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By,
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1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
CONTENTS
SR NO TOPIC PAGE
1 INTRODUCTION 5
2 V-n DIAGRAM 6
3 GUST LOADS 14
7 WING LOADING 32
10 MATERIAL SELECTION 47
12 FLIGHT CONTROLS 58
14 THREE-VIEW DIAGRAM 66
15 BIBLIOGRAPHY 68
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INTRODUCTION
Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-depth study and analysis of
aircraft performance and structural characteristics. In the following pages we
have carried out structural analysis of fuselage and wings and the appropriate
materials have been chosen to give our aircraft adequate structural integrity. The
flight envelope of our aircraft has also been established by constructing the V-n
diagram. We have also determined the landing gear position, retraction and
other accompanying systems and mechanisms.
The study of all the above mentioned characteristics, has given us insight into
the complexity of designing a subsonic multi-role 10 seater business jet.
4
V-n DIAGRAM FLIGHT ENVELOP
The V-n diagram is therefore defined as the plot showing the structural and
aerodynamic limitations of an aircraft at different velocities.
Load Factor
A load factor is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the gross
weight of the airplane. For example, a load factor of 3 means that the total loads
on an airplane’s structure is three times its gross weight. Load factors are usually
expressed in terms of “G”—that is, a load factor of 3 may be spoken of as 3 G’s,
or a load factor of 4 as 4 G’s.
5
person’s weight. Thus, an idea of the magnitude of the load factor obtained in
any maneuver can be determined by considering the degree to which one is
pressed down into the seat. Since the operating speed of modern airplanes has
increased significantly, this effect has become so pronounced that it is a primary
consideration in the design of the structure for all airplanes.
n=L/W
W = total weight
When L = W (steady level un-accelerated flight), n=1 and this is also termed as
‘1g load factor’.
6
Maneuvering V-n diagram
The general flight envelop which shows flight characteristics for various load
factors and velocities is called as the maneuvering V-n diagram. The
performance of an aircraft under normal flight attitudes and maneuvers is
obtained from this flight envelop.
7
The lines of maximum lift capability (curved lines) are the first items of
importance on the Vg diagram. The aircraft in the chart above is capable of
developing no more than +1 G at 62 mph, the wing level stall speed of the
aircraft. Since the maximum load factor varies with the square of the airspeed,
the maximum positive lift capability of this aircraft is 2 G at 92 mph, 3 G at 112
mph, 4.4 G at 137 mph, and so forth. Any load factor above this line is
unavailable aerodynamically (i.e., the aircraft cannot fly above the line of
maximum lift capability because it stalls). The same situation exists for negative
lift flight with the exception that the speed necessary to produce a given
negative load factor is higher than that to produce the same positive load
factor.
If the aircraft is flown at a positive load factor greater than the positive limit
load factor of 4.4, structural damage is possible. When the aircraft is operated in
8
this region, objectionable permanent deformation of the primary structure may
take place and a high rate of fatigue damage is incurred. Operation above the
limit load factor must be avoided in normal operation.
There are two other points of importance on the Vg diagram. One point is the
intersection of the positive limit load factor and the line of maximum positive
lift capability. The airspeed at this point is the minimum airspeed at which the
limit load can be developed aerodynamically. Any airspeed greater than this
provides a positive lift, which is sufficient to damage the aircraft. Conversely,
any airspeed less than this do not provide positive lift capability sufficient to
cause damage from excessive flight loads. The usual term given to this speed is
“maneuvering speed,” since consideration of subsonic aerodynamics would
predict minimum usable turn radius or maneuverability to occur at this
condition. The maneuver speed is a valuable reference point, since an aircraft
operating below this point cannot produce a damaging positive flight load. Any
combination of maneuver and gust cannot create damage due to excess air load
when the aircraft is below the maneuver speed.
The limit airspeed (or redline speed) is a design reference point for the aircraft
—this aircraft is limited to 225 mph. If flight is attempted beyond the limit
airspeed, structural damage or structural failure may result from a variety of
phenomena.
9
The aircraft in flight is limited to a regime of airspeeds and Gs which do not
exceed the limit (or redline) speed, do not exceed the limit load factor, and
cannot exceed the maximum lift capability. The aircraft must be operated within
this “envelope” to prevent structural damage and ensure the anticipated service
lift of the aircraft is obtained. The pilot must appreciate the Vg diagram as
describing the allowable combination of airspeeds and load factors for safe
operation. Any maneuver, gust, or gust plus maneuver outside the structural
envelope can cause structural damage and effectively shorten the service life of
the aircraft.
The general V-n diagram (for maneuvering load) is calculated using the
following velocities:
1. Cruise speed
2. Maneuver speed
3. Dive speed
4. Stall speed
Stall Speed
Stall speed is the slowest speed the aircraft can travel. If the speed of the aircraft
decreases below the stall speed the aircraft will not be able to sustain steady
flight and will stall.
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Stall speed is given by,
GW=20000kg=44092.45pounds
VS = 182.5 fps
VS = 55.63 m/s.
Maneuvering speed
Maneuvering speed is the highest speed at which full deflection of the controls
about any one axis are guaranteed not to overstress the airframe. At or below
this speed, the controls may be moved to their limits. Above this speed, moving
the controls to their limits may overstress the airframe and potentially cause a
structural failure. It is normally designated as VA .
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The positive limit load factor for our aircraft is n(+ve)=L/W(at CL max)
=L/W(at max CL)
=(0647123.4/196000) = 3.3
Therefore Va = 55.63*3.30.5
Va=101m/s
Cruise speed
Dive speed
Vd= 1.25*Vc
Vd= 1.25*200
Vd = 250m/s
Thus the V-n diagram plotted based on these values is as given below:
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Gust V-n Diagram
Gust loads are encountered anytime the aircraft encounters a rush of wind. Gust
loads are also encountered when the aircraft is flying in a thunderstorm or in
turbulence. These loads can be higher than maneuvering loads. Gust is very un
predictable and hence the gust V-n diagram must be given importance in order
to establish a safe flight envelop.
The change in the aircraft load factor due to gust is derived as follows:
Δα =tan-1(U/V)
ΔL=1/2ρV2S(CL,a Δα)
ΔL=1/2ρVSCL,a Δα
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Thus the change in load factor is Δn= ΔL/W= ρUVCL,a
2(W/S)
Where U is the upward component of velocity due to gust loads ;V is the
direction of relative wind, ρ is the density and CL,a is the changed lift coefficient
due to gust.
Gust reduces the acceleration of the aircraft by as much as 40%.To account for
this, a gust elevation factor K has been devised and applied to measure gust data.
The gust velocity Ugust is given as:
Ugust=K*U
Where c is the mean aerodynamic chord. The mass ratio accounts for the fact
that a small light plane encounters the gust more rapidly than a large plane. For
most years, the standard vertical gust has been U=35ft/sec or 10.668m/s. This
value is a suitable gust velocity has been used in the following calculations.
Therefore for a stall speed Vstall of 55.63m/s, the change in load factor is
calculated as
Δn= ρUVstallCL,a
2(W/S)
=(1.22*55.63*0.2*10.6)/((2*196000)/57.42)
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=0.0210
ngust=n+Δn
Therefore, for the stall speed of Vstall, the gust load factor is
ngust=1+0.0210=1.0210
=(1.22*101*0.2*10.6)/((2*196000)/57.42)
=0.038
ngust=3.3+0.038=3.338
=0.075
ngust=3.3+0.075=3.375
Δn =(1.22*250*0.2*10.6)/((2*196000)/57.42)
=0.094
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ngust=3.3+0.094=3.394
Similarly for the negative angles of attack, the negative lift coefficient is
considered which in turn gives the negative load factor i.e. -1.5 and the load
factor for gust is as follows:
Based on these values the V-n diagram for gust encounter is plotted as shown
below:
16
It is assumed that the aircraft is in 1-g load factor when the aircraft experiences
gust.
Notice the shift in the V-n diagram due to gust effects. The load factor between,
dive cruise maneuver is assumed to follow a straight line. The gust line for
stall ,cruise and maneuver can be observed clearly in the above graph.
Therefore joining the points B, C, D, E, D’, and F complete the gust V-n
diagram.
The maneuvering and the gust V-n diagram are combined to determine the most
critical load factor at each speed. Since the gust loads are greater than the limit
loads, the increased limit load at all velocities has been denoted by the dotted
line.
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One interesting point to note for gust V-n diagram is that the load factor due to
gust increases if the aircraft is lighter. This is counter to the natural assumption
that the an aircraft is more likely to have structural failure if it is heavily loaded.
In fact the change in lift due to gust is heavily unaffected by the weight, so that
the change in wing stress is same in either case. If the aircraft is lighter the same
lift increase will cause greater vertical acceleration and hence the rest of the
aircraft experiences greater stress.Aeroelastic effect also influences load factor
due to gust.
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WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
• To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam
Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc, to the main beam.
• To react against:
• To provide:
• A covering skin
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• Stringers
Spars:
20
Skin:
Stringers:
Ribs:
21
• Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure
loads
• Multi-Spar
In this design, all of the span wise bending loads are reacted against by
substantial booms or flanges. A two-boom configuration is usually adopted but a
single spar “D-nose” configuration is sometimes used on very lightly loaded
structures. The outer skins only react against the shear loads. They form a
closed-cell structure between the spars. These skins need to be stabilized against
buckling due to the applied shear loads; this is done using ribs and a small
number of span wise stiffeners.
22
Box Beam or Distributed Flange Layout:
This method is more suitable for aircraft wings with medium to high load
intensities and differs from the mass boom concept in that the upper and lower
skins also contribute to the span wise bending resistance.
• Interactions between the ribs and stringers so that each rib either has to
pass below the stringers or the load path must be broken. Some examples
of common design solutions are shown in figure
23
• Many joints are present, leading to high structural weight, assembly times,
complexity, costs & stress concentration areas.
Disadvantages include:
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Fig. Basic metal-sparred wing using a honeycomb 'D' box leading edge
Types of spars:
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should
be located as far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this
is subject to there being:
25
This generally results in the front spar being located at 12 to 18% of the
chord length. For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually be located
at the maximum thickness position of the aerofoil section. For the standard
box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as far as aft as possible, once
again to maximize the wing box size but positioning will be limited by
various space requirements for flaps control surfaces spoilers etc
Ribs:
For a typical two spar layout, the ribs are usually formed in three parts
from sheet metal by the use of presses and dies. Flanges are incorporated around
the edges so that they can be riveted to the skin and the spar webs Cut-outs are
necessary around the edges to allow for the stringers to pass through Lightening
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holes are usually cut into the rib bodies to reduce the rib weight and also allow
for passage of control runs fuel electrics etc.
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Rib Alignment Possibilities:
(a) Is a hybrid design in which one or more inner ribs are aligned
with the main axis while the remainder is aligned
perpendicularly to the rear spar
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FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
• Semi-monocoque layout
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carrying. Floors are needed where there are substantial cut-outs and the skin is
stabilized against buckling by the use of frames and bulkheads.
This is the most common layout, especially for transport types of aircraft, with a
relatively small number and size of cut-outs in use. The skin carries most of the
loading with the skin thickness determined by pressurization, shear loading &
fatigue considerations.
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Fig. Semi Monocoque fuselage layout
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WING LOADING
In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded weight of the aircraft divided by the
area of the wing. The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift is produced by each
unit area of wing, so a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight,
operating at a higher wing loading. Correspondingly, the landing and take-off
speeds will be higher. The high wing loading also decreases maneuverability.
From this we can see that if wing loading increases in a constant speed
maneuver then CL, the angle of attack muincrease. Conversely if CL is increased
during a constant maneuvre, the lift and consequently the wing loading must
increase.
Most general aviation aircraft have a designed wing loading between 500 and
1000 N/m2.Aircraft designed with higher wing loading are more maneuverable
but have higher minimum speed than aircraft with lower wing loading. Wing
loading is normally stated in pounds per square foot. In most airplane designs,
wing loading is determined by considerations of Vstall and landing distance.
However, W/S also plays a major role in maximum velocity
We have,
W/S = 2215.30kg/m2
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Let us examine the constraint imposed by the specified landing distance. The
landing distance is the sum of the approach distance Sa, the flare distance Sf,
and the ground roll Sg. The approach angle θa requires knowledge of L/D and
T/W. Since we have not made estimates of either quality yet we assume, based
on the thumb rule, i.e. θ<=3°, for small passenger aircraft we take θa=3o.
R = 2377.16m
Sa = 892.99m
Sf = Rsinθa =2377.16×sin3°
Sf = 216.65m
In the equation of Sg let us assume that the lift has been intentionally made
small by retracting the flaps combined with a small angle of attack due to the
rather level orientation of the airplane relative to the ground. Furthermore,
assuming no provision for thrust reversal and ignoring the drag compared to the
friction force between the tires and the ground we have,
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As stated above j=1.15 for commercial airplanes. Also, N is the time increment
for free roll immediately after touchdown, before the brakes are applied. By
assuming N=3s and µ=0.4 we get,
Sg = 1.15*3(2×W/S)/(1.225×1.17))0.5 +(1.152(W/S))/(9.81×1.225×1.17*0.4)
Sg = 4.075(W/S)0.5 + 0.235(W/S)
Sg = 2100-892.99-124.4
Sg = 1082.61
Therefore we have
W/S=357kg/m2
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FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS
The fuselage has a circular cross-section as shown in the above figure. The
cross-sectional area of each stringer is 100mm2 and the vertical distances given
in the figure are measured from the mid-line of the section wall at the
corresponding stringer position.
The section is first idealized. As an approximation we shall assume that the skin
between adjacent stringers is flat so that we may use the following equations to
determine the boom areas.
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tD b σ2 t Db σ1
B1 = 2 + , B2 = 2 +
6 σ1 6 σ2
Substituting,
1× 353.43 σ 2 1 × 353.43 σ 16
B1 = 100 + 2+ + 2 +
6 σ1 6 σ1
1× 353.43 900
i.e., B1 = 100 + 2 + × 2
6 831.5
B1 = 534.72mm 2
Stinger/ Boom y σ
1 900 51.93
5,13 0 0
9 -900 -51.93
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For this section Ixy=0 and My=0
We know,
Mxy
σs =
I xx
Where,
⇒ I xx = 3.466× 10 9 mm 4
Solving the above equation, we obtain the direct stress distribution on the
fuselage which is shown in the above table.
We know,
Γ = 2π ( −V0 + 2V∞ )
= 2π ( −261.02 + 2 × 222.22)
Γ = 1152.46
L = 54.754kN
Net Lift onthe fuselage = 54.754 ×1.5 = 82.131kN
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The shear flow is given by the expression:
−S y n
qs =
I xx
∑B y
r =1
r r + q s,0
n
qs = −2.3696 × 10 −5 ∑ B r y r
r =1
To determine the shear flow for the closed section we assume that the panel 12
is cut. Now the shear flow for the open section is determined by the following
formulae;
ds
∫ qb p
S xη 0 − S y ξ0 = Ñ
t
+2 Aqs ,0
M b = 2 × A p × (q12 + q 23 + q 34 + .......) + 2× A T× q s ,0
Where,
AT=Total area
Solving the above equation we get the shear flow for the open section;
qs ,0 = 3.947 N mm
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The following tabular column contains the shear flow values over the fuselage.
40
MANEUVERING LOADS ON AIRCRAFT
CONTROL SURFACES
Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structures, and weights. Load
estimation remains a critical area because an error or faulty assumption will
make the aircraft too heavy or will result in structural failure when real loads are
encountered in flight.
Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according to the following load
categories:
Air loads
• Manoeuvre
• Gust
• Control deflection
• Component interaction
• Buffet
Landing
• Spin up
• Spring back
• Crabbed
• One wheel
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• Arrested
• Braking
Inertia loads
• Acceleration
• Rotation
• Dynamic
• Vibration
• Flutter
• Thrust
• Torque
• Gyroscope
• Vibration
• Duct pressure
• Catapult
• Aborted
Taxi
• Bumps
• Turning
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Other loads
• Towing
• Jacking
• Pressurization
• Bird strike
• Crash
Limit load
Design load
Load sources
1. Maneuverability cases
2. Environmental cases
Maneuverability cases
In this the loads which act on the aircraft is due to the pilot’s action.
Environmental cases
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In this the loads are imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it
operates.
Load factors
Any force applied to an airplane to deflect its flight from a straight line
produces a stress on the structure; the amount of this force is termed as load
factor.
A load factor is the ratio of the total air load acting on the airplane to the
gross weight of the airplane.
n=L / W
For e.g., a load factor of 3 means that the total load on an airplane’s structure is
three times the gross weight.
Maneuver loads
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The greatest air loads on an airplane usually come from the generation of
lift during high-g maneuvers. Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering
of an aircraft as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity.
Operation of the control surfaces produces air loads in several ways. The
greatest impact is in the effect of the elevator on angle of attack and hence the
load factor.
Deflection of control surfaces produces additional loads directly upon the wing.
Maneuver speed or pull up speed (Vp), is the maximum speed at which the pilot
can fully deflect the controls without damaging either the airframe or the control
themselves.
For design purposes, the elevator load is assumed to equal 40% of the total
required tail load but in the opposite direction. The distributed load shown on
the stabilizer must then be equal 140% of the tail load. The smoothest pull up
possible, with a moderate load factor, will deliver the greatest gain in the
altitude and will result in better overall performance.
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design maneuvering airspeed, with a gradual pull up as soon as the airspeed is
safely above stalling, can be affected with load factor not to exceed 2 or 2.5.
In the level turning flight, the lift of the wing is canted so that
the horizontal component of the lift exerts the centripetal force required to turn
the total lift on the wing is ‘n’ times the aircraft weight W.
n - Load factor
=68.76 o /second.
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of the aircraft. The rudder deflection, necessary to achieve these yawing
moments and the resulting sideslip angles place significant aerodynamic loads
on the rudder and on the vertical stabilizer.
With the aircraft in un-accelerated and stabilized straight flight, the rudder is
suddenly displaced to the maximum available deflection at the current airspeed.
MATERIAL SELECTION
The aircraft being designed features the lighter-weight construction. Its materials
(by weight) are: 50% composite, 20% aluminum, 15% titanium, 10% steel, 5%
of other materials. Composite materials are significantly lighter and stronger
than traditional aircraft materials, making our aircraft lighter for its capabilities.
The aircraft will be 80% composite by volume. It contains approximately 35
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tons of carbon fiber reinforced plastic, made with 23 tons of carbon fiber.
Composites are used on fuselage, wings, tail, doors, and interior. Aluminum is
used on wing and tail leading edges, titanium used mainly on engines with steel
used in various places.
COMPOSITES
Composites are the most important materials to be adapted for aviation since the
use of aluminum in the 1920s. Composites are materials that are combinations
of two or more organic or inorganic components. One material serves as a
"matrix," which is the material that holds everything together, while the other
material serves as reinforcement, in the form of fibers embedded in the matrix.
Until recently, the most common matrix materials were "thermosetting"
materials such as epoxy, bismaleimide, or polyimide. The reinforcing materials
can be glass fiber, boron fiber, carbon fiber, or other more exotic mixtures.
Our aircraft uses all-composite fuselage and the remaining control surfaces uses
50% composite (mostly carbon fiber reinforced plastic).This makes our aircraft
lighter compared to other aircraft in this range. Each fuselage barrel will be
manufactured in one piece, and the barrel sections joined end to end to form the
fuselage. This will eliminate the need for about 50,000 fasteners used in
conventional airplane building. The composite is also stronger, allowing a
higher cabin pressure during flight compared to aluminum. It was also added
that carbon fiber, unlike metal, does not visibly show cracks and fatigue. They
have also stated that special defect detection procedures will be put in place to
detect any potential hidden damage. Another concern arises from the risk of
lightning strikes. The aircrafts fuselage composite could have as much as 1,000
times the electrical resistance of aluminum, increasing the risk of damage during
lightning strike.
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METALS
Titanium: This aircraft will be using of a new advanced alloy from titanium
which is new in the aircraft industry. The new grade, designated 5553 (Ti-5Al-
5V-5Mo-3Cr), supersedes another high-strength alloy, 1023 (Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al).
Typically, titanium has been used in engine applications for rotors, compressor
blades, hydraulic system components and nacelles.
FUEL TANKS
Aircraft typically use three types of fuel tanks: integral, rigid removable, and
bladder.
• Integral tanks are areas inside the aircraft structure that have been sealed
to allow fuel storage. Since these tanks are part of the aircraft structure,
they cannot be removed for service or inspection. Inspection panels must
be provided to allow internal inspection, repair, and overall servicing of
the tank. Most large transport aircraft use this system, storing fuel in the
wings and/or tail of the airplane.
• Rigid removable tanks are installed in a compartment designed to
accommodate the tank. They are typically of metal construction, and may
50
be removed for inspection, replacement, or repair. The aircraft does not
rely on the tank for structural integrity.
• Bladder tanks are reinforced rubberized bags installed in a section of
aircraft structure designed to accommodate the weight of the fuel. The
bladder is rolled up and installed into the compartment through the fuel
filler neck or access panel, and is secured by means of metal buttons or
snaps inside the compartment. Many high-performance light aircraft and
some smaller turboprops use bladder tanks.
Pertaining to the initial design carried out to the aircraft, all commercial aircrafts
follow the integral type tank for safety and easier access of fuel to the engine.
51
The span-wise location of ribs is of some consequence.
Ideally, the rib spacing should be determined to ensure adequate overall
buckling support to the distributed flanges. This requirement may be
considered to give a maximum pitch of the ribs. In practice other
considerations are likely to determine the actual rib locations such as:
52
Ribs placed at right angles to the rear spar are usually he most
satisfactory in facilitating hinge pick-ups, but they do cause layout problems
in the root regions. There is always the possibility of special exceptions, such
as power plant or store mounting ribs, where it may be preferable to locate
them in the flight direction.
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Installations also affect the trailing edge structure where
much depends upon the type of flaps, flap gear, controls and systems. It is
always aerodynamically advantageous to keep the upper surfaces as complete
and smooth as is possible. Often spoilers can be incorporated in the region
above flaps or hinged doors provided for ease of access.
HORIZONTAL STABILISER
VERTICAL STABILISER
Conventional tail
In conventional tail the vertical stabilizer is exactly vertical.
54
The vertical stabilizer is mounted exactly vertically, and the horizontal
stabilizer is directly mounted to the empennage (the rear fuselage). This is the
most common vertical stabilizer configuration.
T-tail
A T-tail has the horizontal stabilizer mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizer.
It is commonly seen on rear-engine aircraft
The vertical stabilizer presents a set of issues which are different from those
of the main plane or horizontal stabilizer. Relevant matters are:
It is not unusual to build the vertical stabilizer integrally with the rear fuselage.
The spars are extended to form fuselage frames or bulkheads. A ‘root’ rib is
made to coincide with the upper surface of the fuselage and is used to transmit
the fin root skin shears directly into the fuselage skin. Fin span-wise bending
results in fuselage torsion. Sometimes on smaller aircraft the fin is designed as a
separate component which may readily be detached. The fin attachment lugs are
arranged in both lateral and fore and aft directions so that in addition to vertical
loads they react side and drag loads.
There is a special situation when the horizontal stabilizer is attached
at some location across the height of the fin. The horizontal stabilizer
transmits substantial loads to the fin, usually of the same order of magnitude
as the loads on the fin itself. A particular hg loading results from the reaction
of horizontal stabilizer asymmetrical lift case, which always adds to fin
lateral air-loads
AUXILIARY SURFACES
Some designs incorporate the pivot into the moving surface with the
support bearings on the fuselage, while on others the pivot is attached to the
fuselage and the bearings are in the surface. The bearings should be as far apart
56
as the local geometry allows to minimize loads resulting from the reaction of the
surface bending moment.
The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs and
there is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually
accepted and the wing centre box is built completely into the fuselage.
57
allowed to take place and there are no induced stresses. Structural assembly of
the wing to the fuselage is relatively simple.
Fins are usually built integrally with the rear fuselage. This is mainly
due to the different form of loading associated with the geometric asymmetry.
FLIGHT CONTROLS
Aircraft flight control surfaces allow a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's
flight attitude.
58
Main control surfaces
The main control surfaces of an aircraft are attached to the airframe on hinges
or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them.
This redirection of the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the
plane about in the required direction.
Rudder
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the fin, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left.
Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder
right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the
rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw.
59
Ailerons
Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips, and
move in opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the
wheel counter-clockwise, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes
down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift,
so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to rise.
This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering
the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft
will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero
to fly straight.
Elevator
60
Slats perform the same function as flaps (that is, they temporarily alter the shape
of the wing to increase lift), but they are attached to the front of the wing instead
of the rear. They are also deployed on takeoff and landing.
Spoilers
Spoilers are plates on the top surface of a wing which can be extended upward
into the airflow and disturb the linear airflow. By doing so, the spoiler creates a
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carefully controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly reducing
the lift of that wing section.
Due to the high landing speeds of our aircraft, we have fitted spoilers on to our
aircraft. Thrust reversers are not practically viable due to their high weight and
space requirements. Thus spoilers are used to slow down the aircraft while
landing. A spoiler is a device intended to reduce lift in an aircraft.
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Flaps
Flaps are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing on the inboard section of
each wing (near the wing roots). They are deflected down to increase the
effective curvature of the wing. Flaps raise the Maximum Lift Coefficient of the
aircraft and therefore reduce its stalling speed. They are used during low speed,
high angle of attack flight including take-off and descent for landing. Some
aircraft are equipped with "flapperons", which are more commonly called
"inboard ailerons. These devices function primarily as ailerons, but on some
aircraft, will "droop" when the flaps are deployed, thus acting as both a flap and
a roll-control inboard aileron.
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Fig. nose landing gear
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Fig. Main landing gear
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Positioning of under carriage
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Differential braking
Tiller steering
A tiller in an aircraft is a small wheel or lever, sometimes accessible to one pilot
and sometimes duplicated for both pilots, that controls the steering of the aircraft
while it is on the ground. The tiller may be designed to work in combination
with other controls such as the rudder or yoke. In large airliners, for example,
the tiller is often used as the sole means of steering during taxi, and then the
rudder is used to steer during take-off and landing, so that both aerodynamic
control surfaces and the landing gear can be controlled simultaneously when the
aircraft is moving at aerodynamic rates of speed. Tiller steering is incorporated
in our aircraft for easy taxiing.
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3 VIEW DIAGRAMS OF THE AIRCRAFT
TOP VIEW
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SIDE VIEW
FRONT VIEW
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
WEB REFERENCES:
www.aerospaceweb.org
www.continentalaerospacestechnology.org
www.wikipedia.org
www.airliners.net
www.aiee.com
www.bombardier.com
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