
Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water•
Viscosity of Water•
(Water (data page•
Water absorption of electromagnetic radiation•
Water cluster•
Water dimer•
Water model•

References
a b
Braun, Charles L.; Sergei N. Smirnov (1993). "Why is water blue?". J. Chem. ^.1
.Educ. 70 (8): 612. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm
a b
Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), used for calibration, melts at ^.2
(273.1500089(10) K (0.000089(10) °C, and boils at 373.1339 K (99.9839 °C
United Nations ^.3
Re: What percentage of the human body is composed of water? Jeffrey Utz, ^.4
M.D., The MadSci Network
Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring ^.5
Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
.http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html
Smith, Jared D. (2005). "Unified description of temperature-dependent ^.6
hydrogen bond rearrangements in liquid water"". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci 102 (40):
14171–14174. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506899102. http://www.lbl.gov/Science-
.Articles/Archive/sabl/2005/October/Hydrogen-bonds-in-liquid-water.pdf
Heat of Vaporization of Water vs. Temperature ^.7
Constant pressure heat capacity of water vs. temperature ^.8
Lide, D. R. (Ed.) (1990). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (70th Edn.). Boca ^.9
.Raton (FL):CRC Press
Water - Density and Specific Weight ^.10
Shell, Scott M.; Pablo G. Debenedetti, Athanassios Z. Panagiotopoulos (2002). ^.11
"Molecular structural order and anomalies in liquid silica". Phys. Rev. E Stat.
Nonlin. Soft. Matter. Phys. 66: 011202. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.66.011202.
.http://www.engr.ucsb.edu/~shell/papers/2002_PRE_silica.pdf
/Conquering Chemistry, 4th Ed., 2004. http://www.cci.net.au/conqchem" ^.12
P. G. Debenedetti, P. G., and Stanley, H. E.; "Supercooled and Glassy Water", Physics ^.13
.(Today 56 (6), p. 40–46 (2003
 IAPWS, Release on the pressure along the melting and the sublimation" ^.14
curves of ordinary water substance, 1993".
.http://www.iapws.org/relguide/meltsub.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-22
Thermal Conductivity of some common Materials ^.15
The pressure due to water vapor in the air is called the partial pressure (Dalton's ^.16
law) and it is directly proportional to concentration of water molecules in air (Boyle's
.(law
.Adiabatic cooling resulting from the ideal gas law ^.17
Brown, Theodore L., H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., and Bruce E. Burston. Chemistry: The ^.18
.Central Science. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006
Fine, R.A. and Millero, F.J. (1973). "Compressibility of water as a function of ^.19
temperature and pressure". Journal of Chemical Physics 59 (10): 5529.
.doi:10.1063/1.1679903
a b
R. Nave. "Bulk Elastic Properties". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. ^.20
.http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html. Retrieved 2007-10-26
a b
Oliver Schlüter (2003-07-28) (PDF). Impact of High Pressure — Low ^.21
Temperature Processes on Cellular Materials Related to Foods. Technischen
.Universität Berlin. http://edocs.tu-berlin.de./diss/2003/schlueter_oliver.pdf
Gustav Heinrich Johann Apollon Tammann (1925). The States Of Aggregation. ^.22
.Constable And Company Limited
William Cudmore McCullagh Lewis and James Rice (1922). A System of Physical ^.23
..Chemistry. Longmans, Green and co
(Physical Forces Organizing Biomolecules (PDF ^.24
Surface Tension of Water vs. Temperature ^.25
G. Charlot (2007). Qualitative Inorganic Analysis. Read Books. p. 275. ISBN ^.26
.1406747890. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ml-AJ9YbnTIC
IAPWS (2001). "Guideline on the Use of Fundamental Physical Constants and ^.27
.Basic Constants of Water". http://www.iapws.org/relguide/fundam.pdf
A Brief History of Temperature Measurement ^.28
Mononuclear hydrides in A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds ^.29
(Recommendations 1993) online version by ACDLabs
http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_35.htm ^.30
Leigh, G. J. et al. 1998. Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC ^.31
recommendations, p. 99. Blackwell Science Ltd, UK. ISBN 0-86542-685-6
hydron hydroxide compound summary at PubChem"." ^.32
http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?
.cid=22247451&loc=ec_rcs
MSDS David Grays Distilled Water 060106.pdf, Health effects - inhaled: ^.33
"."...excessive inhalation may cause drowning
MSDS for battery water, Section VI - Health Hazard Data: "Water may cause death ^.34
"by drowning

External links
Release on the IAPWS Industrial Formulation 1997 for the Thermodynamic•
(Properties of Water and Steam (fast computation speed
Release on the IAPWS Formulation 1995 for the Thermodynamic Properties of•
(Ordinary Water Substance for General and Scientific Use (simpler formulation
Sigma Xi The Scientific Research Society, Year of Water 2008•
(Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI•
Chaplin, Martin. "Water Structure and Science". London South Bank University.•
.http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/sitemap.html. Retrieved 2009-07-07
Calculation of vapor pressure, liquid density, dynamic liquid viscosity, surface•
tension of water
[show]
v • d • e

Hydrogen compounds

Drinking water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please
(improve this article if you can. (November 2007

Tap water
 Mineral Water

Drinking water or potable water is water of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used
without risk of immediate or long term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to
households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard, even though only a very small
.proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation
Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated
with disease vectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of dissolved chemicals or suspended solids. Such
water is not potable and drinking or using such water in food preparation leads to widespread acute and
.chronic illness and is a major cause of death in many countries
Typically, water supply networks deliver potable water, whether it is to be used for drinking, washing or
landscape irrigation. One counterexample is urban China, where drinking water can optionally be
.delivered by a separate tap

Contents
[hide]

General 1•
Water quality and contaminants 2•
Access 3•
Requirements 4•
Indicators of safe drinking water 5•
Diarrhea as a major health effect among children 6•
Improving the availability of drinking water 7•
In education 8•
Drinking water regulation 9•
European Union 9.1○
United States of America 9.2○
Standard potability testing 9.2.1
Bottled water 10•
Drinking water preferences of animals 11•
See also 12•
References 13•
External links 14•

edit] General]
Essential to the survival of all organisms,[1] water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to
humans. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial
component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. Health authorities have
historically suggested at least eight glasses, eight fluid ounces each (168 ml), of water per day (64 fluid
ounces, or 1.89 litres),[2][3] and the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres.[1] The United States
Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests 2.0 litres per day.
[[3

Spring water, a natural resource from which much bottled water comes, is generally imbued with minerals.
[4]
Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems in developed nations, refers to water piped to homes
[
through a tap. All of these forms of water are commonly drunk, often purified through filtration.[5
edit] Water quality and contaminants]
 Further information: Water quality and Water pollution

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view
of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk
.page

.This section requires expansion

Further information: Appropriate technology#Drinking water

Further information: Drinking water quality in the United States

Throughout most of the world, the most common contamination of raw water sources is from human sewage
and in particular human faecal pathogens and parasites. In 2006, waterborne diseases were estimated to
cause 1.8 million deaths each year while about 1.1 billion people lacked proper drinking water.[6]. It is clear
that people in the developing world need to have access to good quality water in sufficient quantity, water
purification technology and availability and distribution systems for water. In many parts of the world the
.only sources of water are from small streams often directly contaminated by sewage
Most water requires some type of treatment before use, even water from deep wells or springs. The extent of
treatment depends on the source of the water. Appropriate technology options in water treatment include
both community-scale and household-scale point-of-use (POU) designs.[7]. A few large urban areas such as
Christchurch. New Zealand have access to sufficiently pure water of sufficient volume that no treatment of
[
the raw water is required.[8
The most reliable way to kill microbial pathogenic agents is to heat water to a rolling boil[9] but this requires
abundant sources of fuel and is very onerous on the households, especially where it is difficult to store
boiled water in sterile conditions. Other techniques, such as filtration, chemical disinfection, and exposure to
ultraviolet radiation (including solar UV) have been demonstrated in an array of randomized control trials to
significantly reduce levels of water-borne disease among users in low-income countries[10], but these suffer
.from the same problems as boiling methods
Over the past decade, an increasing number of field-based studies have been undertaken to determine the
success of POU measures in reducing waterborne disease. The ability of POU options to reduce disease is a
function of both their ability to remove microbial pathogens if properly applied and such social factors as
ease of use and cultural appropriateness. Technologies may generate more (or less) health benefit than their
.lab-based microbial removal performance would suggest
The current priority of the proponents of POU treatment is to reach large numbers of low-income
households on a sustainable basis. Few POU measures have reached significant scale thus far, but efforts to
promote and commercially distribute these products to the world's poor have only been under way for a few
.years
Parameters for drinking water quality typically fall under two categories: chemical/physical and
microbiological. Chemical/physical parameters include heavy metals, trace organic compounds, total
suspended solids (TSS), and turbidity. Microbiological parameters include Coliform bacteria, E. coli, and
specific pathogenic species of bacteria (such as cholera-causing Vibrio cholerae), viruses, and protozoan
.parasites
Chemical parameters tend to pose more of a chronic health risk through buildup of heavy metals although
some components like nitrates/nitrites and arsenic may have a more immediate impact. Physical parameters
.affect the aesthetics and taste of the drinking water and may complicate the removal of microbial pathogens
Originally, fecal contamination was determined with the presence of coliform bacteria, a convenient
marker for a class of harmful fecal pathogens. The presence of fecal coliforms (like E. Coli) serves as an
indication of contamination by sewage. Additional contaminants include protozoan oocysts such as
Cryptosporidium sp., Giardia lamblia, Legionella, and viruses (enteric).[11] Microbial pathogenic parameters
.are typically of greatest concern because of their immediate health risk
 edit] Access]
Further information: Water resources

.Only forty-six percent of people in Africa have safe drinking water

Drinking water vending machines in Thailand. One litre of purified water is sold (into the
.customer's own bottle) for 1 baht

.Shipot, a common source of drinking water in a Ukrainian village

Water quality - percent of population using improved water sources by country

of the Earth's surface is covered by water. Water is available almost everywhere if proper methods are 70%
:used to get it. Sources where water may be obtained include
 .ground sources such as groundwater, hyporheic zones and aquifers•
.precipitation which includes rain, hail, snow, fog, etc•
surface water such as rivers, streams, glaciers•
.biological sources such as plants•
the sea through desalination•
Access to drinkable water is a complicated, yet vital issue. There is great diversity in access not only
.between countries but within countries and even cities
.Cost is the major limiting factor of access to drinkable water
The most efficient way to transport and deliver potable water is through pipes. However, this requires a
enormous up front infrastructure costs. Further the high continual operating costs mean many systems fall
into disrepair in both developed and undeveloped countries. The cost to replace the deteriorating water and
sanitation infrastructure of industrialized countries may be as high as $200 billion a year. Further, Leakage
[
of pipes reduces access to water. Leakage rates of 50% are not uncommon in urban systems [12
Because of the high initial investments, many debt impoverished nations cannot afford to develop this
infrastructure. So people in these areas end up paying a much higher percentage of their income on water. [13]
2003 statistics from El Salvador, for example, indicate that the poorest 20% of households spend more than
10% of their total income on water. In the United Kingdom authorities define spending of more than 3% of
[
one's income on water as a hardship.[14
The Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking
water between 1990 and 2015 will probably be reached. Although some countries still face enormous
[
challenges. [15
Rural communities are the furthest from meeting the 2015 MDGs drinking water target. Globally only 27%
of the rural population has water piped directly to their home and 24% rely on unimproved sources. Of the
884 million people without access to an improved water source, 746 million people (84%) live in rural areas.
Sub-Saharan Africa has made the least progress in improved water sources since 1990, improving only 9%
to 2006. In contrast, the Eastern Asian region saw a dramatic drop from 45% to 9% reliance on unimproved
[
water in the same time period.[16

Table 2: Percentage of population with access to safe

[
drinking water (2000) [17

Count
% Country % Country % Country % Country %
ry

Alban 9 8 Azerbaij 7 8 9
Algeria Brazil Chile
ia 7 9 an 8 7 3

7 9 9 8 Indones 7
China Cuba Egypt India
5 1 7 4 ia 8

9 8 5 8 Morocc 8
Iran Iraq Kenya Mexico
2 5 7 8 o 0

8 Philippi 8 South 8 South 9 6

Peru Sudan
0 nes 6 Africa 6 Korea 2 7
 8 8 5 Venezuel 8 Zimbab 8
Syria Turkey Uganda
0 2 2 a 3 we 3

Note: All industrialized countries (as listed by UNICEF) with data

.available are at 100%

In the U.S, the typical nonconserving single family home uses 69.3 gallons of water per capita per day. In
some parts of the country there are water supplies that are dangerously low due to drought, particularly in
.[the West and the South East region of the U.S.[18
edit] Requirements]
Main article: Fluid balance

Water is necessary for most life on Earth. Humans can survive for several weeks without food, but for only a
few days without water. The exact amount of water a human needs is highly individual, as it depends on the
condition of the subject, the amount of physical exercise, and on the environmental temperature and
humidity.[19] In the US, the reference daily intake (RDI) for water is 3.7 litres per day for human males
older than 18, and 2.7 litres for human females older than 18[20] including water contained in food,
beverages, and drinking water. It is a common misconception that everyone should drink two litres (68
ounces, or about eight 8-oz glasses) of water per day and is not supported by scientific research. Various
reviews of all the scientific literature on the topic performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any solid
scientific evidence that recommended drinking eight glasses of water per day.[21] [22] [23] For example, people
in hotter climates will require greater water intake than those in cooler climates. An individual's thirst
provides a better guide for how much water they require rather than a specific, fixed number. A more
flexible guideline is that a normal person should urinate 4 times per day, and the urine should be a light
.yellow color
A constant supply is needed to replenish the fluids lost through normal physiological activities, such as
respiration, perspiration and urination. Food contributes 0.5 to 1 litre, and the metabolism of protein, fat,
and carbohydrates produces another 0.25 to 0.4 litres[24], which means that 2 to 3 litres of water for men and
1 to 2 litres of water for women should be taken in as fluid in order to meet the RDI. In terms of mineral
nutrients intake, it is unclear what the drinking water contribution is. However, inorganic minerals generally
enter surface water and ground water via storm water runoff or through the Earth's crust. Treatment
processes also lead to the presence of some mineral nutrients. Examples include fluoride, calcium, zinc,
manganese, phosphate, and sodium compounds.[25] Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of
nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert
animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake. There are a variety of trace
elements present in virtually all potable water, some of which play a role in metabolism. For example
sodium, potassium and chloride are common chemicals found in small quantities in most waters, and these
elements play a role (not necessarily major) in body metabolism. Other elements such as fluoride, while
beneficial in low concentrations, can cause dental problems and other issues when present at high levels.
Water is essential for the growth and maintenance of our bodies, as it is involved in a number of biological
.processes
Profuse sweating can increase the need for electrolyte (salt) replacement. Water intoxication (which results
.in hyponatremia), the process of consuming too much water too quickly, can be fatal
The human kidneys will normally adjust to varying levels of water intake. The kidneys will require time to
adjust to the new water intake level. This can cause someone who drinks a lot of water to become
dehydrated more easily than someone who routinely drinks less. Survival classes recommend that someone
who expects to be in an environment with little water (such as a desert), not to drink water excessively, but
rather to drink gradually decreasing amounts for several days before their trip to accustom the kidneys to
[
making concentrated urine. Not using this method can, and has been known to be fatal.[26
edit] Indicators of safe drinking water]
 Access to safe drinking water is indicated by the number of people using proper sanitary sources. These
improved drinking water sources include household connection, public standpipe, borehole condition,
protected dug well, protected spring, and rain water collection. Sources that don't encourage improved
drinking water to the same extent as previously mentioned include: unprotected well, unprotected spring,
rivers or ponds, vender-provided water, bottled water (consequential of limitations in quantity, not quality of
water), and tanker truck water. Access to sanitary water comes hand in hand with access to improved
sanitation facilities for excreta. These facilities include connection to public sewer, connection to septic
system, pour-flush latrine, and ventilated improved pit latrine. Unimproved sanitation facilities are: public
.[or shared latrine, open pit latrine, or bucket latrine[27
edit] Diarrhea as a major health effect among children]
Diarrhoeal diseases cause ninety percent of all deaths of children under five years old in developing
countries. Malnutrition, especially protein-energy malnutrition, can decrease the children's resistance to
infections, including water-related diarrhoeal diseases. In 2000-2003, 769,000 children under five years old
in sub-Saharan Africa died each year from diarrhoeal diseases. As a result of only thirty-six percent of the
population in the sub-Saharan region having access to proper means of sanitation, more than 2000 children's
lives are lost every day. In south Asia, 683,000 children under five years old died each year from diarrhoeal
disease from 2000-2003. During the same time period, in developed countries, 700 children under five years
old died from diarrhoeal disease. Improved water supply reduces diarrhea morbidity by twenty-five percent
and improvements in drinking water through proper storage in the home and chlorination reduces diarrhea
.[episodes by thirty-nine percent[28
edit] Improving the availability of drinking water]
One of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set by the UN includes environmental sustainability.
.[In 2004, only forty-two percent of people in rural areas had access to clean water.[29

Solar water disinfection is a low-cost method of purifying water that can often be implemented with locally
.available materials.[30][31][32][33] Unlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment
One program developed to help people gain access to safe drinking water is the Water Aid program.
Working in 17 countries to help provide water, Water Aid international in helping the sanitation and hygiene
[education to some of the world's poorest people.[10
The Global Framework for Action (GF4A) is a organization that brings together stakeholders, national
governments, donors and NGOs (such as Water aid) to define manageable targets and deadlines. 23
[
Countries are off-track to meet the MDG goals for improved water availability. [34
However, not all efforts to increase availability of safe drinking water have been effective, and some have
been damaging. The 1980s was declared the International Decade of water by the UN. However, the
assumption was made that groundwater is inherently safer than water from rivers, ponds and canals. While
instances of cholera, typhoid and diarrhea were reduced toxic level of fluoride were found. Borehole wells
were either not tested or not tested thoroughly. Fluoride slowly dissolved from the granite rocks underneath
India and slowly poisoned the population, particularly evident in the bone deformations of children. [35].
Further, in Bangladesh, it is estimated that half of the countries 12 million tube wells have unacceptable
levels of arsenic due to the wells not being dug deep enough (past 100 M). The Bangladeshi government
had spent less than $7 million of the 34 million allocated for solving the problem by the World Bank in
1998. [36] [37]. Natural arsenic poisoning is a global threat, 140 million people affected in 70 countries on all
continents. [38] These examples illustrate the need to examine each location on a case by case basis and not
.assume what works in one area will work in another
edit] In education]
In Britain, many schools have poor provision of drinking water to pupils through the day. Studies have been
made upon the effect of increasing the provision of water and significant improvements in test scores have
been observed. Areas such as Brighton have introduced a Schools Water Policy to ensure an adequate intake
[
of 1.5 to 1.75 litres for 5-10 year olds.[39
edit] Drinking water regulation]
 The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view
of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk
.page

edit] European Union]

The EU sets legislation on drinking water quality in addition to factors such as how, where and when water
can be extracted from the environment. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy,
[
known as the water framework directive, is the primary piece of legislation governing drinking water.[40
Each member state is responsible for establishing the required policing measures to ensure that the
legislation is implemented. For example, in the UK the Drinking Water Inspectorate polices the water
.companies
edit] United States of America]
Main article: Drinking water quality in the United States

In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets standards for tap and public water
systems under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA).[41] The Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
regulates bottled water as a food product under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).[42]
Bottled water is not necessarily more pure, or more tested, than public tap water.[43] However, there is
evidence that the United States federal regulations of drinking water do not ensure safe water, as some of the
regulations have not been updated with more recent science. Dr. Peter W. Pruess, who became the the head
of the U.S. EPA's division analyzing environmental risks in 2004, has been "particularly concerned", and
has faced controversy in studies which suggest that regulations against certain chemicals should be
[
tightened.[44
edit] Standard potability testing]
A standard testing of water's potability consists of drawing a sample from a known property or water source,
providing State Certified Nitrate/Nitrogen and Coliform Bacteria Testing, along with E.Coli testing
(FHA/VA). It also means providing testing for Total Dissolved Solids, Water Hardness, pH, and Iron
Content Testing. A Certified Laboratory must provide proper operation of all Water Softening and Filtration
.(Systems, and provide written results of the above testing with a standarized time frame (2 weeks general
edit] Bottled water]
Main article: Bottled water

Drinking water of a variety of qualities is bottled and sold for public consumption throughout the world.
Trends in sales and consumption of bottled water have risen significantly in the last two decades in both
.developed and developing countries
 Drinking pigeon

edit] Drinking water preferences of animals]

The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements of domesticated animals are studied
and described within the context of animal husbandry. However, relatively few studies have been focused
on the drinking behavior of wild animals. A recent study have shown, e.g., that feral pigeons do not
discriminate drinking water according to its content of methabolic wastes, such as uric acid or urea
[
(mimicing faeces- or urine-pollution by birds or mammals respectively). [45
edit] See also]
The length of this "see also" section may adversely affect readability. Please
ensure that the "see also" links are not mentioned elsewhere in the article, are not red
.links, are as few in number and as relevant as possible

Water
portal

Bacteriological water analysis•

Boil-water advisory•
Clean Water Act•
Desalination•
Drinking water quality in the United States•
Drinking water quality legislation of the United States•
Dual piping•
European Water Partnership•
Flow: For Love of Water•
Food safety•
Hot stain•
International Hydrological Programme•
Life Saver bottle•
Lifewater International•
National Rural Water Association•
Plumbing•
Peak water•
Water crisis•
Water fluoridation•
Water law•
Water war•
Water security•
Arsenic contamination of groundwater•
Groundwater•

edit] References]
a b
Greenhalgh, Alison (March 2001). "Healthy living - Water". BBC Health. ^.1
http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/nutrition/drinks_water.shtml.
.Retrieved 2007-02-19
 The Benefits of Water". Cleveland Clinic." ^.2
http://www.clevelandclinic.org/health/health-info/docs/2700/2731.asp?
.index=7250. Retrieved 2007-02-19
a b
"Chapter 3, Exposure Scenario Selection" (PDF). EPA. May 2000. pp. p. 8. ^.3
.http://www.epa.gov/earth1r6/6pd/rcra_c/pd-o/chap3.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-19
Water Links". Center for Science in the Public Interest." ^.4
.http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water/waterlinks.html. Retrieved 2007-02-19
Brief History of Drinking Water". American Water Works Association. 2007." ^.5
http://www.awwa.org/Advocacy/news/info/HistoryofDrinkingWater.cfm.
.Retrieved 2007-02-19
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA. "Safe Water System: ^.6
A Low-Cost Technology for Safe Drinking Water." Fact Sheet, World Water Forum
.4 Update. March 2006
Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology, "Household Water ^.7
.Treatment Guide," March 2008
Christchurch’s water supply is one of the best in the world ^.8
WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality [1] ^.9
Clasen, T., Schmidt, W., Rabie, T., Roberts, I., Cairncross, S. Interventions to improve ^.10
water quality for preventing diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis. British
(Medical Journal, doi:10.1136/bmj.39118.489931.BE (published 12 March 2007
".U.S. EPA. "Drinking Water Contaminants: Microorganisms ^.11
page 5 Referenced 2008-10-20 [2] ^.12
BBC News The water vendors of Nigeria Referenced 2008-10-20 [3] ^.13
page 51 Referenced 2008-10-20 [4] ^.14
The Millennium Development Goals Report page 44 [5] ^.15
The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009. Referenced 2008-10-20 [6] ^.16
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). New York, NY. "Safe Drinking Water." ^.17
Excerpt from "Progress since the World Summit for Children: A Statistical
.Review." September 2001
March 2008, Cashing in on Climate Change, IBISWorld ^.18
Maton, Anthea bj; Jean Hopkins, Charles William McLaughlin, Susan Johnson, ^.19
Maryanna Quon Warner, David LaHart, Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health.
.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1
US daily reference intake values ^.20
.Research debunks health value of guzzling water. Reuters, April 2008 ^.21
H. Valtin, Drink at least eight glasses of water a day." Really? Is there ^.22
scientific evidence for "8 × 8"? Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 283: R993-
.R1004, 2002
Dan Negoianu and Stanley Goldfarb. Just add water. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 19: 1041- ^.23
.1043, 2008
(Swedish DFA (in Swedish ^.24
World Health Organization (WHO). Geneva, Switzerland. Joyce Morrissey ^.25
Donohue, Charles O. Abernathy, Peter Lassovszky, George Hallberg. "The
contribution of drinking-water to total dietary intakes of selected trace
.mineral nutrients in the United States." Draft, August 2004
Man Dies of Thirst During Survival Test, San Francisco Chronicle, May 2, 2007 ^.26
Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-Term Assessment of ^.27
[Progress [www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04.pdf
WHO/UNICEF, Water for life: making it happen ^.28
 Africa and the Millennium Development Goals ^.29
[[www.un.org/millenniumgoals/docs/MDGafrica07.pdf
Conroy R.M., Meegan M.E., Joyce T., McGuigan K., Barnes J. (1999), Solar disinfection ^.30
.of water reduces diarrhoeal disease, an update, Arch Dis Child, Vol. 81
Conroy R.M., Meegan M.E., Joyce T.M., McGuigan K.G., Barnes J. (2001) Use of solar ^.31
disinfection protects children under 6 years from cholera. Arch Dis Child; 85:293-295
Rose A. at al. (2006). Solar disinfection of water for diarrhoeal prevention in Southern ^.32
India. Arch Dis Child, 91(2): 139-141
Hobbins M. (2003). The SODIS Health Impact Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Swiss Tropical ^.33
Institute Basel
Referenced 2008-10-20 [7] ^.34
Pearce F. When the rivers run dry : journeys into the heart of the world's water crisis. ^.35
Toronto: Key Porter; 2006. page 86
Pearce F. When the rivers run dry : journeys into the heart of the world's water crisis. ^.36
Toronto: Key Porter; 2006. page 89
Referenced 2008-10-20 [8] ^.37
WWDR3 facts and figures. page 44 Referenced 2008-10-20 [9] ^.38
Sean Coughlan (8 October 2002). Too thirsty for knowledge. BBC. ^.39
.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/features/2309107.stm
Maria, Kaika (April 2003). "The Water Framework Directive: A New Directive ^.40
for a Changing Social, Political and Economic European Framework". European
Planning Studies, (Taylor and Francis Group) 11 (3): 299–316.
doi:10.1080/09654310303640.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713666358~db=all.
.Retrieved 2009-02-10
.Pub.L. 93-523; 42 U.S.C. § 300f et seq. December 16, 1974 ^.41
.June 25, 1938, ch. 675, 52 Stat. 1040; 21 U.S.C. § 301 et seq ^.42
U.S. EPA. Washington, DC. "Ground water and drinking water - Frequently ^.43
.asked questions." September 20, 2007
Duhigg C. (2009). That Tap Water Is Legal but May Be Unhealthy. New York ^.44
.Times
Olah G, Rózsa L (2006). "Nitrogen metabolic wastes do not influence drinking ^.45
water preference in feral pigeons". Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum
.Hungaricae 52: 401–406

edit] External links]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Water as aliment

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Drinking water

.Look up potable in Wiktionary, the free dictionary

 Drinking water at the Open Directory Project•
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water -•
Drinking Water One-stop resource for drinking water including information on tap
water, water wells, fluoridation, water testing, water-related diseases and
contaminants, etc., plus links to EPA, WHO, and other resources
US Environmental Protection Agency - National drinking water program -•
General info, regulations & technical publications
WHO - Water Sanitation and Health: drinking water quality•
WHO - Water Sanitation and Health: potabilization systems•
The International Water Association•
Waterwedrink - Links to worldwide drinking water quality websites•
Attorney.org: Save Our Water•
COVSA American veterans raise money for safe water wells in Vietnam•
"Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_water

Categories: Drinking waterEvaporation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject

(Physics or the Physics Portal may be able to help recruit one. (November 2008

Water vapor that has evaporated and disappeared from hot tea condenses into visible
droplets. Gaseous water is invisible, but the clouds of water droplets are evidence of
.evaporation followed by condensation

Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid, that occur only on the surface of a liquid. The other type
.of vaporization is boiling, that instead occurs on the entire mass of the liquid
Evaporation is a type of phase transition; it is the process by which molecules in a liquid state (e.g. water)
spontaneously become gaseous (e.g. water vapor). Generally, evaporation can be seen by the gradual
disappearance of a liquid from a substance when exposed to a significant volume of gas. Vaporization and
[
evaporation however, are not entirely the same processes.[citation needed
On average, the molecules in a glass of water do not have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid, or
else the liquid would turn into vapor quickly (see boil). When the molecules collide, they transfer energy to
each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a
.molecule near the surface that it ends up with enough energy to escape
 Liquids that do not evaporate visibly at a given temperature in a given gas (e.g. cooking oil at room
temperature) have molecules that do not tend to transfer energy to each other in a pattern sufficient to
frequently give a molecule the heat energy necessary to turn into vapor. However, these liquids are
.evaporating, it's just that the process is much slower and thus significantly less visible
Evaporation is an essential part of the water cycle. Solar energy drives evaporation of water from oceans,
lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water. In hydrology, evaporation and transpiration (which
involves evaporation within plant stomata) are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation is
caused when water is exposed to air and the liquid molecules turn into water vapor which rises up and forms
.clouds

Contents
[hide]

Theory 1•
Evaporative equilibrium 1.1○
Factors influencing the rate of 2•
evaporation
Applications 3•
Combustion vaporization 3.1○
Film deposition 3.2○
See also 4•
References 5•
External links 6•

edit] Theory]
See also: Kinetic theory

For molecules of a liquid to evaporate, they must be located near the surface, be moving in the proper
direction, and have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome liquid-phase intermolecular forces.[1] Only a small
proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, so the rate of evaporation is limited. Since the kinetic energy
of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, evaporation proceeds more quickly at higher temperatures.
As the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the
temperature of the liquid thus decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling. This is why
evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed more quickly with higher flow
rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry
on a clothes line will dry (by evaporation) more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts
.to evaporation are heat, humidity and air movement
On a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is
a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined. Because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a
.macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface can be seen
edit] Evaporative equilibrium]
 .Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature. 760 Torr = 1 atm

If evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid.
Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density
and pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an equilibrium,[1] the
vapor is said to be "saturated," and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid
temperature will occur. For a system consisting of vapor and liquid of a pure substance, this equilibrium
:state is directly related to the vapor pressure of the substance, as given by the Clausius-Clapeyron relation

where P1, P2 are the vapor pressures at temperatures T1, T2 respectively, ΔHvap is the enthalpy of
vaporization, and R is the universal gas constant. The rate of evaporation in an open system is related to
the vapor pressure found in a closed system. If a liquid is heated, when the vapor pressure reaches the
.ambient pressure the liquid will boil
The ability for a molecule of a liquid to evaporate is largely based on the amount of kinetic energy an
individual particle may possess. Even at lower temperatures, individual molecules of a liquid can evaporate
.if they have more than the minimum amount of kinetic energy required for vaporization
But vaporization is not only the process of a change of state from liquid to gas but it is also a change of state
.from a solid to gas. This process is also known as sublimation but can also be known as vaporization
separates dissolved solute from its solvent•
is done by heating a little amount of solution that is placed in an evaporating dish [ the•
[. solution is heated until all the solvent evaporate leaving the residue

edit] Factors influencing the rate of evaporation]

Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air

If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given
.substance will evaporate more slowly

Concentration of other substances in the air

If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for
.the substance evaporating

(Concentration of other substances in the liquid (impurities

.If the liquid contains other substances, it will have a lower capacity for evaporation

Flow rate of air

This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the
substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely
to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. This is the result of the
boundary layer at the evaporation surface decreasing with flow velocity, decreasing
.the diffusion distance in the stagnant layer

Inter-molecular forces

The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid state, the more
.energy one must get to escape
 Pressure

In an area of less pressure, evaporation happens faster because there is less exertion
.on the surface keeping the molecules from launching themselves

Surface area

A substance which has a larger surface area will evaporate faster as there are more
.surface molecules which are able to escape

Temperature of the substance

.If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster

Density

.The higher the density, the slower a liquid evaporates

In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan"
open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US
data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map.[2] The measurements range from under 30 to
.over the120 inches (3,000 mm) per year
edit] Applications]
When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of
water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind.
.In a clothes dryer hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly
edit] Combustion vaporization]
Fuel droplets vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat
.(energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber
edit] Film deposition]
(Main article: Evaporation (deposition

.Thin films may be deposited by not evaporating a substance and condensing it onto a substrate
edit] See also]
(Atmometer (evaporimeter•
Crystallisation•
Desalination•
Distillation•
Drying•
Evaporator•
Evapotranspiration•
Flash evaporation•
Heat of vaporization•
Latent heat•
Pan evaporation•
Transpiration•

edit] References]
Sze, Simon Min. Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology. ISBN 0-471-33372-•
.7. Has an especially detailed discussion of film deposition by evaporation
 a b
Silberberg, Martin A. (2006). Chemistry (4th edition ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ^.1
.pp. 431–434. ISBN 0-07-296439-1
Geotechnical, Rock and Water Resources Library - Grow Resource - ^.2
Evaporation

edit] External links]

.Look up evaporation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary

(MSN Encarta article on evaporation (Archived 2009-10-31•

Evaporation of water•
"Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation
Categories: Atmospheric thermodynamics | Basic meteorological concepts and
phenomena | Materials science | Phase changes | Thin film deposition

Hidden categories: Physics articles needing expert attention | Articles needing expert
attention from November 2008 | All articles needing expert attention | All articles
with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November
2009

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(Precipitation (meteorology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Long-term mean precipitation by month

In meteorology, precipitation (also known as one of the classes of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric
water phenomena) is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is pulled down by
gravity and deposited on the Earth's surface.[1] The main forms of precipitation include rain, snow, ice
pellets, and graupel. It occurs when the atmosphere, a large gaseous solution, becomes saturated with water
vapour and the water condenses, falling out of solution (i.e., precipitates).[2] Two processes, possibly acting
together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Virga is
precipitation that begins falling to the earth but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the ways
air can become saturated. Precipitation forms via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a
.cloud
Moisture overriding associated with weather fronts is an overall major method of precipitation production.
If enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as
cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands. Where relatively warm water bodies are present,
for example due to water evaporation from lakes, lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the
warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones. Lake-effect
snowfall can be locally heavy. Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone's comma head and within lake
effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is
maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert
 climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the monsoon
.trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes
Rain drops range in size from oblate, pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small spheres for smaller
drops. Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth can occur in many different forms, including rain,
freezing rain, drizzle, ice needles, snow, ice pellets or sleet, graupel and hail. Hail is formed within
cumulonimbus clouds when strong updrafts of air cause the stones to cycle back and forth through the
cloud, causing the hailstone to form in layers until it becomes heavy enough to fall from the cloud. Unlike
raindrops, snowflakes grow in a variety of different shapes and patterns, determined by the temperature
and humidity characteristics of the air the snowflake moves through on its way to the ground. While snow
and ice pellets require temperatures close to the ground to be near or below freezing, hail can occur during
much warmer temperature regimes due to the process of its formation. Precipitation may occur on other
celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of ice
[
needles, rather than rain or snow.[3
The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities.
Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions
across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Precipitation is a major component of the
water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately
505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres
(95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-averaged
annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate
.classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes

Part of the Nature series

Weather

[Seasons[show

Temperate
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Tropical
wet season
dry season

[Clouds[show

General
Cloud cover
Cloud physics
Cloud types
(High-clouds (Family A
Cirrocumulus
Cirrus cloud
 Cirrostratus
(Middle-clouds (Family B
Altostratus
Altocumulus
(Low-clouds(Family C
Cumulus cloud
Stratocumulus cloud
Nimbostratus cloud
Stratus cloud

[Precipitation[show

Rain
Drizzle
Snow
Freezing rain
Ice pellets
Hail
Graupel

[Severe weather[show

Thunderstorm
Lightning
Supercell
Downburst
Tornado
Waterspout
Tropical cyclone

Weather portal

Environment

v • d • e

Contents
[hide]

Hydrometeor 1•
Types 2•
How the air becomes saturated 3•
 Cooling air to its dew point 3.1○
Adding moisture to the air 3.2○
Formation 4•
Raindrops 4.1○
Ice pellets 4.2○
Hail 4.3○
Snowflakes 4.4○
Causes 5•
Frontal activity 5.1○
Convection 5.2○
Orographic effects 5.3○
Snow 5.4○
Within the tropics 5.5○
Measurement 6•
Return period 7•
Role in Köppen climate classification 8•
Changes due to global warming 9•
Changes due to urban heat island 10•
Forecasting 11•
See also 12•
References 13•
External links 14•

edit] Hydrometeor]

.This anvil-shaped Cumulonimbus incus cloud is composed of hydrometeors

The term meteor describes an object from outer space which has entered the Earth's atmosphere and
produces a light phenomenon.[5] In contrast, any phenomenon which was at some point produced due to
condensation or precipitation of moisture within the Earth's atmosphere is known as a hydrometeor. Particles
composed of fallen precipitation which fell onto the Earth's surface can become hydrometeors if blown off
the landscape by wind. Formations due to condensation such as clouds, haze, fog, and mist are composed of
hydrometeors. All precipitation types are hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation
which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles removed from the Earth's surface by wind such as
[
blowing snow and blowing sea spray are also hydrometeors.[6
edit] Types]
 (See also: Precipitation types (meteorology

A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation

Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh
water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[4] Given the Earth's surface area, that means the globally-
.(averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in
Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform,[7] and orographic rainfall.[8]
Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in
that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation,[9] while stratiform processes involve weaker
upward motions and less intense precipitation. Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on
whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of
different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms
of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing air
mass is called "freezing rain" or "freezing drizzle". Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles,
[
ice pellets, hail, and graupel.[10
edit] How the air becomes saturated]
edit] Cooling air to its dew point]

Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark

Air contains water vapour, measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg),[11] but most commonly
reported as a relative humidity. How much water vapour a parcel of air can contain before it becomes
saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapour
than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The
dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.[12] Water vapour
normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. An
elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or
cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped
[
underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[13
 There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling,
radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.[14] The
air can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain
(orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,[15]
usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land.
Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface
underneath.[16] Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which
[
forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[17

Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming

edit] Adding moisture to the air]

The main ways water vapour is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,[9]
precipitation or virga falling from above,[18] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans,
water bodies or wet land,[19] transpiration from plants,[20] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[21] and
[
lifting air over mountains.[22
edit] Formation]
Main article: Water cycle

.Condensation and coalescence are important parts of the water cycle

edit] Raindrops]
Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze
onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. Air resistance typically causes the water
droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger
droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough
to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above
freezing. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally
requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets.
 This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below
freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice
[
crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[23
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter,
above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a
raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming
airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[24] Intensity
and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short
duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[25][26] Rain drops associated with melting hail
tend to be larger than other rain drops.[27] The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain
[
showers is SHRA.[28
edit] Ice pellets]
See also: Ice pellets

An accumulation of ice pellets

Ice pellets are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. This form of
precipitation is also known as sleet in the United States.[29] Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller
than hailstones.[30] They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid
[
mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.[28
Ice pellets form when a layer of above-freezing air is located between 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) and
3,000 metres (9,800 ft) above the ground, with sub-freezing air both above and below it. This causes the
partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-
freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath
the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the
result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be
found in advance of a warm front during the cold season [31], but can occasionally be found behind a
.passing cold front
edit] Hail]
See also: Hail

A large hailstone, about 6 cm (2.36 in) in diameter

Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with
condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the
cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted up again. Hail
has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more.[32] Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail,
of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller-sized
hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil.[28] Stones just
larger than golf ball-sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes.[33] Hailstones can grow to
15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than .5 kilograms (1.1 lb).[34] In large hailstones, latent heat released
by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo 'wet growth',
where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones.[35] The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows
increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm's
[
updraft, it falls from the cloud.[36
Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds, particularly those with intense updrafts, high liquid water
content, great vertical extent, large water droplets, and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below
freezing 0 °C (32 °F).[32] Hail-producing clouds are often identifiable by their green coloration.[37][38] The
growth rate is maximized at about −13 °C (9 °F), and becomes vanishingly small much below −30 °C
(−22 °F) as supercooled water droplets become rare. For this reason, hail is most common within continental
interiors of the mid-latitudes, as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below
the altitude of 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[39] Entrainment of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents
can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of
thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in. Accordingly, hail is actually less common in the
tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid-latitudes because the atmosphere
over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater depth. Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher
[
elevations.[40
edit] Snowflakes]
Main article: Snowflake

Snowflake viewed in an optical microscope

Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. These droplets
are able to remain liquid at temperatures lower than −18 °C (0 °F), because to freeze, a few molecules in the
droplet need to get together by chance to form an arrangement similar to that in an ice lattice; then the
droplet freezes around this "nucleus." Experiments show that this "homogeneous" nucleation of cloud
droplets only occurs at temperatures lower than −35 °C (−31 °F).[41] In warmer clouds an aerosol particle or
"ice nucleus" must be present in (or in contact with) the droplet to act as a nucleus. Our understanding of
what particles make efficient ice nuclei is poor — what we do know is they are very rare compared to that
cloud condensation nuclei on which liquid droplets form. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be
effective,[42] although to what extent is unclear. Artificial nuclei include particles of silver iodide and dry
[
ice, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding.[43
Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment, which is one where air is saturated
with respect to ice when the temperature is below the freezing point. The droplet then grows by diffusion of
water molecules in the air (vapor) onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. Because water
droplets are so much more numerous than the ice crystals due to their sheer abundance, the crystals are able
 to grow to hundreds of micrometers or millimeters in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process
is known as the Wegner-Bergeron-Findeison process. The corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the
droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets' expense. These large crystals are an
efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide
and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice
particle that falls to the ground.[44] Guinness World Records list the world’s largest snowflakes as those of
[
January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 inches) wide.[45
The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain controversial. Possibilities include mechanical
interlocking, sintering, electrostatic attraction as well as the existence of a "sticky" liquid-like layer on the
crystal surface. The individual ice crystals often have hexagonal symmetry. Although the ice is clear,
scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows/imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white
in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles.[46] The shape of
the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed.[44] Rarely, at a
temperature of around −2 °C (28 °F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry — triangular snowflakes.
[47]
The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near-perfect snowflakes may be more
common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike due to the
10,000,000,000,000,000,000 water molecules which make up a snowflake,[48] which grow at different rates
and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere that the
snowflake falls through on its way to the ground.[49] The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers
[
are coded SHSN.[28
edit] Causes]
edit] Frontal activity]
Main article: Weather fronts

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on
the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm fronts. Similar ascent is
seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around
mid-latitude cyclones.[50] A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with
thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts
usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[51] Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than
Earth. When it gets cold, Mars has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than
[
rain or snow.[3
edit] Convection]

Convective precipitation

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus
congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain
area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the
tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[50]
[52]
Graupel and hail indicate convection.[53] In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and
[
often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[54
edit] Orographic effects]
 Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States
rainfall climatology

Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion
of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation.
In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a
more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind
side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and
[
generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[22
In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the
second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches (12,000 mm).[55] Storm systems affect the
state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to
their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location
relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much
[
more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[56
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting
in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[57] The Sierra Nevada range creates the
[
same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[58][59
edit] Snow]
See also: Snow

Preferred region of heavy snowfall ("Banded Snowfall") around the comma head of a
wintertime low pressure area, shaded in green
 Lake-effect snow bands near the Korean Peninsula

Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds
exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph),[60] (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band of
precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical
motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an
elongated band,[61] which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds.[62] When
moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the
elongated precipitation band. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north.
.Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south
Within the cold sector, poleward and west of the cyclone center, small scale or mesoscale bands of heavy
snow can occur within a cyclone's comma-head pattern. This pattern is a comma-shaped area of clouds and
precipitation found around mature extratropical cyclones. These snow bands typically have a width of
20 miles (32 km) to 50 miles (80 km).[63] The bands in the comma head are associated with areas of
[
frontogenesis, or zones of strengthening temperature contrast.[64
Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water
bodies can lead to narrow lake-effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can
be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant
temperature differences (larger than 13 °C or 23 °F) between the water surface and the air above.[65] Because
of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically
oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height
and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large-scale environment. The
stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation
[
rate becomes.[66
In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze
out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because
[
of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge.[67
edit] Within the tropics]

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that location
 See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone

Main article: Wet season

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual
rainfall in a region falls.[68] The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist
authorities.[69] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[70]
Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests
technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[71]
Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical
convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm
season.[25] When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late
afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,[72] freshwater
quality improves,[73][74] and vegetation grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases.[25]
Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. Unfortunately, the previous dry
season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries
have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the
[
first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[75
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across
with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise
direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).[76] Although cyclones can take
an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes
of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[77] Areas in
[
their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[78
edit] Measurement]

Standard rain gauge

See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-
mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[79] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain,
with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gages have markings on the inner cylinder down to
0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate
0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled
with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the
overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gauges are winterized by removing the funnel and inner
 cylinder and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to
their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge.[80] Once the snowfall/ice is
finished accumulating, or as you approach 300 mm (12 in), one can either bring it inside to melt, or use luke
warm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder,
keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the
[
ice/snow is melted.[81
Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the
tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[82] The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have
problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow/ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited
success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing. Weighing gauges with
antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For
those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act
as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler you use to measure the rain
[
with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[83
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere
where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[84][85] If
a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be
[
interested in the measurement.[86
edit] Return period]
See also: 100-year flood

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period
or frequency.[87] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from
charts based on historic data for the location.[88] The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event which
is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The
rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The
term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a
likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be
extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible to
[
have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.[89
edit] Role in Köppen climate classification]

[
Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map[90

Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET

Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
 Aw BSh Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd

Main article: Köppen climate classification

The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most
commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically,
the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five
primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon,
tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate,
.steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall
between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in).[91] A tropical savanna is a grassland biome
located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall
between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and
are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.[92] The humid
subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that
the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from
occasional tropical cyclones.[93] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between
[
latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.[94
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the
world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by
plentiful precipitation year round.[95] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in
the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in
southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers
and cool, wet winters.[96] A steppe is a dry grassland.[97] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous
[
permafrost and little precipitation.[98
edit] Changes due to global warming]

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect to the
average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

See also: Global warming

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. As average global
temperatures have risen, average global precipitation has also increased. Precipitation generally increased
over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally
there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends
have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe,
and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts
of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events
over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts
—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are
suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along
 with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the
contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent per century
since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per
[
century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (-9.25 percent).[99
edit] Changes due to urban heat island]

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool
.temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white

See also: Urban heat island

The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) to 5.6 °C (10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural
areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm
activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this
warming, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of
[
cities, compared with upwind.[100] Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[101
edit] Forecasting]
Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast

Example of a five day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation
accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[102] A QPF will be specified when a
measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid
period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT.
Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from
observations with fine detail.[103] Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic
forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[104] Forecast models show
significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the
atmosphere, which decreases with height.[105] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts,
or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[106] Radar imagery forecasting
techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The
 forecasts can be verified through use of rain gage measurements, weather radar estimates, or a
[
combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[107
edit] See also]
List of meteorology topics•
Mango showers, pre-monsoon showers in the Indian states of Karnataka and•
.Kerala that help in the ripening of mangoes
Steam•
Sunshower, an unusual meteorological phenomenon in which rain falls while the sun•
.is shining
Umbrella•
Wintry showers, an informal meteorological term for various mixtures of rain,•
.freezing rain, sleet and snow
Probability of Precipitation•

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.(For other uses, see Atmosphere (disambiguation

.(Atmospherics" redirects here. For the Bass Communion album, see Atmospherics (album "

.View of Jupiter's active atmosphere, including the Great Red Spot

An atmosphere (from Greek ἀτμός - atmos "vapor" and σφαῖρα - sphaira "sphere") is a layer of gases that
may surround a material body of sufficient mass,[1] by the gravity of the body, and are retained for a longer
duration if gravity is high and the atmosphere's temperature is low. Some planets consist mainly of various
.(gases, but only their outer layer is their atmosphere (see gas giants
The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star, and typically includes the portion starting
from the opaque photosphere outwards. Relatively low-temperature stars may form compound molecules in
their outer atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere, which contains oxygen used by most organisms for respiration
and carbon dioxide used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis, also protects living
organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation. Its current composition is the product of
.billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms

Contents
[hide]

Pressure 1•
Escape 2•
 Composition 3•
Structure 4•
Earth 4.1○
Others 4.2○
In our solar system 4.2.1
Outside our solar system 4.2.2
Circulation 5•
Importance 6•
See also 7•
References 8•
External links 9•

edit] Pressure]
Main article: atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is applied perpendicularly to a surface by the
surrounding gas. It is determined by a planet's gravitational force in combination with the total mass of a
column of air above a location. Units of air pressure are based on the internationally-recognized standard
.(atmosphere (atm), which is defined as 101,325 Pa (or 1,013,250 dynes per cm²
The pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above each
location. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of e (an irrational
number with a value of 2.71828..) is called the scale height and is denoted by H. For an atmosphere with a
uniform temperature, the scale height is proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the
mean molecular mass of dry air times the planet's gravitational acceleration. For such a model atmosphere,
the pressure declines exponentially with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not uniform in
temperature, so the exact determination of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more
.complex
edit] Escape]
Main article: Atmospheric escape

Surface gravity, the force that holds down an atmosphere, differs significantly among the planets. For
example, the large gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter is able to retain light gases such as
hydrogen and helium that escape from lower gravity objects. Second, the distance from the sun determines
the energy available to heat atmospheric gas to the point where its molecules' thermal motion exceed the
planet's escape velocity, the speed at which gas molecules overcome a planet's gravitational grasp. Thus, the
distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite relatively low
.gravities. Interstellar planets, theoretically, may also retain thick atmospheres
Since a gas at any particular temperature will have molecules moving at a wide range of velocities, there
will almost always be some slow leakage of gas into space. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones
with the same thermal kinetic energy, and so gases of low molecular weight are lost more rapidly than
those of high molecular weight. It is thought that Venus and Mars may have both lost much of their water
when, after being photodissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet, the hydrogen escaped.
Earth's magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape
of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years the Earth may have lost gases through the magnetic
[
polar regions due to auroral activity, including a net 2% of its atmospheric oxygen.[2
Other mechanisms that can cause atmosphere depletion are solar wind-induced sputtering, impact erosion,
weathering, and sequestration — sometimes referred to as "freezing out" — into the regolith and polar
.caps
edit] Composition]
 Atmospheric gases scatter blue light more than other wavelengths, giving the Earth a blue
.halo when seen from space

Initial atmospheric makeup is generally related to the chemistry and temperature of the local solar nebula
during planetary formation and the subsequent escape of interior gases. These original atmospheres
underwent much evolution over time, with the varying properties of each planet resulting in very different
.outcomes
The atmospheres of the planets Venus and Mars are primarily composed of carbon dioxide, with small
.quantities of nitrogen, argon, oxygen and traces of other gases
The atmospheric composition on Earth is largely governed by the by-products of the very life that it sustains.
Earth's atmosphere contains roughly (by molar content/volume) 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, a
variable amount (average around 0.247%, National Center for Atmospheric Research) water vapor, 0.93%
argon, 0.038% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other "noble" gases (and of volatile
.(pollutants
The low temperatures and higher gravity of the gas giants — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune —
allows them to more readily retain gases with low molecular masses. These planets have hydrogen-helium
.atmospheres, with trace amounts of more complex compounds
Two satellites of the outer planets possess non-negligible atmospheres: Titan, a moon of Saturn, and Triton,
a moon of Neptune, which are mainly nitrogen. Pluto, in the nearer part of its orbit, has an atmosphere of
.nitrogen and methane similar to Triton's, but these gases are frozen when farther from the Sun
Other bodies within the Solar System have extremely thin atmospheres not in equilibrium. These include the
.(Moon (sodium gas), Mercury (sodium gas), Europa (oxygen), Io (sulfur), and Enceladus (water vapor
The atmospheric composition of an extra-solar planet was first determined using the Hubble Space
Telescope. Planet HD 209458b is a gas giant with a close orbit around a star in the constellation Pegasus.
The atmosphere is heated to temperatures over 1,000 K, and is steadily escaping into space. Hydrogen,
[
oxygen, carbon and sulfur have been detected in the planet's inflated atmosphere.[3
edit] Structure]
edit] Earth]
Main article: Earth's atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere consists, from the ground up, of the troposphere (which includes the planetary
boundary layer or peplosphere as lowest layer), stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere (which
contains the ionosphere and exosphere) and also the magnetosphere. Each of the layers has a different
.lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height
Three quarters of the atmosphere lies within the troposphere, and the depth of this layer varies between
17 km at the equator and 7 km at the poles. The ozone layer, which absorbs ultraviolet energy from the
Sun, is located primarily in the stratosphere, at altitudes of 15 to 35 km. The Kármán line, located within
the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the boundary between the Earth's
 atmosphere and outer space. However, the exosphere can extend from 500 up to 10,000 km above the
.surface, where it interacts with the planet's magnetosphere
edit] Others]
.Other astronomical bodies such as these listed have known atmospheres
edit] In our solar system]
Atmosphere of Mercury•
Atmosphere of Venus•
Atmosphere of Earth•
Atmosphere of the Moon○
Atmosphere of Mars•
Atmosphere of Jupiter•
Atmosphere of Io○
Atmosphere of Callisto○
Atmosphere of Europa○
Atmosphere of Ganymede○
Atmosphere of Saturn•
Atmosphere of Titan○
Atmosphere of Enceladus○
Atmosphere of Uranus•
Atmosphere of Titania○
Atmosphere of Neptune•
Atmosphere of Triton○
Atmosphere of Pluto•
edit] Outside our solar system]
Atmosphere of HD 209458 b•

edit] Circulation]
Main article: Atmospheric circulation

The circulation of the atmosphere occurs due to thermal differences when convection becomes a more
efficient transporter of heat than thermal radiation. On planets where the primary heat source is solar
radiation, excess heat in the tropics is transported to higher latitudes. When a planet generates a significant
amount of heat internally, such as is the case for Jupiter, convection in the atmosphere can transport
.thermal energy from the higher temperature interior up to the surface
edit] Importance]
From the perspective of the planetary geologist, the atmosphere is an evolutionary agent essential to the
morphology of a planet. The wind transports dust and other particles which erodes the relief and leaves
deposits (eolian processes). Frost and precipitations, which depend on the composition, also influence the
relief. Climate changes can influence a planet's geological history. Conversely, studying surface of earth
.leads to an understanding of the atmosphere and climate of a planet - both its present state and its past
.For a meteorologist, the composition of the atmosphere determines the climate and its variations
.For a biologist, the composition is closely dependent on the appearance of the life and its evolution
edit] See also]
 Atmospheric sciences
portal

(Atmometer (evaporimeter•
Edge of space•
Ionosphere•
Sky•
Stellar atmosphere•
Table of Global Climate System Components•

edit] References]
Ontario Science Centre website ^.1
Seki, K.; Elphic, R. C.; Hirahara, M.; Terasawa, T.; Mukai, T. (2001). "On ^.2
Atmospheric Loss of Oxygen Ions from Earth Through Magnetospheric
Processes". Science 291 (5510): 1939–1941. doi:10.1126/science.1058913. PMID
11239148. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/291/5510/1939.
.Retrieved 2007-03-07
Weaver, D.; Villard, R. (2007-01-31). "Hubble Probes Layer-cake Structure of ^.3
Alien World's Atmosphere". Hubble News Center.
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/newsdesk/archive/releases/1991/12/text/.
.Retrieved 2007-03-11

edit] External links]

Properties of atmospheric strata - The flight environment of the atmosphere•

[hide]
v • d • e

Atmospheres

Sun · Venus · Earth · Mars · Jupiter · Saturn · Titan · Uranus ·

Major
Neptune · Triton · Pluto · HD 209458 b

Tenuo
us Mercury · The Moon · Io · Europa · Ganymede · Enceladus

See Stellar atmosphere · Coma (cometary) · Extraterrestrial

also atmospheres

Water vapor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
 Water vapor or water vapour (see spelling Water vapor
differences), also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase
of water. Water vapor is one state of water within
the hydrosphere.[2] Water vapor can be produced
from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or
from the sublimation of ice. Under normal
atmospheric conditions,[3] water vapor is
continuously generated by evaporation and
removed by condensation. Water vapor is a
greenhouse gas along with carbon dioxide and
.methane

Contents
[hide]

General properties of water vapor 1•

Evaporation/sublimation 1.1○
Condensation 1.2○
Water vapor density 1.3○
Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0°C 1.3.1
Air and water vapor density interactions at equal temperatures 1.3.2
Water
Water vapor and respiration Systematic
or breathing name
1.4○ Vapor
General discussion 1.5○
Liquid
Water vapor in Earth's State 2• Water
atmosphere
Radar and satellite imaging
Solid2.1 ○
state Ice
Lightning generation 2.2○
[ [1
Properties
Extraterrestrial water vapor 2.3○

Melting See also 3• C° 0

point
External links 4•
Boiling point 5• C° 100
References

edit] General properties of] specific gas constant

J/ 461.5
((kg·K
water vapor
edit] Evaporation/sublimation] heat of vaporization MJ/kg 2.27
Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface, it is
18.02
said to have evaporated. Each individual water molecular weight
molecule which transitions between a more g/mol
associated (liquid) and a less associated (vapor/gas)
state does so through the absorption or release of specific heat capacity at kJ/ 1.84
kinetic energy. The aggregate measurement of this constant pressure ((kg·K
kinetic energy transfer is defined as thermal energy
and occurs only when there is differential in the
temperature of the water molecules. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it, in
a process called evaporative cooling.[4] The amount of water vapor in the air determines how fast each
molecule will return back to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the body of water will under go a
[
net cooling directly related to the loss of water.[5
In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan"
open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US
data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map.[6] The measurements range from under 30 to
 over 120 inches per year. Formulas can be used for calculating the rate of evaporation from a water surface
[
such as a swimming pool.[7][8
Evaporative cooling is restricted by atmospheric conditions. Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the
air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as hygrometers. The measurements are
usually expressed as specific humidity or percent relative humidity. The temperatures of the atmosphere
and the water surface determine the equilibrium vapor pressure; 100% relative humidity occurs when the
partial pressure of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This condition is often referred to
as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 gram per cubic metre in dry air to 30 grams per cubic metre
((0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C.[9] (See also Absolute Humidity table
Another form of evaporation is sublimation, by which water molecules become gaseous directly from ice
without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow mid-winter disappearance of ice and
.snow at temperatures too low to cause melting
edit] Condensation]

.Clouds, formed by condensed water vapor

Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the dew point
temperature, or when the water vapor equilibrium in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses
onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface.[10] The water molecule brings a parcel of heat with it. In
turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly.[11][12] In the atmosphere, condensation produces
clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei). The dew point
.of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense
Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or
below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. Deposition, the direct formation of ice from water
.vapor, is a type of condensation. Frost and snow are examples of deposition
edit] Water vapor density]
Water vapor is lighter or less dense than dry air. At equivalent temperatures it is buoyant with respect to dry
.air
edit] Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0°C]
 The molecular mass or weight of water is 18.02g/mol, as calculated from the sum of the atomic masses of
.its constituent atoms
The average molecular mass of air (Approx. 79% nitrogen, N2; 21% Oxygen, O2) is 28.57g/mol at standard
.(temperature and pressure (STP
Using Avogadro's Law and the ideal gas law, water vapor and air will have a molar volume of 22.414
litre/mol at STP. A molar mass of air and water vapor occupy the same volume of 22.414 litres. The density
(mass/volume) of water vapor is 0.804g/litre, which is significantly less than that of dry air at 1.27g/litre at
.STP
Note that STP conditions include a temperature of 0°C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very
restricted. Its concentration in air is very low at 0°C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum
concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases
significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100% (steam, pure water vapor) at 100°C. However the
.difference in densities between air and water vapor would still exist
edit] Air and water vapor density interactions at equal temperatures]
At the same temperature, a column of dry air will be denser or heavier than a column of air containing any
water vapor. Thus, any volume of dry air will sink if placed in a larger volume of moist air. Also, a volume
of moist air will rise or be buoyant if placed in a larger region of dry air. As the temperature rises the
proportion water vapor in the air increases, its buoyancy will become larger. This increase in buoyancy can
have a significant atmospheric impact, giving rise to powerful, moisture rich, upward air currents when the
air temperature and sea temperature reaches 25°C or above. This phenomenon provides a significant
.(motivating force for cyclonic and anticyclonic weather systems (tornadoes and hurricanes
edit] Water vapor and respiration or breathing]
Water vapor's contribution to the pressure increases as its concentration increases. Its partial pressure
contribution to air pressure increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atmospheric
gases (Dalton's Law). The total air pressure must remain constant. The presence of water vapor in the air
.naturally dilutes or displaces the other air components as its concentration increases
This can have an effect on respiration, in very warm air (35°C). The proportion of water vapor is large
enough to give rise to the stuffiness that can be experienced in humid jungle conditions or in poorly
.ventilated buildings
edit] General discussion]
 The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and
temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in
the water cycle. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more
sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The balance between condensation and evaporation
[
gives the quantity called vapor partial pressure.[13
The maximum partial pressure (saturation pressure) of water vapor in air varies with temperature of the air
and water vapor mixture. A variety of empirical formulas exist for this quantity; the most used reference
:formula is the Goff-Gratch equation for the SVP over liquid water below zero degree Celsius

Where T, temperature of the moist air, is given in units of kelvins, and p is given in
.(units of millibars (hectopascals

The formula is valid from about −50 to 102 °C; however there are a very limited number of measurements
[
of the vapor pressure of water over supercooled liquid water.[14
Under adverse conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will
always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This
.immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere
Exhaled air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at the body temperature. In the cold air the
exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or mist of water droplets and as condensation or
.frost on surfaces
Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
industry. Thermal comfort depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called
refrigeration, and also are affected by water vapor. For example many food stores, like supermarkets,
utilize open chiller cabinets, or food cases, which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering
.humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems
edit] Water vapor in Earth's atmosphere]
Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the atmosphere.
Approximately 99.99% of it is contained in the troposphere. The condensation of water vapor to the liquid
or ice phase is responsible for clouds, rain, snow, and other precipitation, all of which count among the
most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the latent heat of vaporization,
which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the
atmospheric energy budget on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric
convection is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as tropical cyclones and severe
thunderstorms. Water vapor is also a potent greenhouse gas. Because the water vapor content of the
atmosphere will increase in response to warmer temperatures, there is a water vapor feedback is expected to
amplify the climate warming effect due to increased carbon dioxide alone. It is less clear how cloudiness
would respond to a warming climate; depending on the nature of the response, clouds could either further
.amplify or partly mitigate warming from long-lived greenhouse gases
 Fog and clouds form through condensation around cloud condensation nuclei. In the absence of nuclei,
condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition,
.cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which precipitate when they reach a critical mass

.Increasing stratospheric water vapor at Boulder, Colorado

The average residence time of water molecules in the troposphere is about 10 days. Water depleted by
precipitation is replenished by evaporation from the seas, lakes, rivers and the transpiration of plants, and
.other biological and geological processes
Atmospheric water vapor content is expressed using various measures. These include vapor pressure,
specific humidity, mixing ratio, dew point temperature, and relative humidity. The annual mean global
concentration of water vapor would yield about 25 mm of liquid water over the entire surface of the Earth if
it were to instantly fall as rain. The mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 meter, which
indicates a rapid turnover of water in the air - on average, the residence time of a water vapor molecule in
.the atmosphere is about 9 to 10 days
The abundance of gases emitted by volcanoes varies considerably from volcano to volcano. However, water
vapor is consistently the most common volcanic gas, normally comprising more than 60% of total emissions
[
during a subaerial eruption.[15
edit] Radar and satellite imaging]

MODIS/Terra global mean atmospheric water vapor

Because water molecules absorb microwaves and other radio wave frequencies, water in the atmosphere
attenuates radar signals.[16] In addition, atmospheric water will reflect and refract signals to an extent that
[
depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid.[17
Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different
frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies
and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience the same
.effect
Water vapor reflects radar[18] to a less extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice
crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual molecule; however, the existence of
[
water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prism.[19
 A comparison of GOES-12 satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to
.the oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed
edit] Lightning generation]
Water vapor plays a key role in lightning production in the atmosphere. From cloud physics, usually,
clouds are the real generators of static charge as found in Earth's atmosphere. But the ability, or capability
of clouds to hold massive amounts of electrical energy is directly related to the amount of water vapor
.present in the local system
The amount of water vapor directly controls the permittivity of the air. During times of low humidity, static
discharge is quick and easy. During times of higher humidity, fewer static discharges occur. However,
.permittivity and capacitance[20] work hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning
After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor
acts as a substance (or insulator[21][22] ) that decreases the ability of the cloud to discharge its electrical
energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store[23] more static
electricity[24], the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down[25] from
the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a locally, opposite[26] charged region in
the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity,
[
capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability.[27
.See also, Van de Graaff generator
edit] Extraterrestrial water vapor]
Further information: Extraterrestrial liquid water

The brilliance of comet tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the sun, the ice many comets
carry sublimates to vapor, which reflects light from the sun. Knowing a comet's distance from the sun,
astronomers may deduce a comet's water content from its brilliance.[28] Bright tails in cold and distant comets
.suggests carbon monoxide sublimation
Scientists studying Mars hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.[29] Most of
the water on Mars appears to exist as ice at the northern pole. During Mars' summer, this ice sublimates,
[
perhaps enabling massive seasonal storms to convey significant amounts of water toward the equator.[30
A star called CW Leonis was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging,
massive star. A NASA satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery
with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from the surfaces of orbiting
[
comets."[31
Spectroscopic analysis of HD 209458 b, an extrasolar planet in the constellation Pegasus, provides the first
.evidence of atmospheric water vapor beyond the Solar System
edit] See also]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Water vapor

Water portal

air• Gibbs phase rule• microwave•

boiling point• greenhouse gas• radiometer

Condensation in aerosol• heat capacity• phase of matter•

dynamics heat of vaporization• Saturation vapor•
deposition• density
ideal gas•
equation of state• steam•
kinetic theory of•
 Evaporative cooler• superheating•
fog• gases supersaturation•
frost• latent heat flux• thermodynamics•
gas laws• latent heat• troposphere•
Gibbs free energy• vapor pressure•

[hide]
v • d • e

Meteorological data and variables

Adiabatic processes · Lapse rate · Lightning · Surface solar radiation ·

General
Surface weather analysis · Visibility · Vorticity · Wind

Condensat
ion Cloud · Cloud condensation nuclei · Fog · Precipitation · Water vapor

Convectio Convective available potential energy (CAPE) · Convective inhibition (CIN) ·

n Convective instability · Convective temperature (Tc) · Helicity · Lifted index (LI) ·
(Bulk Richardson number (BRN

Dew point (Td) · Equivalent temperature (Te) · Forest fire weather

index · Haines Index · Heat index · Humidex · Humidity · Potential
Temperatu
re temperature (θ) · Equivalent potential temperature (θe) · Sea surface
temperature (SST) · Wet-bulb temperature · Wet-bulb potential
temperature · Wind chill

Pressure Atmospheric pressure · Baroclinity · Barotropicity

edit] External links]

National Science Digital Library - Water Vapor•
.Measuring Water Vapor : A lesson plan from the National Science Digital Library•
Calculate the condensation of your exhaled breath•
Water Vapor Myths: A Brief Tutorial•
AGU Water Vapor in the Climate System - 1995•
Free Windows Program, Water Vapor Pressure Units Conversion Calculator - PhyMetrix•

edit] References]
 .Lide, David. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd ed. 1992, CRC Press ^.1
Technically called the Hydrologic cycle, from U.S. Geologic Survey. Water Cycle. ^.2
.Retrieved on 2006-10-24
Normal atmosphere means in the Earth's troposphere under a large variety of ^.3
.temperatures and pressures that are naturally occurring anywhere and at anytime
Schroeder, David. Thermal Physics. 2000, Addison Wesley Longman. p36 ^.4
This remains true as long as surface water exists, or water that is capable of being ^.5
evaporated exists. Otherwise, with a net heat flux on the observed body when the
water completely evaporates, then the temperature of the observed body begins to
(rise. (see Thermodynamics
[1] ^.6
[2] ^.7
[3] ^.8
[4] ^.9
See Thermodynamics, as it is a process of energy transfer. This should not be ^.10
.confused with precipitates falling onto a surface
.The atmosphere is a heat bath, heat is transferred by molecular conduction ^.11
.Schroeder, p19 ^.12
Abbreviated to Vapor pressure ^.13
.A number of other formulas are listed and compared at CIRES ^.14
Sigurdsson, H. et al., (2000) Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, San Diego, Academic Press ^.15
Skolnik, Merrill. Radar Handbook, 2nd ed. 1990, McGraw-Hill, Inc. p23.5 ^.16
.See Bright band ^.17
More correctly stated, the attenuation of microwave signals due to water vapor is ^.18
.directly related to the frequency of the microwaves, see Skolnik
.Skolnik, pp2.44-2.54 ^.19
Shadowitz, Albert. The Electromagnetic Field. 1975, McGraw-Hill Book Company. ^.20
.pp165-171
The term insulator is used to roughly describe the electrical properties of a gas ^.21
mixture. Here, the dipole water molecules increase the reactance (impedance) and
.lower the permittivity of the air as humidity rises in the localized parcel of air
.Shadowitz, p270 ^.22
.Shadowitz, pp172-173, 182 ^.23
.Shadowitz, pp414-416 ^.24
.Commonly referred as dielectric breakdown ^.25
The term opposite charge in ESD and in E&M, may also include the case of largely ^.26
differing electrical potentials of the same charge. This is normally called Voltage or
.potential difference
.Shadowitz, p172 ^.27
.ANATOMY OF COMETS, Retrieved December 2006 ^.28
.Jakosky, Bruce, et al. "Water on Mars", April 2004, Physics Today, p71 ^.29
Europe probe detects Mars water ice", January 23, 2004, Cnn.com, retrieved August" ^.30
.2005
Lloyd, Robin. "Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star", 11 July 2001, ^.31
.Space.com. Retrieved December 15, 2006

Cloud
 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

.(For other uses, see Cloud (disambiguation

Part of the Nature series

Weather

[Seasons[show

Temperate
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Tropical
wet season
dry season

[Clouds[show

General
Cloud cover
Cloud physics
Cloud types
(High-clouds (Family A
Cirrocumulus
Cirrus cloud
Cirrostratus
(Middle-clouds (Family B
Altostratus
Altocumulus
(Low-clouds(Family C
Cumulus cloud
Stratocumulus cloud
Nimbostratus cloud
Stratus cloud

[Precipitation[show

Rain
Drizzle
 Snow
Freezing rain
Ice pellets
Hail
Graupel

[Severe weather[show

Thunderstorm
Lightning
Supercell
Downburst
Tornado
Waterspout
Tropical cyclone

Weather portal

Environment

v • d • e

A cloud is a visible mass of droplets, in other words, little drops of water or frozen crystals suspended in
the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or another planetary body. A cloud is also a visible mass
attracted by gravity, such as masses of material in space called interstellar clouds and nebulae. Clouds are
.studied in the nephology or cloud physics branch of meteorology
On Earth the condensing substance is typically water vapor, which forms small droplets or ice crystals,
typically 0.01 mm (0.00039 in) in diameter. When surrounded by billions of other droplets or crystals they
become visible as clouds. Dense deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible
range of wavelengths. They thus appear white, at least from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light
efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases, hence the gray or
even sometimes dark appearance at the cloud base. Thin clouds may appear to have acquired the color of
their environment or background and clouds illuminated by non-white light, such as during sunrise or
sunset, may appear colored accordingly. Clouds look darker in the near-infrared because water absorbs
.solar radiation at those wavelengths

Contents
[hide]

Classification 1•
(High clouds (Family A 1.1○
(Middle clouds (Family B 1.2○
(Low clouds (Family C 1.3○
(Vertical clouds (Family D 1.4○
Other clouds 1.5○
 Cloud fields 1.6○
Colors 2•
Clouds and climate 3•
Global brightening 3.1○
Bacteria in clouds 3.2○
Other planets 4•
Gallery 5•
See also 6•
References 7•
Bibliography 8•
External links 9•

edit] Classification]

A cumulus cloudscape over Swifts Creek, Victoria, Australia

Cloud types are divided into two general categories: layered and convective. These names distinguish a
cloud's altitude. Clouds are classified by the base height, not the cloud top, and bases may differ depending
on the geographical zone. This system was proposed in 1802, when it was presented to the Askesian
.Society by Luke Howard

.A sky of cirrus clouds

(edit] High clouds (Family A]

 High clouds will form between 10,000 and 25,000 ft (3,000 and 8,000 m) in the polar regions, 16,500 and
40,000 ft (5,000 and 12,000 m) in the temperate regions and 20,000 and 60,000 ft (6,000 and 18,000 m) in
[
the tropical region.[1
(Cirrocumulus (Cc•
(Cirrus (Ci•
(Cirrostratus (Cs•
(edit] Middle clouds (Family B]
Middle clouds tend to form at 6,500 ft (2,000 m) but may form at heights up to 13,000 ft (4,000 m),
23,000 ft (7,000 m) or 25,000 ft (8,000 m) depending on the region. Nimbostratus clouds are sometimes
[
included with the middle clouds.[1
(Altostratus (As•
(Altocumulus (Ac•
(edit] Low clouds (Family C]

Stratocumulus perlucidus clouds, as seen from an aircraft window

These are found up to 6,500 ft (2,000 m)[1] and include the stratus (dense and grey). When stratus clouds
.contact the ground, they are called fog
:Clouds in Family C include
(Cumulus[2] (Cu•
Cumulus humilis○
Cumulus mediocris○
(Stratocumulus (Sc•
(Nimbostratus (Ns•
(Stratus (St•
(edit] Vertical clouds (Family D]
 A typical anvil shaped Cumulonimbus incus

.These clouds can have strong up-currents, rise far above their bases and form at many heights
:Clouds in Family D include
(Cumulonimbus (associated with heavy precipitation and thunderstorms) (Cb•
Cumulonimbus calvus○
Cumulonimbus incus○
Cumulonimbus with mammatus○
[
Cumulus (Cu)[3][4•
(Cumulus congestus (TCu○
Pyrocumulus•
edit] Other clouds]
A few clouds can be found above the troposphere; these include noctilucent and polar stratospheric
.clouds (or nacreous clouds), which occur in the mesosphere and stratosphere respectively
Some clouds form as a consequence of interactions with specific geographical features. Perhaps the
strangest geographically-specific cloud in the world is Morning Glory, a rolling cylindrical cloud which
appears unpredictably over the Gulf of Carpentaria in Northern Australia. Associated with a powerful
."ripple" in the atmosphere, the cloud may be "surfed" in glider aircraft
edit] Cloud fields]
A cloud field is simply a group of clouds but sometimes cloud fields can take on certain shapes that have
their own characteristics and are specially classified. Stratocumulus clouds can often be found in the
:following forms
.Actinoform, which resembles a leaf or a spoked wheel•
Closed cell, which is cloudy in the center and clear on the edges, similar to a filled•
.honeycomb
Open cell, which resembles a honeycomb, with clouds around the edges and clear,•
.open space in the middle

edit] Colors]

Cloud iridescence occurring in clouds

 .Sunset reflecting shades of grey and pink in clouds

The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud. Clouds
form because warm air tends to absorb water vapor, which is lighter than air, thus helping the mixture to
rise. As it rises the air containing it cools and the vapor tends to condense out of the air as micro-droplets.
These tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is
reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color. As a cloud matures, the dense water droplets may
combine to produce larger droplets, which may combine to form droplets large enough to fall as rain. By
this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to
penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far
enough apart, it may be that a percentage of the light which enters the cloud is not reflected back out before
it is absorbed. A simple example of this is being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This
process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black. For the same
reason, the undersides of large clouds and heavy overcasts can appear as various degrees of grey shades,
.depending on how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer
Other colors occur naturally in clouds. Bluish-grey is the result of light scattering within the cloud. In the
visible spectrum, blue and green are at the short end of light's visible wavelengths, while red and yellow are
at the long end. The short rays are more easily scattered by water droplets, and the long rays are more likely
to be absorbed. The bluish color is evidence that such scattering is being produced by rain-sized droplets in
.the cloud
A greenish tinge to a cloud is produced when sunlight is scattered by ice. A cumulonimbus cloud emitting
.green is an imminent sign of heavy rain, hail, strong winds and possible tornadoes
Yellowish clouds are rare but may occur in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire
.season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke
Red, orange and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of
sunlight by the atmosphere. The clouds do not become that color; they are reflecting long and unscattered
rays of sunlight, which are predominant at those hours. The effect is much like if one were to shine a red
spotlight on a white sheet. In combination with large, mature thunderheads this can produce blood-red
.clouds
edit] Clouds and climate]
Global cloud cover, averaged over the month of October, 2009. The outlines of the continents
can often be traced through observations of clouds alone, with the sharpest outlines where
very dry land is surrounded by ocean. NASA composite satellite image; larger image
.available here

See also: Cloud cover and Cloud feedback

Understanding the role of clouds in regulating both weather and climate is at an early stage, and remains a
[
critical unknown factor in predicting the extent of global warming.[citation needed
edit] Global brightening]
New research From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface by
.Martin Wild et al. (Science 6 May 2005; 308: 847–850) indicates a global brightening trend
Global brightening is caused by decreased amounts of particulate matter in the atmosphere, leaving less
surface area for condensation to occur. Less condensation in the atmosphere and more evaporation from
increasing amounts of sunlight striking the surfaces of water causes more moisture to build in the air,
.creating fewer but more dense clouds
edit] Bacteria in clouds]
Bacteria that live in clouds may have evolved the ability to promote rainstorms as a way to disperse
themselves. These microbes—called ice nucleators—are found in rain, snow, and hail throughout the
world, according to Brent Christner, a microbiologist at Louisiana State University. These bacteria may be
part of a constant feedback between terrestrial ecosystems and clouds. They may rely on the rainfall to
[
spread to new habitats, much as plants rely on windblown pollen grains, Christner said. [5
edit] Other planets]
Main article: Extraterrestrial atmospheres

Within our Solar System, any planet or moon with an atmosphere also has clouds. Venus's clouds are
composed of sulfuric acid droplets. Mars has high, thin clouds of water ice. Both Jupiter and Saturn have
an outer cloud deck composed of ammonia clouds, an intermediate deck of ammonium hydrosulfide
clouds and an inner deck of water clouds. Uranus and Neptune have cloudy atmospheres dominated by
.methane gas
Saturn's moon Titan has clouds believed to be composed largely of droplets of liquid methane. The
Cassini–Huygens Saturn mission uncovered evidence of a fluid cycle on Titan, including lakes near the
.poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the moon
edit] Gallery]
 In mountainous areas one often
finds the peaks above the clouds as Clouds and cloud bow Rain clouds over the North Lenticular cloud
seen here with the Piz Bernina in above the Pacific Sea taken from the coast of
.over Wyoming
.the Swiss Alps .Ocean .Herne Bay, Kent

edit] See also]

Weather
portal

(Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) (in the US•

Cloud albedo•
Cloud Appreciation Society•
Cloud condensation nuclei•
Cloud forcing•
Cloud seeding•
(Cloudscape (art•
Cloudscape photography•
Coalescence•
Extraterrestrial skies•
Flight ceiling•
Fractus cloud•
Cloud iridescence•
Mist•
Monsoon•
Mushroom cloud•
Orographic lift•
Precipitation•
Thunderstorm•
Tropical cyclone•
Weather lore•

edit] References]
This article includes a list of references or external links, but its sources remain
unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this
(article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (September 2008

The spectacular clouds that look as if they were sculpted out of the sky•
a b c
Cloud Classifications ^.1
Plymouth State Meteorology Program Cloud Boutique"." ^.2
./http://vortex.plymouth.edu/clouds.html
Cloud Types: common cloud classifications". WW2010. University of Illinois." ^.3
.http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/cldtyp/home.rxml
 cloud: Classification of Clouds". Infoplease.com." ^.4
.http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/weather/A0857400.html
?Rainmaking Bacteria Ride Clouds to "Colonize" Earth ^.5

edit] Bibliography]
Hamblyn, Richard The Invention of Clouds – How an Amateur Meteorologist Forged the •
Language of the Skies Picador; Reprint edition (August 3, 2002). ISBN 0312420013
http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/news/2006/04_14_06.htm Could Reducing Global•
?Dimming Mean a Hotter, Dryer World

edit] External links]

:Find more about Cloud on Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Quotations from Wikiquote

Source texts from Wikisource

Images and media from Commons

News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity

BadMeteorology's explanation of why clouds form•

Chitambo Clouds – Clouds and other meteorological phenomena Photographs and info.•
.on different types of clouds
Monthly maps of global cloud cover, from NASA's Earth Observatory•
Cloud Appreciation Society Aesthetics of clouds•
(A Planetary Order (Terrestrial Cloud Globe•
Shuttle Views the Earth: Clouds from Space•
Details of main clould types and sub types•
USA Today Understanding clouds and Fog•

Rain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

.(This article is about precipitation. For other uses, see Rain (disambiguation
 A rain shaft at the base of a thunderstorm

Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to other kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. On
Earth, it is the condensation of atmospheric water vapor into drops of water heavy enough to fall, often
making it to the surface. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated leading
to rainfall: cooling the air or adding water vapour to the air. Virga is precipitation that begins falling to the
earth but evaporates before reaching the surface; it is one of the ways air can become saturated. Precipitation
forms via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Rain drops range in size from oblate,
pancake-like shapes for larger drops, to small spheres for smaller drops. Unpolluted rainfall has a pH level
.of 5.2, making it slightly acidic
Moisture overriding associated with weather fronts is an overall major method of rain production. If
enough moisture and upward motion is present, precipitation falls from convective clouds such as
cumulonimbus and can organize into narrow rainbands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is
possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward
side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The
movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah
climes. Rain is the primary source of fresh water for most areas of the world, providing suitable conditions
for diverse ecosystems, as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation. The METAR
code for rain is RA. Rainfall is measured through the use of rain gages. Rainfall amounts are estimated
.actively by weather radar and passively by weather satellites

Part of the Nature series on

Weather

Seasons

Temperate

Spring · Summer
Autumn · Winter

Tropical

Dry season
Wet season

Storms
 Thunderstorm · Tornado
(Tropical cyclone (Hurricane
Extratropical cyclone
Winter storm · Blizzard
Fog · Ice storm
Sandstorm · Firestorm

Precipitation

Drizzle · Rain · Snow

Freezing rain · Ice pellets
Hail · Graupel

Topics

Meteorology
Weather forecasting
Climate · Air pollution
Heat wave

Weather Portal

v • d • e

The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall, both in amounts and intensity, downwind of cities.
Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally, including wetter conditions
across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics. Precipitation is a major component of the
water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. The globally-averaged
annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate
classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.
Australia is the Earth's driest continent. Rain is also known or suspected on other worlds. On Titan,
Saturn's largest moon, infrequent methane rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface channels.
On Venus, sulfuric acid virga evaporates 25 km from the surface. There is likely to be rain of various
compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid neon and helium
.in the deep atmospheres

Contents
[hide]

How air becomes saturated 1•

Formation 2•
Acidity 3•
Causes 4•
Frontal activity 4.1○
Convection 4.2○
Orographic effects 4.3○
Within the tropics 4.4○
Human influence 4.5○
Orientation 5•
Measurement 6•
 Gages 6.1○
Remote sensing 6.2○
Intensity 6.3○
Return period 7•
Effect on agriculture 8•
Culture 9•
Forecasting 10•
Role in Köppen climate classification 11•
Global climatology 12•
Deserts 12.1○
Wetlands 12.2○
Impact of the Westerlies 12.3○
Wettest known locations 12.4○
Outside of Earth 13•
See also 14•
References 15•
External links 16•

How air becomes saturated

Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark

Air contains water vapour, measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg),[1] but most commonly
reported as a relative humidity. How much water vapour a parcel of air can contain before it becomes
saturated (100% relative humidity) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapour
than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The
dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.[2] Water vapour
normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. An
elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or
cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped
[
underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.[3
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling,
radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands.[4] The air
can rise due to convection, large-scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain
(orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface,[5]
usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land.
Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface
 underneath.[6] Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which
[
forces the air temperature to cool to its wet-bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.[7
The main ways water vapour is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion,[8]
precipitation or virga falling from above,[9] daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans,
water bodies or wet land,[10] transpiration from plants,[11] cool or dry air moving over warmer water,[12] and
[
lifting air over mountains.[13
Formation

Raindrops are not tear-shaped. Very small raindrops are nearly spherical As raindrops
increase in size, they become flattened at the bottom due to air resistance. The largest
.raindrops split into smaller raindrops due to air resistance

Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze
onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. Air resistance typically causes the water
droplets in a cloud to remain stationary. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger
droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough
to overcome air resistance and fall as rain. Coalescence generally happens most often in clouds above
freezing. In clouds below freezing, when ice crystals gain enough mass they begin to fall. This generally
requires more mass than coalescence when occurring between the crystal and neighboring water droplets.
This process is temperature dependent, as supercooled water droplets only exist in a cloud that is below
freezing. In addition, because of the great temperature difference between cloud and ground level, these ice
[
crystals may melt as they fall and become rain.[14
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter,
above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a
raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming
airflow. Large rain drops become increasingly flattened on the bottom, like hamburger buns; very large
ones are shaped like parachutes.[15] Contrary to popular belief, their shape does not resemble a teardrop.[16]
The biggest raindrops on Earth were recorded over Brazil and the Marshall Islands in 2004 — some of
them were as large as 10 mm. The large size is explained by condensation on large smoke particles or by
[
collisions between drops in small regions with particularly high content of liquid water.[17
Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of
short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration.[18][19] Rain drops associated with melting
hail tend to be larger than other rain drops.[20] Raindrops impact at their terminal velocity, which is greater
for larger drops due to their larger mass. At sea level and without wind, 0.5 mm drizzle impacts at about 2
m/s, while large 5 mm drops impact at around 9 m/s.[21] The sound of raindrops hitting water is caused by
bubbles of air oscillating underwater. See droplet's sound. The METAR code for rain is RA, while the
[
coding for rain showers is SHRA.[22
Acidity
 Rainfall with low pH levels, or acid rain, is also a frequent risk produced by lightning within
thunderstorms. Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a
pH less than 7 are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are bases. “Clean” or unpolluted rain has a
slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic
acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.[23] Nitrous
oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena,[24] caused by the splitting of nitrogen molecules, can result in
the production of acid rain, if nitrous oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus
creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite, or other solid carbon compounds.
In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetation and increase acidification process in bodies
.of water, resulting in deaths of marine organisms
Causes
Frontal activity
Main article: Weather fronts

Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on
the order of cm/s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm fronts. Similar ascent is
seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma-head precipitation patterns around
mid-latitude cyclones.[25] A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with
thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts
[
usually form around mature low-pressure areas.[26
Convection

Convective precipitation

Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus
congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain
area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the
tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs.[25]
[27]
Graupel and hail indicate convection.[28] In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and
[
often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.[29
Orographic effects
Main articles: Orographic lift, Precipitation types (meteorology), and United States
rainfall climatology
 Orographic precipitation

Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion
of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation.
In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a
more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind
side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and
[
generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[13
In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the
second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 460 inches (12,000 mm).[30] Storm systems affect the
state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to
their topography, divisible into windward (Koʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location
relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much
[
more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.[31
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting
in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina.[32] The Sierra Nevada range creates the
[
same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts.[33][34
Within the tropics

Rainfall distribution by month in Cairns showing the extent of the wet season at that location

See also: Monsoon and Tropical cyclone

Main article: Wet season

The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual
rainfall in a region falls.[35] The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist
authorities.[36] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[37]
Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests
technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year.[38]
Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical
convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm
season.[18] When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late
afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves,[39] freshwater
.quality improves,[40][41] and vegetation grows significantly
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across
with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise
direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere).[42] Although cyclones can take
an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes
 of places they impact, as they may bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[43] Areas in
[
their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[44
Human influence

Image of Atlanta, Georgia showing temperature distribution, with blue showing cool
.temperatures, red warm, and hot areas appear white

See also: Global warming and Urban heat island

The fine particulate matter produced by car exhaust and other human sources of pollution forms cloud
condensation nuclei, leads to the production of clouds and increases the likelihood of rain. As commuters
and commercial traffic cause pollution to build up over the course of the week, the likelihood of rain
increases: it peaks by Saturday, after five days of weekday pollution has been built up. In heavily populated
areas that are near the coast, such as the United States' Eastern Seaboard, the effect can be dramatic: there
is a 22% higher chance of rain on Saturdays than on Mondays.[45] The urban heat island effect warms cities
0.6 °C (1.1 °F) to 5.6 °C (10.1 °F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to
greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates
downwind of cities are increased between 48% and 116%. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly
rainfall is about 28% greater between 20 miles (32 km) to 40 miles (64 km) downwind of cities, compared
[
with upwind.[46] Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51%.[47

Mean surface temperature anomalies during the period 1999 to 2008 with respect to the
average temperatures from 1940 to 1980

Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. As average global
temperatures have risen, average global precipitation has also increased. Precipitation generally increased
over land north of 30°N from 1900 through 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally
there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends
have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe,
and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts
of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events
over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts
—especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are
suggested by the decreased salinity of mid- and high-latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along
with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation and/or more evaporation). Over the
 contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 percent per century
since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 percent per
[
century) and the South (11.1 percent). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (-9.25 percent).[48
Orientation
Main article: Rainband

Rainbands are cloud and precipitation areas which are significantly elongated. Rainbands can be
stratiform or convective,[49] and are generated by differences in temperature. When noted on weather
radar imagery, this precipitation elongation is referred to as banded structure.[50] Rainbands within tropical
cyclones are curved in orientation. Tropical cyclone rainbands contain showers and thunderstorms that,
together with the eyewall and the eye, constitute a hurricane or tropical storm. The extent of rainbands
.around a tropical cyclone can help determine the cyclone's intensity
Rainbands spawned near and ahead of cold fronts can be squall lines which are able to produce tornadoes.
Rainbands associated with cold fronts can be warped by mountain barriers perpendicular to the front's
orientation due to the formation of a low-level barrier jet. Bands of thunderstorms can form with sea
breeze and land breeze boundaries, if enough moisture is present. If sea breeze rainbands become active
enough just ahead of a cold front, they can mask the location of the cold front itself. Banding within the
comma head precipitation pattern of an extratropical cyclone can yield significant amounts of rain. Behind
extratropical cyclones, rainbands can form downwind of relative warm bodies of water such as the Great
.Lakes
Measurement
Gages

Standard rain gauge

See also: Rain gauge, Disdrometer, and Snow gauge

The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100-
mm (4-in) plastic and 200-mm (8-in) metal varieties.[51] The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain,
with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gages have markings on the inner cylinder down to
0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate
0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled
with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the
overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.[52] Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the
cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge.[53] For
those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act
 as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler you use to measure the rain
[
with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know-how.[54
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere
where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE.[55][56] If
a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be
[
interested in the measurement.[57
Remote sensing
See also: Weather radar

Twenty-four hour rainfall accumulation on the Val d'Irène radar in Eastern Canada. Zones
without data in the east and southwest are caused by beam blocking from mountains.
((Source: Environment Canada

One of the main uses of weather radar is to be able to assess the amount of precipitations fallen over large
basins for hydrological purposes. For instance, river flood control, sewer management and dam construction
are all areas where planners use rainfall accumulation data. Radar-derived rainfall estimates compliment
surface station data which can be used for calibration. To produce radar accumulations, rain rates over a
point are estimated by using the value of reflectivity data at individual grid points. A radar equation is then
,used, which is
,Z = ARb
where Z represents the radar reflectivity, R represents the rainfall rate, and A and b are constants.[58] Satellite
derived rainfall estimates use passive microwave instruments aboard polar orbiting as well as
geostationary weather satellites to indirectly measure rainfall rates.[59] If one wants for a accumulate
rainfall over a time period, one has to add up all the accumulations from each grid box within the images
.during that time
Intensity
.This section does not cite any references or sources
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material
(may be challenged and removed. (January 2010

:Rainfall intensity is classified according to the rate of precipitation

Very light rain — when the precipitation rate is < 0.25 mm/hour•
Light rain — when the precipitation rate is between 0.25 mm/hour - 1.0 mm/hour•
Moderate rain — when the precipitation rate is between 1.0 mm/hour - 4.0 mm/hour•
Heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is between 4.0 mm/hour - 16.0 mm/hour•
Very heavy rain — when the precipitation rate is between 16.0 mm/hour - 50 mm/hour•
Extreme rain — when the precipitation rate is > 50.0 mm/hour•

Return period
 See also: 100-year flood

The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period
or frequency.[60] The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from
charts based on historic data for the location.[61] The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event which
is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The
rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The
term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a
likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be
extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible to
[
have multiple "1 in 100 Year Storms" in a single year.[62
Effect on agriculture

.Rainfall estimates for southern Japan and the surrounding region from July 20–27, 2009

Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to
survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a
regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even
devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops in massive numbers, while overly wet weather can cause
disease and harmful fungus. Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, cacti need
small amounts of water while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
.Agriculture of all nations at least to some extent is dependent on rain
In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season.[18]
Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. Unfortunately, the previous dry
season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries
have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the
[
first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.[63
Culture
.This section does not cite any references or sources
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material
(may be challenged and removed. (January 2010

Cultural attitudes towards rain differ across the world. In the largely temperate Europe, rain metaphorically
has a sad and negative connotation — reflected in children's rhymes like Rain Rain Go Away — in contrast
to the bright and happy sun. Though the traditional notion of rain in the Western World is negative, rain can
also bring joy, as some consider it to be soothing or enjoy the aesthetic appeal of it. In dry places, such as
parts of Africa, Australia, India, the Western United States, and the Middle East, rain is greeted with
euphoria. (In Botswana, the Setswana word for rain, "pula," is used as the name of the national
(.currency, in recognition of the economic importance of rain in this desert country
Several cultures have developed means of dealing with rain and have developed numerous protection
devices such as umbrellas and raincoats, and diversion devices such as gutters and storm drains that lead
rains to sewers. Many people also prefer to stay inside on rainy days, especially in tropical climates where
rain is usually accompanied by thunderstorms or is extremely heavy (as in a monsoon). Rain may be
 harvested through the use of rainwater tanks, though rainwater is rarely pure (as acid rain occurs
naturally), or used as greywater. Excessive rain, particularly after a dry period that has hardened the soil so
that it cannot absorb water, can cause floods. Many people find the scent during and immediately after rain
especially pleasant or distinctive.fact The source of this scent is petrichor, an oil produced by plants, then
absorbed by rocks and soil, and later released into the air during rainfall. Light or heavy rain is sometimes
.seen as romantic
Forecasting
Main article: Quantitative precipitation forecast

Example of a five day rainfall forecast from the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center

The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation
accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area.[64] A QPF will be specified when a
measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid
period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT.
Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from
observations with fine detail.[65] Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast
models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States.[66] Forecast models show significant
sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the
atmosphere, which decreases with height.[67] QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or
a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis.[68] Radar imagery forecasting techniques
show higher skill than model forecasts within 6 to 7 hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can
be verified through use of rain gage measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both.
[
Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.[69

Role in Köppen climate classification

 [
Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map[70

Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET

Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
Aw BSh Cfc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd

Main article: Köppen climate classification

The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most
commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically,
the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five
primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon,
tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate,
.steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall
between 1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in).[71] A tropical savanna is a grassland biome
located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall
between 750 millimetres (30 in) and 1,270 millimetres (50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and
are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia.[72] The humid
subtropical climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that
the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from
occasional tropical cyclones.[73] Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between
[
latitudes 20° and 40° degrees away from the equator.[74
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the
world's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by
plentiful precipitation year round.[75] The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in
the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in
southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers
and cool, wet winters.[76] A steppe is a dry grassland.[77] Subarctic climates are cold with continuous
[
permafrost and little precipitation.[78

Global climatology
See also: Earth rainfall climatology

Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year across the
globe with 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[79] Given the Earth's surface area,
that means the globally-averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in). Deserts are defined as areas
with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimetres (10 in) per year,[80][81] or as areas where
[
more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.[82
Deserts
Main article: Desert
 Largest deserts

The northern half of Africa is primarily desert or arid, containing the Sahara. Across Asia, a large annual
rainfall minimum, composed primarily of deserts, stretches from the Gobi desert in Mongolia west-
southwest through Pakistan and Iran into the Arabian desert in Saudi Arabia. Most of Australia is semi-arid
or desert,[83] making it the world's driest continent. In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks
Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western
Argentina.[32] The drier areas of the United States are regions where the Sonoran desert overspreads the
[
Desert Southwest, the Great Basin, central Wyoming, and the Willamette Valley.[84
Wetlands
See also: Monsoon and Monsoon trough

The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), or monsoon trough, is the wettest
portion of the world's continents. Annually, the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August,
then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March.[85] Within Asia, rainfall
is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern
China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region.
[86]
The monsoon trough can reach as far north as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August before moving
southward thereafter. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is
characterized by the development of lower air pressure (a thermal low) over the warmest part of Asia.[87][88]
[89]
Similar, but weaker, monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia.[90][91] During
the summer, the Southwest monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture
moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening
thunderstorms to the southern tier of the United States as well as the Great Plains.[92] The eastern half of the
contiguous United States east of the 98th meridian, the mountains of the Pacific Northwest, and the Sierra
Nevada range are the wetter portions of the nation, with average rainfall exceeding 30 inches (760 mm) per
year.[84] Equatorward of the subtropical ridge, tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern and
eastern sections of the United States, as well as Puerto Rico, the United States Virgin Islands,[93] the
.Northern Mariana Islands,[94] Guam, and American Samoa
Impact of the Westerlies

Long-term mean precipitation by month

See also: Westerlies

Westerly flow from the mild north Atlantic leads to wetness across western Europe, in particular the United
Kingdom, where the western coasts can receive between 1000 mm (40 in, at sea-level) and 2500 mm (100
in, on the mountains) of rain per year. In Bergen, Norway is one of the more famous European rain-cities
with its yearly precipitation of 2250 mm (88 in) on average. During the fall, winter, and spring, Pacific
storm systems bring most of Hawaii and the western United States much of their precipitation.[92] Over the
top of the ridge, the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes. Large
 thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains, Midwest, and
[
Great Lakes during the warm season, contributing up to 10% of the annual precipitation to the region.[95
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution, by altering rainfall patterns across
the western United States,[96] Midwest,[97][98] the Southeast,[99] and throughout the tropics. There is also
evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America,
.while droughts are becoming more frequent in the tropics and subtropics
Wettest known locations
Cherrapunji, situated on the southern slopes of the Eastern Himalaya in Shillong, India is one of the
wettest places on Earth, with an average annual rainfall of 11,430 mm (450 in). The highest recorded rainfall
in a single year was 22,987 mm (904.9 in) in 1861. The 38-year average at nearby Mawsynram,
Meghalaya, India is 11,873 mm (467.4 in).[100] The wettest spot in Australia is Mount Bellenden Ker in
the north-east of the country records an average of 8,000 millimetres (310 in) per year, with over
1,200 millimetres (47 in) of rain recorded in the year 2000.[101] Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauaʻi in
the Hawaiian Islands averages more than 11,680 millimetres (460 in) of rain over the last 32 years, with a
record 17,340 millimetres (683 in) in 1982. Its summit is considered one of the rainiest spots on earth. It has
been promoted in tourist literature for many years as the wettest spot in the world.[102] Lloró, a town situated
in Chocó, Colombia, is probably the place with the largest measured rainfall in the world, averaging
13,300 mm per year (523.6 in).[103] The Department of Chocó is extraordinarily humid. Tutunendo, a small
town situated in the same department, is one of the wettest places on earth, averaging 11,394 mm per year
(448 in); in 1974 the town received 26,303 mm (86 ft 3½ in), the largest annual rainfall measured in
Colombia. Unlike Cherrapunji, which receives most of its rainfall between April and September, Tutunendo
receives rain almost uniformly distributed throughout the year.[104] Quibdó, the capital of Chocó, receives
the most rain in the world among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants: 9000 mm (29 ft 6 in) per year. Storms
in Chocó can drop 500 mm (19.7 in) of rainfall in a day. This amount is more than falls in many cities in a
.year's time
Outside of Earth
On Titan, Saturn's largest moon, infrequent methane rain is thought to carve the moon's numerous surface
channels.[105] On Venus, sulfuric acid virga evaporates 25 km from the surface. There is likely to be rain of
various compositions in the upper atmospheres of the gas giants, as well as precipitation of liquid neon and
.helium in the deep atmospheres
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rain

Johad•
Rainbow•
Raining animals•
Rain dancing•
Rain sensor•
Red rain in Kerala•
Sanitary sewer overflow•
Sediment precipitation•
Water resources•
Weather•

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External links
?What are clouds, and why does it rain•
BBC article on the weekend rain effect•
BBC article on rain-making•
Do we have enough fresh water? Johan Rockstrom says we do, if we use it correctly.•
Earth & Sky interview, discusses capturing rainfall and reducing runoff, partly through
conservation tillage

Surface runoff
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
((Redirected from Runoff (water)

Jump to: navigation, search

Runoff flowing into a stormwater drain

Surface runoff is the water flow which occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water,
from rain, snowmelt, or other sources flows over the land. This is a major component of the hydrologic
cycle.[1][2] Runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. If a
nonpoint source contains man-made contaminants, the runoff is called nonpoint source pollution. A land
area which produces runoff draining to common point is called a watershed. When runoff flows along the
 ground, it can pick up soil contaminants such as petroleum, pesticides (in particular herbicides and
[
insecticides), or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution.[3

Contents
[hide]

Generation 1•
Infiltration excess overland flow 1.1○
Saturation excess overland flow 1.2○
Subsurface return flow 1.3○
Human impact on surface runoff 2•
Effects of surface runoff 3•
Erosion 3.1○
Environmental impacts 3.2○
Flooding 3.3○
Agricultural issues 3.4○
Measurement and mathematical modeling 4•
Mitigation and treatment 5•
See also 6•
References 7•
External links 8•
Further reading 9•

edit] Generation]

Surface runoff from a hillside after soil is saturated

.Surface runoff can be generated either by rain fall or by the melting of snow, ice, or glaciers
Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically snowmelt
will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers
affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature
and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on
.cloudy ones for this reason
In areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. However, not all rainfall will produce runoff
because storage from soils can absorb light showers. On the extremely ancient soils of Australia and
Southern Africa,[4] proteoid roots with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much
 rainwater as to prevent runoff even when substantial amounts of rain fall. In these regions, even on less
infertile cracking clay soils, high amounts of rainfall and low potential evaporation are needed to generate
.any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable (usually ephemeral) streams
edit] Infiltration excess overland flow]
This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground,
and any depression storage has already been filled. This is called infiltration excess overland flow,
Hortonian overland flow (after Robert E. Horton), or unsaturated overland flow. This more commonly
occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is
.reduced because of surface sealing, or in paved areas
edit] Saturation excess overland flow]
When the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will
immediately produce surface runoff. (Note in the photo to the left the microdepressions are full of water as
seen in the lower left of the image.) The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time
.until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is saturation excess overland flow or saturated overland flow
edit] Subsurface return flow]
After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil,
.and exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is called subsurface return flow or interflow
As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may
evapotranspire; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it
may become run-on, which is the infiltration of runoff as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water
[
eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean.[5
edit] Human impact on surface runoff]

Urban surface water runoff

Urbanization increases surface runoff, by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavement and
buildings, that do not allow percolation of the water down through the soil to the aquifer. It is instead
forced directly into streams or storm water runoff drains, where erosion and siltation can be major
problems, even when flooding is not. Increased runoff reduces groundwater recharge, thus lowering the
.water table and making droughts worse, especially for farmers and others who depend on water wells
When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to
create water pollution. This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes,
estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related
.ecosystems
A 2008 report by the United States National Research Council identified urban stormwater as a leading
[
source of water quality problems in the U.S.[6
 A contrarian could note there is considerable surface runoff in natural systems from animal wastes being
entrained in runoff or from natural sediment loading in the absence of human alteration of the land. While
these statements are true, they fail to convey that the most pernicious consequences to human health and
ecosystems are from runoff issues related to human intervention; however, in underdeveloped countries the
proportion of runoff attributable to natural factors has greater dominance, principally due to the lack of
.isolation of water supplies from potential animal waste carrying runoff
See also: Urban runoff

edit] Effects of surface runoff]

edit] Erosion]
Surface runoff causes erosion of the Earth's surface. There are four principal types of erosion: splash
erosion, gully erosion, sheet erosion and stream bed erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical
collision of raindrops with the soil surface. Dislodged soil particles becoming suspended in the surface
runoff and carried into streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when the power of runoff is strong enough
that it cuts a well defined channel. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as
several meters. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of runoff without a well defined channel. In the case
of gully erosion, large amounts of material can be transported in a small time period. Stream bed erosion is
.the attrition of stream banks or bottoms by rapidly flowing rivers or creeks
Reduced crop productivity usually results from erosion, and these effects are studied in the field of soil
conservation. The soil particles carried in runoff vary in size from about .001 millimeter to 1.0 millimeter in
diameter. Larger particles settle over short transport distances, whereas small particles can be carried over
long distances suspended in the water column. Erosion of silty soils that contain smaller particles generates
.turbidity and diminishes light transmission, which disrupts aquatic ecosystems
Entire sections of countries have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the high central plateau of
Madagascar, approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire landscape is devoid
of vegetation, with erosive gully furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide[citation
needed]
. Shifting cultivation is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the slash and burn method in
some regions of the world. Erosion cause loss of the fertile top soil and reduces the its fertility and quality of
.the agricultural produce
Modern industrial farming is another major cause of erosion. In some areas in the American corn belt,
.more than 50 percent of the original topsoil has been carried away within the last 100 years
edit] Environmental impacts]
The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, groundwater
and soil through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into
human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants
that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are petroleum substances, herbicides
and fertilizers. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied
since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance phytotoxicity.[7] In the
case of surface waters, the impacts translate to water pollution, since the streams and rivers have received
runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as potable water supplies,
they can be compromised regarding health risks and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and
turbidity effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species
that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as fish kills, or alter the balance of populations
present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival
and plant productivity. Some researches show surface runoff of pesticides, such as DDT, can alter the
[
gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish.[8
In the case of groundwater, the main issue is contamination of drinking water, if the aquifer is abstracted for
human use. Regarding soil contamination, runoff waters can have two important pathways of concern.
Firstly, runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of water pollution to even
more sensitive aquatic habitats. Secondly, runoff can deposit contaminants on pristine soils, creating health
.or ecological consequences
edit] Flooding]
 Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff flowing downstream. The
frequency with which this occurs is described by a return period. Flooding is a natural process, which
maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it can also be altered by land use changes such as river
engineering. Floods can be both beneficial to societies or cause damage. Agriculture along the Nile
floodplain took advantage of the seasonal flooding that deposited nutrients beneficial for crops. However, as
the number and susceptibility of settlements increase, flooding increasingly becomes a natural hazard.
Adverse impacts span loss of life, property damage, contamination of water supplies, loss of crops, and
.social dislocation and temporary homelessness. Floods are among the most devastating of natural disasters
edit] Agricultural issues]
A common context of run-off deals with agriculture. When farmland is tilled and bare soil is revealed,
rainwater carries billions of tons of topsoil into waterways each year, causing loss of valuable topsoil and
.adding sediment to produce turbidity in surface waters
The other context of agricultural issues involves the transport of agricultural chemicals (nitrates, phosphates,
pesticides, herbicides etc) via surface runoff. This result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly
timed with respect to high precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of
agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems. The alternative to
.conventional farming is organic farming which eliminates or greatly reduces chemical usage
edit] Measurement and mathematical modeling]
Runoff is analyzed by using mathematical models in combination with various water quality sampling
methods. Measurements can be made using continuous automated water quality analysis instruments
targeted on pollutants such as specific organic or inorganic chemicals, pH, turbidity etc. or targeted on
secondary indicators such as dissolved oxygen. Measurements can also be made in batch form by extracting
.a single water sample and conducting any number of chemical or physical tests on that sample
In the 1950s or earlier hydrology transport models appeared to calculate quantities of runoff, primarily for
flood forecasting. Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of
runoff carrying water pollutants, which considered dissolution rates of various chemicals, infiltration into
soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to receiving waters. One of the earliest models addressing
chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s under contract to the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[9] This computer model formed the basis of
.much of the mitigation study that led to strategies for land use and chemical handling controls
Other computer models have been developed (such as the DSSAM Model) that allow surface runoff to be
tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case the surface runoff may be considered
.to be a line source of water pollution to the receiving waters
edit] Mitigation and treatment]

(Runoff holding ponds (Uplands neighborhood of North Bend, Washington

:Mitigation of adverse impacts of runoff can take several forms

Land use development controls aimed at minimizing impervious surfaces in urban•
areas
Erosion controls for farms and construction sites•
Flood control programs•
 Chemical use and handling controls in agriculture, landscape maintenance, industrial•
.use, etc
Land use controls. EPA and others have encouraged research on methods of minimizing total surface
runoff by avoiding unnecessary hardscape.[10] Many municipalities have produced guidelines and codes
(zoning and related ordinances) for land developers that encourage minimum width sidewalks, use of
pavers set in earth for driveways and walkways and other design techniques to allow maximum water
infiltration in urban settings. An example land use control program can be viewed at seen in the city of
[
Santa Monica, California.[11
Further information: Low impact development

Erosion controls have appeared since medieval times when farmers realized the importance of contour
farming to protect soil resources. Beginning in the 1950s these agricultural methods became increasingly
more sophisticated. In the 1960s some state and local governments began to focus their efforts on
mitigation of construction runoff by requiring builders to implement erosion and sediment controls (ESCs).
This included such techniques as: use of straw bales and barriers to slow runoff on slopes, installation of
silt fences, programming construction for months that have less rainfall and minimizing extent and duration
of exposed graded areas. Montgomery County, Maryland implemented the first local government
[
sediment control program in 1965, and this was followed by a statewide program in Maryland in 1970.[12
Flood control programs as early as the first half of the twentieth century became quantitative in predicting
peak flows of riverine systems. Progressively strategies have been developed to minimize peak flows and
also to reduce channel velocities. Some of the techniques commonly applied are: provision of holding ponds
(also called detention basins) to buffer riverine peak flows, use of energy dissipators in channels to reduce
[
stream velocity and land use controls to minimize runoff.[13
Chemical use and handling. Following enactment of the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) in 1976, and later the Water Quality Act of 1987, states and cities have become more vigilant in
controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods
commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of underground storage tanks, registration of
hazardous materials usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of
fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is
.required, to minimize escape of pollutants into sanitary or stormwater sewers
The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) requires that local governments in urbanized areas (as defined by the
Census Bureau) obtain stormwater discharge permits for their drainage systems.[14][15] Essentially this
means that the locality must operate a stormwater management program for all surface runoff that enters the
municipal separate storm sewer system ("MS4"). EPA and state regulations and related publications outline
:six basic components that each local program must contain
Public education (informing individuals, households, businesses about ways to avoid•
(stormwater pollution
(Public involvement (support public participation in implementation of local programs•
Illicit discharge detection & elimination (removing sanitary sewer or other non-•
(stormwater connections to the MS4
(Construction site runoff controls (i.e. erosion & sediment controls•
Post-construction (i.e. permanent) stormwater management controls•
.(Pollution prevention and "good housekeeping" measures (e.g. system maintenance•
Other property owners which operate storm drain systems similar to municipalities, such as state highway
.systems, universities, military bases and prisons, are also subject to the MS4 permit requirements
edit] See also]
Catchwater•
Flood forecasting•
Hydrological modelling•
Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP) – U.S. Research program•
Runoff curve number•
 (Runoff model (reservoir•
Soil conservation•
Soil contamination•
Stormwater•
Trophic state index•
Water pollution•

edit] References]
(Robert E. Horton, The Horton Papers (1933 ^.1
Keith Beven, Robert E. Horton's perceptual model of infiltration processes, ^.2
(Hydrological Processes, Wiley Intersciences DOI 10:1002 hyp 5740 (2004
L. Davis Mackenzie and Susan J. Masten, Principles of Environmental Engineering and ^.3
Science ISBN 0-07-235053-9
McMahon T.A. and Finlayson, B.; Global Runoff: Continental Comparisons of Annual ^.4
Flows and Peak Discharges
Nelson, R. (2004). The Water Cycle. Minneapolis: Lerner. ISBN 0-8225-4596-9 ^.5
United States. National Research Council. Washington, DC. "Urban Stormwater ^.6
.Management in the United States." October 15, 2008. pp. 18-20
W.F. Spencer, Distribution of Pesticides between Soil, Water and Air, International ^.7
symposium on Pesticides in the Soil, February 25-27, 1970, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan
Science News. "DDT treatment turns male fish into mothers." 2000-02-05. (By ^.8
(.subscription only
C.M. Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw, Harry Seidman et al. Computer modeling ^.9
of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale,
(California (1973
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). "Impervious Cover." Ecosystems ^.10
.Research Division, Athens, GA. 2009-02-24
.Urban Runoff, City of Santa Monica website. Retrieved 29 July 2007 ^.11
Maryland Department of Environment. Baltimore, MD. "Erosion and Sediment ^.12
.Control and Stormwater Management in Maryland." 2007
Channel Stability Assessment for Flood Control Projects U.S. Army Corps of ^.13
Engineers, (1996) ISBN 0-7844-0201-9
United States. Code of Federal Regulations, 40 CFR 122.26 ^.14
EPA. Washington, D.C. "Stormwater Discharges From Municipal Separate ^.15
.Storm Sewer Systems (MS4s)." 2009-03-11
".Shodor Education Foundation (1998)."Surface Water Runoff Modeling•

edit] External links]

USDA NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Stage Discharge Relationships, Ch. 14•
http://www.waterlog.info/software.htm provides free download of a conceptual•
.model (RainOff) on rainfall-runoff relations based on a nonlinear reservoir
NutrientNet, an online nutrient trading tool developed by the World Resources•
Institute, designed to address water quality issues related to surface runoff and other
pollution. See also the PA NutrientNet website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient
.trading program
Bioretention as a low impact development method of treating surface runoff•
EPA Stormwater Permit Program•
 EPA - Menu of Stormwater Best Management Practices•

edit] Further reading]

Gebert, W. A., D.J. Graczyk, and W.R. Krug. (1987). Average annual runoff in the United •
States, 1951-80 [Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-710]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department
.of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey

Soil contamination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

.Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface strata, oil and fuel
dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil. The most
common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with the degree of industrializations and
.intensities of chemical usage
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the
contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies
within and underlying the soil[1]. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time
consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry and
.computer modeling skills
It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well known, with
many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental
problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing countries very likely to be the
.next generation of new soil contamination cases
The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price
from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it
to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture. According to a scientific
sampling,150 million mi (100,000 square kilometres) of China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with
contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2
million mi (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-
tenth of China’s cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million
tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan
.[(US$2.57 billion).[2
The United States, while having some of the most widespread soil contamination, has actually been a leader
in defining and implementing standards for cleanup[3]. Other industrialized countries have a large number of
contaminated sites, but lag the U.S. in executing remediation. Developing countries may be leading in the
.next generation of new soil contamination cases
Each year in the U.S., thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using microbes that
“eat up” toxic chemicals in soil[4], many others by simple excavation and others by more expensive high-
tech soil vapor extraction or air stripping. Efforts proceed worldwide to identify new sites of soil
.contamination

Contents
[hide]

Health effects 1•
Ecosystem effects 2•
Regulatory framework 3•
United States of America 3.1○
United Kingdom 3.2○
Cleanup options 4•
See also 5•
References 6•
External links 7•

edit] Health effects]

The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact with soils
such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include contamination of
drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized. There is a very large set of health
consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on pollutant type, pathway of attack and
vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and many of the pesticide and herbicide formulations are
carcinogenic to all populations. Lead is especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a
high risk of developmental damage to the brain and nervous system, while to all populations kidney damage
.is a risk
Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of
leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage, some
irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbamates can induce
a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes,
kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health
effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other
.chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants cause death
edit] Ecosystem effects]
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems[5]. There
are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at
low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes can manifest in the alteration of metabolism
of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual
eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or
consumer species. Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the
food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung
of the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT
materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential
.extinction of species
Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants typically
alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil
 conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil mantle from erosion phenomena.
Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are
.formed from decay of primary soil contaminants
edit] Regulatory framework]
edit] United States of America]
Until about 1970 there was little widespread awareness of the worldwide scope of soil contamination or its
health risks. In fact, areas of concern were often viewed as unusual or isolated incidents. Since then, the U.S.
has established guidelines for handling hazardous waste and the cleanup of soil pollution. In 1980 the
U.S.Superfund/CERCLA established strict rules on legal liability for soil contamination. Not only did
CERCLA stimulate identification and cleanup of thousands of sites, but it raised awareness of property
.buyers and sellers to make soil pollution a focal issue of land use and management practices
While estimates of remaining soil cleanup in the U.S. may exceed 200,000 sites, hundreds of new sites are
identified each year, and in other industrialized countries there is a lag of identification and cleanup
functions. Even though their use of chemicals is lower than industrialized countries, often their controls and
regulatory framework is quite weak. For example, some persistent pesticides that have been banned in the
U.S. are in widespread uncontrolled use in developing countries. It is worth noting that the cost of cleaning
up a soil contaminated site can range from as little as about $10,000 for a small spill, which can be simply
excavated, to millions of dollars for a widespread event, especially for a chemical that is very mobile such as
.perchloroethylene
edit] United Kingdom]
Generic guidance commonly used in the UK are the Soil Guideline Values published by DEFRA and the
Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a
substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These
have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input
parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic
.[output[citation needed
Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL) has
been formally withdrawn by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), for use as
a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment. Therefore, no
.further reference is made to these former guideline values
Other generic guidance that exists (to put the concentration of a particular contaminant in context), includes
the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (US PRGs), the US EPA Region 3 Risk
Based Concentrations (US EPA RBCs) and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline
.on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater
However international guidance should only be used in the UK with clear justification. This is because
foreign standards are usually particular to that country due to drivers such as political policy, geology, flood
regime and epidemiology. It is generally accepted by UK regulators that only robust scientific methods that
.relate to the UK should be used
The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a framework
for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of
the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs)
have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as “intervention values”[citation needed]. These values
should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be
.considered
Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely
(residential (with and without plant uptake•
allotments•
commercial/industrial•
It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. It should be noted that the CLEA SGVs relate
to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers
during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems.
 The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no
.direct exposure route to contaminated soils
To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic,
cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene. Draft
SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their publication is on hold.
Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene,
benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and
1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane,
trichloroethene and xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil
organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an
.initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate
edit] Cleanup options]

Microbes can be used in soil cleanup

Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil
chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing transport[6] and fate of soil chemicals. Thousands
of soil contamination cases are currently in active cleanup across the U.S. as of 2006. There are several
:principal strategies for remediation
Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or•
sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds
.containing toxins
(Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution•
Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures•
sufficiently high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction.
.Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm
Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals.•
Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and
.bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora
Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system,•
.with subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract
.(Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place•
Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals•

edit] See also]

Book:Pollution

Books are collections of articles which can

.be downloaded or ordered in print

Land degradation•
 Land pollution•
List of waste management companies•
List of waste management topics•
List of solid waste treatment technologies•
List of Superfund sites in the United States•
Pesticide drift•
Pollution•
Contamination control•
Water contamination•
Water pollution•
Solidification / Stabilization (S/S) with Cement•

edit] References]
Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of ^.1
Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington D.C. 20450
”Facing up to “invisible pollution ^.2
Rainer Stegmann, Treatment of Contaminated Soil: Fundamentals, Analysis, ^.3
Applications, Springer Verlag, Berlin 2001
D.A. Crossley, Roles of Microflora and fauna in soil systems, International Symposium ^.4
on Pesticides in Soils, Feb. 25, 1970, University of Michigan
Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng ^.5
of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, prepared for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL
(Inc., Sunnyvale, California (1973
S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, ‘’A multidimensional ^.6
finite element code for the analysis of coupled fluid, energy and solute transport’‘,
(Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116 (1982

edit] External links]

Environmental Protection Agency link to health effects of specific pollutants•
cited in this article
Portal for soil and water management in Europe Independent information•
gateway originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and
.water, including contaminated land, soil and water management
Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil - High powered ultrasound can clean up•
soil tainted with organic toxins like PCBs or DDT
Article on soil contamination in China•
http://www.newscientisttech.com_healtheffects-pollution]•

Electrolysis of water
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) due to
.an electric current being passed through the water

Contents
[hide]
 Principle 1•
History 2•
Equations 3•
Thermodynamics of the process 4•
Electrolyte selection 5•
Techniques 6•
Fundamental demonstration 6.1○
Hofmann voltameter 6.2○
Industrial electrolysis 6.3○
High pressure electrolysis 6.4○
High-temperature electrolysis 6.5○
Applications 7•
Efficiency 8•
See also 9•
References 10•
External links 11•

edit] Principle]
An electrical power source is connected to two electrodes, or two plates (typically made from some inert
metal such as platinum or stainless steel) which are placed in the water. In a properly designed cell
hydrogen will appear at the cathode (the negatively charged electrode, where electrons are pumped into the
water), and oxygen will appear at the anode (the positively charged electrode). Assuming ideal faradaic
efficiency the generated amount (moles) of hydrogen is twice that of oxygen, and both are proportional to
the total electrical charge that was sent through the solution. However, in many cells competing side
.reactions dominate, resulting in different products and less than ideal faradaic efficiency
Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy in the form of overpotential to overcome various
activation barriers. Without the excess energy the electrolysis of pure water occurs very slowly if at all. This
is in part due to the limited self-ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one
millionth that of seawater. Many electrolytic cells may also lack the requisite electrocatalysts. The efficacy
of electrolysis is increased through the addition of an electrolyte (such as a salt, an acid or a base) and the
.use of electrocatalysts
Currently the electrolytic process is rarely used in industrial applications since hydrogen can be produced
.more affordably from fossil fuels
edit] History]
Jan Rudolph Deiman and Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk used in 1789 an electrostatic machine to
produce electricity which was discharged on gold electrodes in a Leyden jar with water.[1] In 1800
Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, a few weeks later William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle
used it for the electrolysis of water. When Zénobe Gramme invented the Gramme machine in 1869
.electrolysis of water became a cheap method for the production of hydrogen
edit] Equations]
In the water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with electrons (e−) from the
:(cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas (the half reaction balanced with acid
(Cathode (reduction): 2 H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g

At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and giving electrons
:to the cathode to complete the circuit
−
Anode (oxidation): 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e
 The same half reactions can also be balanced with base as listed below. Not all half reactions must be
balanced with acid or base. Many do like the oxidation or reduction of water listed here. To add half
.reactions they must both be balanced with either acid or base
(Cathode (reduction): 2 H2O(l) + 2e− → H2(g) + 2 OH-(aq
−
Anode (oxidation): 4 OH-(aq) → O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e

Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into oxygen and
:hydrogen
(Overall reaction: 2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g

The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen molecules. Assuming
equal temperature and pressure for both gases, the produced hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of
the produced oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of
.generated hydrogen molecules and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules
edit] Thermodynamics of the process]
Decomposition of pure water into hydrogen and oxygen at standard temperature and pressure is not
.favorable in thermodynamical terms
Anode (oxidation): 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4e− Eoox = -1.23 V

Cathode (reduction): 2 H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g) Eored = 0.00 V

Thus, the standard potential of the water electrolysis cell is -1.23 V at 25 °C at pH 0 (H+ = 1.0 M). It is also
.-1.23 V at 25 °C at pH 7 (H+ = 1.0 × 10−7 M) based on the Nernst Equation
The negative voltage indicates the Gibbs free energy for electrolysis of water is greater than zero for these
reactions. This can be found using the G = -nFE equation from chemical kinetics, where n is the moles of
electrons and F is the Faraday constant. The reaction cannot occur without adding necessary energy,
.usually supplied by an external electrical power source
edit] Electrolyte selection]

.Hoffman voltameter connected to a direct current power supply

If the above described processes occur in pure water, H+ cations will accumulate at the anode and OH−
anions will accumulate at the cathode. This can be verified by adding a pH indicator to the water: the water
near the anode is acidic while the water near the cathode is basic. These charged ions will repel the further
flow of electricity until they have diffused away, a slow process. This is why pure water conducts electricity
.poorly and why electrolysis of pure water proceeds slowly
If a water-soluble electrolyte is added, the conductivity of the water rises considerably. The electrolyte
disassociates into cations and anions; the anions rush towards the anode and neutralize the buildup of
positively charged H+ there; similarly, the cations rush towards the cathode and neutralize the buildup of
[
negatively charged OH− there. This allows the continued flow of electricity.[2
 Care must be taken in choosing an electrolyte, since an anion from the electrolyte is in competition with the
hydroxide ions to give up an electron. An electrolyte anion with less standard electrode potential than
hydroxide will be oxidized instead of the hydroxide, and no oxygen gas will be produced. A cation with a
greater standard electrode potential than a hydrogen ion will be reduced in its stead, and no hydrogen gas
.will be produced
The following cations have lower electrode potential than H+ and are therefore suitable for use as electrolyte
cations: Li+, Rb+, K+, Cs+, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Na+, and Mg2+. Sodium and lithium are frequently used, as they
.form inexpensive, soluble salts
If an acid is used as the electrolyte, the cation is H+, and there is no competitor for the H+ created by
disassociating water. The most commonly used anion is sulfate (SO2−4), as it is very difficult to oxidize,
.with the standard potential for oxidation of this ion to the peroxodisulfate ion being −2.05 volts
Strong acids such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and strong bases such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), and
.sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are frequently used as electrolytes
A solid polymer electrolyte can also be used such as NAFION and when applied with a special catalyst on
.each side of the membrane can efficiently split the water molecule with as little as 1.8 Volts
edit] Techniques]
edit] Fundamental demonstration]
Two leads, running from the terminals of a battery, are placed in a cup of water with a quantity of
electrolyte to establish conductivity in the solution. Using NaCl as an electrolyte results in chlorine gas
rather than oxygen due to a competing half-reaction. With the correct electrodes and correct electrolyte
hydrogen and oxygen gases will stream from the oppositely charged electrodes. Oxygen will collect at the
.anode and hydrogen will collect at the cathode

.Match test used to detect the presence of hydrogen gas

edit] Hofmann voltameter]

Main article: Hofmann voltameter

The Hofmann voltameter is often used as a small-scale electrolytic cell. It consists of three joined upright
cylinders. The inner cylinder is open at the top to allow the addition of water and the electrolyte. A
platinum electrode is placed at the bottom of each of the two side cylinders, connected to the positive and
negative terminals of a source of electricity. When current is run through the Hofmann voltameter, gaseous
oxygen forms at the anode and gaseous hydrogen at the cathode. Each gas displaces water and collects at
.the top of the two outer tubes, where it can be drawn off with a stopcock
edit] Industrial electrolysis]
Many industrial electrolysis cells are very similar to Hofmann voltameters, with complex platinum plates
or honeycombs as electrodes. Generally the only time hydrogen is intentionally produced from electrolysis
is for specific point of use application such as is the case with oxyhydrogen torches or when extremely high
hydrogen purity or oxygen is desired. The vast majority of hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons and as
a result contains trace amounts of carbon monoxide among other impurities. The carbon monoxide
.impurity can be detrimental to various systems including many fuel cells
edit] High pressure electrolysis]
Main article: High pressure electrolysis
 High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water with a compressed hydrogen output around 120-200
Bar ( 1740-2900 1740-2900 psi).[3] By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser the need
for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the average energy consumption for internal
[
compression is around 3%.[4
edit] High-temperature electrolysis]
Main article: High-temperature electrolysis

High-temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a method currently being investigated for
water electrolysis with a heat engine. High temperature electrolysis is more efficient than traditional room-
temperature electrolysis because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity,
[
and because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures.[5][6
edit] Applications]
About four percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis. The majority of this
hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. This is a prime
.example of a competing side reactions
NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH 2

The electrolysis of brine (saltwater), a water sodium chloride mixture, is only half the electrolysis of water
since the chloride ions are oxidized to chlorine rather than water being oxidized to oxygen. The hydrogen
produced from this process is either burned, used for the production of specialty chemicals, or various other
.small scale applications
The majority of hydrogen used industrially is derived from fossil fuels. One example is fossil fuel derived
hydrogen used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the Haber process and for converting heavy
petroleum sources to lighter fractions via hydrocracking. The production of this hydrogen usually involves
the formation of synthesis gas a mixture of H2 and CO. Synthesis gas can be hydrogen enriched through the
water gas shift reaction. In this reaction the carbon monoxide is reacted with water to produce more H2
.with CO2 byproduct
edit] Efficiency]
Water electrolysis does not convert 100% of the electrical energy into the chemical energy of hydrogen. The
process requires more extreme potentials than what would be expected based on the cell's total reversible
reduction potentials. This excess potential accounts for various forms of overpotential by which the extra
energy is eventually lost as heat. For a well designed cell the largest overpotential is the reaction
overpotential for the four electron oxidation of water to oxygen at the anode. An effective electrocatalyst
to facilitate this reaction has not been developed. Platinum alloys are the default state of the art for this
oxidation. The reverse reaction, the reduction of oxygen to water, is responsible for the greatest loss of
efficiency in fuel cells. Developing a cheap effective electrocatalyst for this reaction would be a great
.([advance (see also[7
The simpler two-electron reaction to produce hydrogen at the cathode can be electrocatalyzed with almost
no reaction overpotential by platinum or in theory a hydrogenase enzyme. If other, less effective,
.materials are used for the cathode then another large overpotential must be paid
The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely with the numbers cited below on the optimistic
side. Some report 50–80%.[8][9] These values refer only to the efficiency of converting electrical energy into
hydrogen's chemical energy. The energy lost in generating the electricity is not included. For instance, when
considering a power plant that converts the heat of nuclear reactions into hydrogen via electrolysis, the total
[
efficiency may be closer to 30–45%.[10
edit] See also]
Electrochemistry•
Electrolysis•
Hydrogen production•
Noryl•
 Gas cracker•
Oxyhydrogen•
Water purification•
Timeline of hydrogen technologies•

edit] References]
Levie, R. de (1999-10). "The electrolysis of water". Journal of Electroanalytical ^.1
Chemistry 476 (1): 92-93. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(99)00365-4.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TGB-3XT09XF-
D&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F21%2F1999&_rdoc=12&_fmt=high&_orig=bro
wse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc
%235250%231999%23995239998%23139272%23FLA%23display
%23Volume)&_cdi=5250&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=12&_acct=C000050221&
_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=e7aa3f65df7fa20b529eeac1abe
.4582c. Retrieved 2009-12-30
Linus Pauling, General Chemistry, Section 15-2. San Francisco, 1970 ^.2
High pressure electrolysis - The key technology for efficient H.2-2001 ^.3
PHOEBUS-Pag.9-2003 ^.4
Hi2h2 - High temperature electrolysis using SOEC ^.5
WELTEMP-Water electrolysis at elevated temperatures ^.6
Kanan, M. W. (2008). "In Situ Formation of an Oxygen-Evolving Catalyst in Neutral ^.7
Water Containing Phosphate and Co2+". Science 321: 1072.
.doi:10.1126/science.1162018
Werner Zittel; Reinhold Wurster (1996-07-08). "Chapter 3: Production of ^.8
Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis".
HyWeb: Knowledge - Hydrogen in the Energy Sector. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik
.GmbH. http://www.hyweb.de/Knowledge/w-i-energiew-eng3.html#3.4
Bjørnar Kruse; Sondre Grinna, Cato Buch (2002-02-13). "Hydrogen—Status and ^.9
Possibilities" (pdf). The Bellona Foundation. Archived from the original on 2002-02-
13. http://www.bellona.org/filearchive/fil_Hydrogen_6-2002.pdf. "Efficiency
factors for PEM electrolysers up to 94% are predicted, but this is only theoretical at this
".time
Briefing Paper #73: Transport and the Hydrogen Economy". Uranium " ^.10
Information Centre's Briefing Papers. Australian Uranium Association. January 2008.
http://www.uic.com.au/nip73.htm. "[Fuel cells] catalyse the oxidation of hydrogen
directly to electricity at relatively low temperatures and the claimed theoretical
efficiency of converting chemical to electrical energy to drive the wheels is about 60%
(or more). However, in practice about half that has been achieved, except for the
".higher-temperature solid oxide fuel cells - 46%

Electrolysis of Water". Experiments on Electrochemistry."•

http://www.pc.chemie.uni-siegen.de/pci/versuche/english/v21-2.html.
.Retrieved November 20, 2005
Electrolysis of Water". Do Chem 044."•
http://chemmovies.unl.edu/Chemistry/DoChem/DoChem044.html. Retrieved
.November 20, 2005
EERE 2008 - 100 kgH2/day Trade Study•
NREL 2006 - Electrolysis technical report•

Physical Properties of Water•

Summary Table of Physical Properties •
 •
Physical Properties of Water •
•
•
Property Value •
•
Molar mass 18.015 •
Molar Volume 55.5 moles/liter •
Boiling Point (BP) 100°C at 1 atm •
Freezing point (FP) 0°C at 1 atm •
Triple point 273.16 K at 4.6 torr •
Surface Tension 73 dynes/cm at 20°C •
Vapor pressure 0.0212 atm at 20°C •
Heat of vaporization 40.63 kJ/mol •
Heat of Fusion 6.013 kJ/mol •
Heat Capacity (cp) 4.22 kJ/kg.K •
Dielectric Constant 78.54 at 25°C •
Viscosity 1.002 centipoise at 20°C •
Density 1 g/cc •
Density maxima 4°C •
(Specific heat 4180 J kg-1 K-1 ( T=293…373 K •
(Heat conductivity 0.60 W m-1 K-1 (T=293 K •
Melting heat 3.34 x 105 J/kg •
Evaporation heat 22.6 x 105 J/kg •
Critical Temperature 647 K •
Critical pressure 22.1 x 106 Pa •
(Speed of sound 1480 m/s (T=293 K •
(Relative permittivity 80 (T=298 K •
•
(index of refraction (relative to air •
(ice; 589 nm; T=273 K; p=p0) 1.31 •
(water; 430-490 nm; T=293 K; p=p0) 1.34 •
(water; 590-690 nm; T=293 K; p=p0) 1.33 •
•
Links between Chemical Structure and Physical Properties •
•
Water (H2O) is a very unusual substance with many strange and unique properties that are •
so important to Life on Planet Water - Life which is based on Water and adapted to its •
.unique and anomalous properties •
,How does this simple molecule, composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom •
?behave the way it does and how does it support life •
:Some familiar properties of water are •
;It's colourless •
;It's tasteless •
;It's odourless •
;It feels wet •
;It dissolves nearly everything •
;It exists in three forms: liquid, solid, gas, and is cycled though the water cycle •
;It can absorb a large amount of heat •
;It sticks together into beads or drops •
,It flows and erodes the surface of the earth; it moves sediments to form beaches •
;river banks and bars •
It shapes lipid and protein molecules and give them their 3-dimensional form which •
is critical to their function •
.It's part of every living organism on the planet •
•
.Many of water's unique properties are largely a result of its chemical structure •
The two hydrogen atoms bound to one oxygen atom to form a 'V' shape with the hydrogen atoms •
.at an angle of 105° •
When the hydrogen atoms combine with oxygen, they each give away their single electron and •
.form a covalent bond •
Because electrons are more attracted to the positively charged oxygen atom, the two hydrogens •
become slightly positively charged (they give away their negative charge) and the oxygen atom •
.becomes negatively charged •
This separation between negative and positive charges produces a polar molecule, that is a •
 .molecule that has an electrical charge on its surface •
The hydrogen lobes have positive charges, and the oxygen atom on the opposite side has two •
.negative charges (associated with two lobes •
The net interaction between the covalent bond and the attracting and repulsion between the •
.positive and negative charges repelling charges produces the 'V' shape of the molecule •
•
.The polarity of water allows it to bind with other molecules, including itself •
.The water molecules form hydrogen bonds, giving shape to water as a liquid •
Each single water molecule can form bonds with four other water molecules in a tetrahedral •
.arrangement. Although these bonds are weak they lead to many other unique properties •
The V-shape of the water molecule is also important because it allows for other •
.configurations of water to be formed •
.Ice, for instance, has a very ordered lattice structure •
Super cooled water (water below the freezing point) also has water molecules that are •
.structured in a certain way •
.Snowflakes have yet another shape •
•
Physical Properties and Life •
•
.Life on Planet Water depends on the unique and unusual properties of water •
.Water is 'mother' and 'matrix' for life •
•
The large heat capacity and high water content in organisms contribute to # •
.thermal regulation and prevent local temperature fluctuations •
•
The high latent heat of evaporation gives resistance to dehydration and considerable # •
.evaporative cooling •
•
Water is an excellent solvent due to its polarity, high dielectric constant and small # •
.size, particularly for polar and ionic compounds and salts •
•
,It has unique hydration properties towards biological molecules (particularly lipids # •
proteins and nucleic acids) that determine their three-dimensional structures, and hence •
.their functions, in solution •
This hydration forms gels that can reversibly undergo the gel-sol phase transitions that •
.underlie many cellular mechanisms •
•
Water ionizes and allows easy proton exchange between molecules, so contributing to # •
.the richness of the ionic interactions in biology •
•
The density maximum at 4°C and low ice density means that all of a body of water # •
.not just its surface) is close to 0°C before any freezing can occur) •
Also the freezing of rivers, lakes and oceans is from the top down, so insulating the •
water from further freezing and allowing rapid thawing, and density driven thermal •
.convection causing seasonal mixing in deeper temperate waters •
•
The large heat capacity of the oceans and seas allows them to act as heat reservoirs # •
such that sea temperatures vary only a third as much as land temperatures and so •
.moderate our climate •
•
.The compressibility of water reduces the sea level by about 40 m giving us 5% more land # •
•
•
Hydrophylic ('Water Loving') and Hydrophobic ('Water Hating') Molecules •
•
Hydrophylic Molecules •
.'Substances that dissolve readily in water are termed 'hydrophilic •
They are composed of ions or polar molecules that attract water molecules through electrical •
.charge effects •
Water molecules surround each ion or polar molecule on the surface of a solid substance and •
.carry it into solution •
Ionic substances such as sodium chloride dissolve because water molecules are attracted to •
.the positive (Na+) or negative (Cl-) charge of each ion •
Polar substances such as urea dissolve because their molecules form hydrogen bonds with the •
 .surrounding water molecules •
•
Hydrophobic Molecules •
Molecules that contain mostly nonpolar bonds are usually insoluble in water and are termed •
.'hydrophobic' •
.This is true, especially, of hydrocarbons, which contain many C-H bonds •
Water molecules are less attracted to such molecules than they are to other water •
.molecules and so have little tendency to surround them and carry them into solution •
•
But the so-called 'Hydrophobic Effect' does not mean that nonpolar molecules are not •
!attracted to water •
When a highly polar substance, such as water, is mixed with a nonpolar or •
.weakly polar substance, such as most oils, the substances will separate into two phases •
This phenomenon is usually rationalized in introductory chemistry text books by saying •
.that oil is hydrophobic •
Most people wrongly believe that this means that individual water and oil molecules •
.repel each other, or at least attract each other very weakly •
!However, this is clearly wrong and misleading •
In face an individual oil molecule is attracted to a water molecule by a force that is much •
.greater than the attraction of two oil molecules to each other •
.This can be demonstrated when a drop of oil is placed onto a clean surface of water •
Originally the oil will be in the shape of a spherical droplet, because the oil molecules •
are attracted to one another and a spherical shape minimizes the number of oil molecules •
.that are not surrounded by other molecules •
.When the oil droplet hits the surface of the water, it spreads out to form a thin layer •
This happens because the oil and water bonds formed by the oil forming a layer on the surface •
.of the water are stronger than the oil-oil attraction in the oil droplet •
If a sufficiently small drop of oil is put on the surface, it will spread to form a single •
.molecular layer of oil •
•
?Given these strong interactions, why doesn't each oil molecule dive into the water solution •
?and become completely surrounded with water molecules •
!The reason is that the water-water bonds are much stronger •
.Displacing the water molecules would cost more energy •
Consequently most of the oil molecules stay out of the water, though as many as will fit •
.will hang on to the surface water molecules that do not have a full complement of partners •
A similar explanation applies for the meniscus, that is the curved surface of a liquid in •
.a graduated cylinder or any other small diameter glassware •
.Water adheres to the sides of any container creating a "cup" of surface tension •
•
The induced structure produced through the interaction with water molecules is very important •
as it is related to the structure and function of membranes which are very characteristic •
.of life as we know it. Membranes in bacteria are composed of phospholipids and proteins •
Phospholipids contain a charged or polar group (often phosphate, hence the name) attached •
to a 3 carbon glycerol back bone. There are also two fatty acid chains dangling from the •
.other carbons of glycerol •
The phosphate end of the molecule is hydrophilic and is attracted to water. The fatty •
.acids are hydrophobic and are driven away from water •
•
.Because phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions, they do remarkable things •
When placed in an aqueous environment, the hydrophobic portions stick together, as do •
.the hydrophilic bits. A very stable form of this arrangement is the lipid bilayer •
.This way the hydrophobic parts of the molecule form one layer, as do the hydrophilic •
.Lipid bilayers form spontaneously if phospholipids are placed in an aqueous environment •
(The cytoplasmic membrane is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions (i.e. water induced •
between neighboring lipids and by hydrogen bonds between neighboring lipids. Hydrogen •
bonds can also form between membrane proteins and lipids. These are known as membrane •
.vesicles and are used to study membrane properties experimentally •
There is some evidence that these structures may form abiotically and may occur on •
.particles that rain down on earth from space •
•
Extract air to make oil and water mix •
One of the great truths of life, that oil and water do not mix, has been turned on •
,its head. The secret to making them mix without chemicals, according to Ric Pashley •
a chemist at Canberra's Australian National University, is extracting all the •
 .dissolved air from the water •
.It makes an emulsion, not quite as cloudy as milk," the chemist said" •
The discovery, which could lead to everything from new medicines to paints and •
.perfumes, has delighted scientists around the world •
•
,In 1982, Professor Pashley discovered something called long-range hydrophobic force •
.now accepted as the reason oil and water do not normally mix •
He explained that oil droplets can attract each other over a distance as large •
.as their own radius. As a result, oil droplets merge rather than disperse in water •
•
.A typical litre of water, he noted, contains about two millilitres of dissolved air •
Suspecting that was the problem, he extracted 99.999 per cent of the dissolved •
.air from some water •
.To his joy, it mixed with oil, forming an emulsion that did not separate •
•
Water as a Solvent - Acids & Bases - pH - Hydration •
•
Water as a Solvent •
Many substances, such as salt and sugar, dissolve in water. That is, their molecules •
.separate from each other, each becoming surrounded by water molecules •
.When a substance dissolves in a liquid, the mixture is termed a solution •
The dissolved substance (in this case salt or sugar) is the solute, and the liquid •
.that does the dissolving (in this case water) is the solvent •
.Water is an excellent solvent for many substances because of its polar bonds •
•
Acids •
.Substances that release hydrogen ions into solution are called acids •
Many of the acids important in the cell are only partially dissociated, and they are •
therefore weak acids-for example, the carboxyl group (-COOH), which dissociates to give •
.a hydrogen ion in solution. This is a reversible reaction •
•
Bases •
.Substances that reduce the number of hydrogen ions in solution are called bases •
.Some bases, such as ammonia, combine directly with hydrogen ions •
Other bases, such as sodium hydroxide, reduce the number of H+ ions indirectly, by •
.making OH- ions that then combine directly with H+ ions to make H2O •
.Many bases found in cells are partially dissociated and are termed weak bases •
This is true of compounds that contain an amino group (-NH2), which has a weak •
.tendency to reversibly accept an H+ ion from water, increasing the quantity of free OH- ions •
•
Hydrogen Ion exchange •
Positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) can spontaneously move from one water molecule to •
.another, thereby creating two ionic species •
Since the process is rapidly reversible, hydrogen ions are continually shuttling between •
water molecules. Pure water contains a steady state concentration of hydrogen ions and •
.(hydroxyl ions (both 10-7 M •
•
pH •
.The acidity of a solution is defined by the concentration of H+ ions it possesses •
.[+For convenience we use the pH scale, where pH = _log10[H •
For pure water [H+] = 10_7 moles/liter •
•

Chemical Properties of Water•

Chemical Structure •

•
Water is a special chemical substance consisting of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of •
.oxygen •
•
O--H bond length = 95.7 picometers •
H--O---H angle = 104.5° •
O-H bond energy = 450 kJ/mol •
Dipole moment = 1.83 debyes •
•
 The hydrogen atoms are "attached" to one side of the oxygen atom, resulting in a water molecule •
having a positive charge on the side where the hydrogen atoms are and a negative charge on the •
.other side, where the oxygen atom is •
,Since opposite electrical charges attract, water molecules tend to attract each other •
".making water kind of "sticky •
(The side with the hydrogen atoms (positive charge) attracts the oxygen side (negative charge •
.of a different water molecule •
•
:The water molecule maintains a bent shape because of two considerations •
.The tetrahedral arrangement around the oxygen .1 •
.The presence of lone pair electrons on the oxygen .2 •
.Two electrons not involved in the covalent bonds are called lone pair electrons •
.The pairs of electrons are left alone •
These lone pairs are very negative - containing two negative electrons each - and want to •
.stay away from each other as much as possible •
These repulsive forces act to push the hydrogens closer together. The net result is a •
.terahedral arrangement •
Tetrahedral means "four-sided". It is the arrangement of four atoms around a central atom •
.such that the distance between them is maximized •
.The arrangement adopted will be the form of a regular tetrahedron •
.It has regular bond angles of 109.5° •
If we do a similar arrangement of water, putting oxygen in the center, and using the •
two hydrogens and two lone pairs at the corners, we also come up with a tetrahedral •
.arrangement •
•
However, there is one important difference - the bond angles for water are •
,not 109.5°. Because of the presence of the very negative lone pair electrons •
the two hydrogens are squeezed together as the two lone pairs try to get away •
.from each other as far as possible. The resulting angle gives water a 104.5 bond angle •
Because we don't "see" the electrons, the resulting tetrahedron "looks" BENT •
•
•
Links between Chemical Structure and Physical Properties •

•
Two other features of the water molecule are also important for its properties •
the small size of molecule # •
.the molecule is strongly dipolar # •
.This property makes water an effective solvent, particularly for crystalline salts •
The small size of hydrogen atoms makes it possible for molecules of water to effectively •
.bond together or chemically associate, particularly at lower temperatures •
This gives water its surface tension and liquid properties and also gives water it's unique •
.[physical properties [link here •
•
However, water also partially dissociates into very minute concentrations of acid •
H3O+] and base [OH-] ions, a characteristic which leads to the use of the pH scale] •
.to measure relative acidity or alkalinity. This also helps in dissolving ions and transporting H+ ions •
•
•
Major Chemical Properties of Water •
Polarity •

•
Two atoms, connected by a covalent bond, may exert different attractions for the electrons of the •
bond. In such cases the bond is polar, with one end slightly negatively charged (-) and the other •
.(+) slightly positively charged •
Although a water molecule has an overall neutral charge (having the same number of electrons and •
.protons), the electrons are asymmetrically distributed, which makes the molecule polar •
The oxygen nucleus draws electrons away from the hydrogen nuclei, leaving these nuclei with a •
small net positive charge. The excess of electron density on the oxygen atom creates weakly •
.negative regions at the other two corners of an imaginary tetrahedron •
•
Water structure - hydrogen bonds •
Because they are polarized, two adjacent H2O molecules can form a linkage known as a hydrogen •
 .bond. Hydrogen bonds have only about 1/20 the strength of a covalent bond •
A hydrogen bond is therefore a weak chemical bond between a hydrogen atom in one polar •
.molecule and a very electronegative atom of a second polar molecule •
.The hydrogen of one water molecule will be attracted to the oxygen of another water molecule •
.The are usually 4-8 molecules per group in liquid water •
The surface tension of water is due to the hydrogen bonding in the associated groups of •
.water molecules •
•
.Hydrogen bonds are strongest when the three atoms lie in a straight line •
,The cohesive nature of water, through the hydrogen bonding and the small size of the molecule •
,allowing the molecules to pack together, is responsible for many of its unusual properties •
.such as high surface tension, specific heat, and heat of vaporization •
.Molecules of water join together transiently in a hydrogen-bonded lattice •
Even at 37oC, 15% of the water molecules are joined to four others in a short-lived assembly •
".known as a "flickering cluster •
•
•
Hydrophylic ('Water Loving') and Hydrophobic ('Water Hating') Molecules •

•
Hydrophylic Molecules •
.Substances that dissolve readily in water are termed hydrophilic •
They are composed of ions or polar molecules that attract water molecules through electrical •
.charge effects •
Water molecules surround each ion or polar molecule on the surface of a solid substance and •
.carry it into solution •
Ionic substances such as sodium chloride dissolve because water molecules are attracted to •
.the positive (Na+) or negative (Cl_) charge of each ion •
Polar substances such as urea dissolve because their molecules form hydrogen bonds with the •
.surrounding water molecules •
•
Hydrophobic Molecules •
Molecules that contain a preponderance of nonpolar bonds are usually insoluble in water •
and are termed 'hydrophobic'. This is true, especially, of hydrocarbons, which contain •
.many C-H bonds •
Water molecules are not attracted to such molecules as much as they are to other water •
.molecules and so have little tendency to surround them and carry them into solution •
•
But the so-called 'Hydrophobic Effect' does not mean that nonpolar molecules are not •
!attracted to water •
;We have all seen what happens after vinegar and oil salad dressing are vigorously shaken •
one does get a mixture of sorts, but after a little time the ingredients separate with •
.the lighter oil on top and a denser vinegar/water solution on bottom •
This is an illustration of an important chemistry principle expressed by the rule •
that 'like dissolves like.' This refers to the phenomena that when two liquids made •
of molecules of similar size and polarities are mixed, they will usually form a single •
.phase solution, no matter what the relative number of moles of each species •
.This is expressed by the jargon that the two substances are miscible in all proportions •
•
In contrast, when a highly polar substance, such as water, is mixed with a nonpolar or •
.weakly polar substance, such as most oils, the substances will separate into two phases •
This phenomenon is usually rationalized in introductory chemistry text books by saying •
that oil is hydrophobic, and thus does not make solutions with water, while polar small •
,organic acids (such as acetic acid from which house vinegar is made) are hydrophilic •
.and thus are miscible with water •
•
This explanation almost universally leads people to believe that individual water and oil •
.repel each other, or at least attract each other very weakly •
!Nothing can be further from the case •
An individual oil molecule is attracted to a water molecule by a force that is much •
.greater than the attraction of two oil molecules to each other •
We can observe the consequence of this greater attraction when we put a drop of oil on a •
.clean surface of water •
.Before hitting the surface, the oil will be in the shape of a spherical droplet •
This is because the oil molecules are attracted to one another and a spherical shape •
 .minimizes the number of oil molecules that are not surrounded by other molecules •
.When the oil hits the surface of the water, it spreads out to form a thin layer •
This happens because the attractions between the oil and water molecules gained by spreading •
over the surface is larger than the oil-oil attraction lost in making a large oil surface on •
.top of the water •
If a sufficiently small drop of oil is put on the surface, it will spread to form a single •
.molecular layer of oil •
By measuring the area produced, one can get a simple estimate for the size of each oil •
.molecule and thus Avogadro's number •
•
?Given these strong interactions, why does not each oil molecule dive into the water solution •
?and surround itself with the favorable water attractions •
The reason is that to do so, it must come between water molecules that are already •
!attracting each other •
The strength of water-water attraction is much higher than water-oil interactions, and •
.thus there is a net cost of energy in putting the oil molecules into a water solution •
Thus the vast majority of oil molecules stay out of the water, though as many as will •
.fit will hang on to the surface water molecules that do not have a full complement of partners •
The meniscus is the curved surface of a liquid in a graduated cylinder or any other •
"small diameter glassware. Water adheres to the sides of any container creating a "cup •
.of surface tension •
•
This induced structure is very important is it related to the structure and function •
.of membranes which are very characteristic of life as we know it •
Membranes in bacteria are composed of phospholipids and proteins. Phospholipids contain a •
charged or polar group (often phosphate, hence the name) attached to a 3 carbon glycerol •
.back bone. There are also two fatty acid chains dangling from the other carbons of glycerol •
The phosphate end of the molecule is hydrophilic and is attracted to water. The fatty •
.acids are hydrophobic and are driven away from water •
•
.Because phospholipids have hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions, they do remarkable things •
When placed in an aqueous environment, the hydrophobic portions stick together, as do •
.the hydrophilic. A very stable form of this arrangement is the lipid bilayer •
.This way the hydrophobic parts of the molecule form one layer, as do the hydrophilic •
.Lipid bilayers form spontaneously if phospholipids are placed in an aqueous environment •
(The cytoplasmic membrane is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions (i.e. water induced •
between neighboring lipids and by hydrogen bonds between neighboring lipids. Hydrogen •
bonds can also form between membrane proteins and lipids. These are known as membrane •
vesicles and are used to study membrane properties experimentally. There is some •
evidence that these structures may form abiotically and may occur on particles that •
.rain down on earth from space •
•
•
Water as a Solvent - Acids & Bases - pH - Hydration •

•
Water as a Solvent •
Many substances, such as household sugar, dissolve in water. That is, their molecules separate •
.from each other, each becoming surrounded by water molecules •
.When a substance dissolves in a liquid, the mixture is termed a solution •
The dissolved substance (in this case sugar) is the solute, and the liquid that does the •
.dissolving (in this case water) is the solvent •
.Water is an excellent solvent for many substances because of its polar bonds •
•
Acids •
.Substances that release hydrogen ions into solution are called acids •
Many of the acids important in the cell are only partially dissociated, and they are •
therefore weak acids-for example, the carboxyl group (-COOH), which dissociates to give •
.a hydrogen ion in solution. Note that this is a reversible reaction •
•
Bases •
.Substances that reduce the number of hydrogen ions in solution are called bases •
.Some bases, such as ammonia, combine directly with hydrogen ions •
Other bases, such as sodium hydroxide, reduce the number of H+ ions indirectly, by •
.making OH- ions that then combine directly with H+ ions to make H2O •
 .Many bases found in cells are partially dissociated and are termed weak bases •
This is true of compounds that contain an amino group (-NH2), which has a weak •
.tendency to reversibly accept an H+ ion from water, increasing the quantity of free OH- ions •
•
Hydrogen Ion exchange •
Positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) can spontaneously move from one water molecule to •
.another, thereby creating two ionic species •
Since the process is rapidly reversible, hydrogen ions are continually shuttling between •
water molecules. Pure water contains a steady state concentration of hydrogen ions and •
.(hydroxyl ions (both 10-7 M •
•
pH •
.The acidity of a solution is defined by the concentration of H+ ions it possesses •
.[+For convenience we use the pH scale, where pH = _log10[H •
For pure water [H+] = 10_7 moles/liter •
•

Our World of Water

Physical Properties of Water

The chemical formula for water is H20, which means it is a molecule consisting of two atoms of hydrogen
and one of oxygen. These three atoms are bonded tightly together, more so than the atoms of most other
substances. This tight bond and arrangement of atoms in the water molecule results in the following five
:unusual properties

The water molecule—two hydrogen

atoms and one oxygen atom bonded
.together

Three Forms .1

Water is the only substance that occurs naturally on earth in three forms: solid, liquid, and gas. In liquid
water, the molecules of hydrogen and oxygen are close together but are able to slip past one another, which
.is why it flows. Examples of this are a river, a waterfall, or water coming out of your faucet
When the temperature drops, the water molecules slow down and become sluggish. As it becomes cold
enough for the water to freeze, the molecules rearrange themselves into hollow rings. This is why water
expands when it freezes, unlike most other substances which contract. This expansion in the solid phase is
the reason why ice cubes float in a glass of water. The ice is actually lighter or less dense than the liquid
.water
Water also occurs in the gaseous phase, such as steam rising from a boiling tea kettle. As water is heated, the
.molecules move about violently, colliding with one another, until some break free and form a vapor, or gas
EXPERIMENT #1
 To see how easily water can change forms, try the following
experiment. First melt some ice cubes in a pan on the stove. Bring
the same water to a boil and place a cover on the pan to catch the
steam. The steam should condense into small droplets of water
when it contacts the cover. Next, place the cover with the droplets of
water into the freezer until the droplets freeze. Can you think of how
humans use this ability of water to change forms? Think of how you
change forms of water when you use it. Find out if it is possible for
water to change from a solid form (ice) to the gaseous form (vapor)
.without becoming liquid

When various materials are dissolved in water, they can change the
properties of the water. To see this, take two containers of equal size
and put into each the same amount of water. Pour salt into one of
the containers, label the container, stir until the salt dissolves and
then place both containers in the freezer and mark the time. (Note:
Do not use large amounts of water because it will take a long time
for this to freeze.) See how long it takes for both to freeze. Can you
think of why they put salt on icy roads during the winter? Ask your
.parents why anti-freeze is important for their car

Surface Tension .2

Water has a high surface tension. This is the ability of a substance to stick to itself. A drop of water falling
from the rim of a faucet will stretch itself very thin before it drops off. Then it immediately forms a sphere
and resists any kind of shape change. This high surface tension enables a water surface to support small
.objects like waterbugs, because their weight distribution will not permit them to break through
EXPERIMENT #2

Can a needle float on water? Drop a sewing

needle into a container of water and watch
it sink. Now, take a strip of paper and make
a loop. Carefully rest the needle in the loop
and lower it slowly onto the water, being
careful not to break the water surface with
the needle. Keep pushing the paper down
slowly, and gently pull it away after the
needle has floated. This may take several tries before it is
accomplished. Look very closely at the contact between the needle
and the water. Notice the indentation the needle makes on the water
.surface

Have you ever held water between your fingers? Place the tips of
your thumb and index finger together in water. When you pull them
out of the water, slowly open up a small space between them. You
should catch some water between your fingers and be able to hold it
there no matter how you move your hand. See what happens when
you open up your fingers. Does the water stay between your fingers?
Try this with very soapy water. Can you still capture some of the
 soapy water between your thumb and index finger? What does the
?soap do to the surface tension of the water

Heat Capacity .3

Another unusual property of water is displayed when it is heated. Water has an extremely high heat
capacity, which is the ability of a substance to absorb heat without becoming extremely hot itself. This is
why it takes a long time for water to boil. An empty pan placed over a hot flame will become red hot and
then burn black. However, if some water is placed in the pan over the same flame, the pan will become hot,
but not red hot as before since most of the heat will be absorbed from the pan by the water. In like manner,
.your body cools when you sweat because body heat is absorbed when sweat evaporates
The heat capacity of water enables the oceans to act as huge reservoirs of solar warmth and keeps our
weather from going to great extremes of heat or cold. The moderating effect of water is noticeably absent
.from a desert, where days tend to be very hot and nights cold

Solvent Abilities .4

The most remarkable aspect of water is its ability to dissolve so many substances; that is, to act as a solvent.
For example, some caves form when acidic ground water dissolves limestone bedrock. The substance that
is dissolved is called the solute, and the liquid mixture is called a solution. Most water on the earth is
actually a solution. Rainwater is the purest naturally occurring solution of water and contains few dissolved
.substances
EXPERIMENT #3

Collect rainwater in a clean glass or metal container and fill another

container of similar shape with an equal amount of water from your
faucet. Label the containers and place them in a warm place to
evaporate. When all of the water has evaporated from both
containers, check them for any residue. Which container has the
?most residue in it after the water evaporates

The degree to which water has a distinctive taste or odor depends on the types of substances dissolved in it.
Since water is not changed chemically when it acts as a solvent, it can be recovered for reuse after
undesirable dissolved substances are removed. The amount of dissolved substances in water is affected by
.factors such as water temperature and the nature of the material water moves through
EXPERIMENT #4

Take two containers of equal size and fill one with cold water and the
other with hot water from your faucet. Make sure each container has
an equal amount of water. Measure a ¼ teaspoon of salt into each
container, stir to dissolve. Keep adding salt by the same amount to
each container and see which temperature of water will dissolve the
most salt. Keep a record of the number of times you added a ¼
teaspoon of salt to each container. Be sure to stir the water each
time you add the salt. What would happen if you dissolved as much
salt as possible in hot water and let the water cool to near freezing
temperatures? Try this. Do you think that instant coffee or cocoa
would dissolve as rapidly in cold water as hot water? Think of some
 environmental problems related to water's ability to dissolve so
many substances and the effects of dumping hot water containing
.dissolved pollutants into cooler river water

Mix some salt with water until it has a definite salty taste. Pour this
into a pot and bring to a boil. Catch some of the steam using a pan
lid. When it cools, taste the water collected on the pan lid. What
happened to the salt? Find out what distilled water is and how it is
prepared. Why is it best to use distilled water in a steam iron? If all
the water in the oceans evaporated, what would be left? Look in an
.encyclopedia and find out how the Bonneville salt flats were formed

Streams running through areas where there are few people will generally have a better quality of water than
streams running through populated areas. Can you tell why? What do you think happens to the quality of
?polluted water when it evaporates? How would evaporation act as a natural purifier of polluted water

Conductivity .5

Conductivity is the ability of a substance to carry an electric current. Water will conduct an electric current
only if dissolved ions are present because water molecules do not act as a conductor. Measuring
conductivity is a good way to determine the amount of dissolved solids in a sample of water and, thus, to
.determine its purity
EXPERIMENT #5

Construct an electric circuit using

a flashlight bulb, wire, and a 6-
volt dry cell battery. Wire the
circuit such that two ends of the
wire are submerged in a glass of
water, as shown in the diagram.
See if the bulb will light up when
there is only water in the
container. Start adding salt to
the water, always stirring. Watch
and see if the bulb starts to get brighter and brighter. Do you think
?that seawater would be a good conductor