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John Dalton's 1808 sulfuric acid molecule shows a central sulfur atom bonded to three oxygen atoms.

The study of vitriol in ancient times. Sumerians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to
substance's color. Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol are in the works of
the greek physician Dioscorides (first century AD) and the roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD).
Galen also discussed its medical use. Metallurgical uses for vitriolic substances were recorded in the
hellenistic alchemical works of Zosimos of Panopolis, in the treatise Phisica et Mystica, and the "Leyden
Papyrus x".[8]

Iranian alchemists like Geber, Rhazes, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Watwat, who included vitriol in their
mineral classification lists. Avicenna focused on its medical uses. Several indian alchemical works also
mention the different varieties of vitriol.[8]

Sulfuric acid was discovered by medieval European alchemists. They called it "oil of vitriol". There are
mentions to it in the works of Vincent of Beauvais and in the Compositum de Compositis ascribed to
Albertus Magnus. A passage from Pseudo-Geber´s Summa Perfectionis was long considered to be the first
recipe for sulphuric acid, but this was a misinterpretation.[8]

In the 17th century, the German-Dutch chemist Johann Glauber prepared sulfuric acid by burning sulfur
together with saltpeter (potassium nitrate, KNO3), in the presence of steam. As saltpeter decomposes, it
oxidizes the sulfur to SO3, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid. In 1736, Joshua Ward, a
London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid.

In 1746 in Birmingham, John Roebuck adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in lead-lined chambers,
which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the previously used glass containers.
This lead chamber process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production. After several
refinements, this method remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries.
Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process only approached a 35±40% concentration.[citation needed]
Later refinements to the lead-chamber process by French chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and British
chemist John Glover improved the yield to 78%.[citation needed] However, the manufacture of some dyes and
other chemical processes require a more concentrated product.[citation needed] Throughout the 18th century,
this could only be made by dry distilling minerals in a technique similar to the original alchemical
processes. Pyrite (iron disulfide, FeS2) was heated in air to yield iron (II) sulfate, FeSO4, which was
oxidized by further heating in air to form iron(III) sulfate, Fe2(SO4)3, which, when heated to 480 °C,
decomposed to iron(III) oxide and sulfur trioxide, which could be passed through water to yield sulfuric
acid in any concentration. However, the expense of this process prevented the large-scale use of
concentrated sulfuric acid.

In 1831, British vinegar merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the contact process, which was a far more
economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid. Today, nearly all of the
world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.


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The hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic. One should always add the acid to the water
rather than the water to the acid. Because the reaction is in an equilibrium that favors the rapid protonation
of water, addition of acid to the water ensures that the acid is the limiting reagent. This reaction is best
thought of as the formation of hydronium ions:

c c
ccccc c
cc
c cc ccc c ccccc

c cc ccc c
cc ccc
ccc c cccccc

Because the hydration of sulfuric acid is thermodynamically favorable, sulfuric acid is an excellent
dehydrating agent, and is used to prepare many dried fruits. The affinity of sulfuric acid for water is
sufficiently strong that it will remove hydrogen and oxygen atoms from other compounds; for example,
mixing starch (C6H12O6)n and concentrated sulfuric acid will give elemental carbon and water which is
absorbed by the sulfuric acid (which becomes slightly diluted):

-#"#~c.c#~c-c/c#~cc

The effect of this can be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper; the cellulose reacts to
give a burnt appearance, the carbon appears much as soot would in a fire. A more dramatic reaction occurs
when sulfuric acid is added to a tablespoon of white sugar in a beaker; a rigid column of black, porous
carbon will quickly emerge. The carbon will smell strongly of caramel. Although less dramatic, the action
of the acid on cotton, even in diluted form, will destroy the fabric. Clothes like jeans and labcoats that
accidentally come in contact with the acid will look perfect until they are received, in a barely recognizable
state, from laundry.[citation needed]

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As an acid, sulfuric acid reacts with most bases to give the corresponding sulfate. For example, the blue
copper salt copper(II) sulfate, commonly used for electroplating and as a fungicide, is prepared by the
reaction of copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid:

-c c/cc 0c.c-c 0c/cc

c

Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with sodium acetate, for
example, displaces acetic acid, CH3COOH, and forms sodium bisulfate:

c/c-1-2c.c2c/c-1-c

Similarly, reacting sulfuric acid with potassium nitrate can be used to produce nitric acid and a precipitate
of potassium bisulfate. When combined with nitric acid, sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a
dehydrating agent, forming the nitronium ion NO+2, which is important in nitration reactions involving
electrophilic aromatic substitution. This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an oxygen atom, is
important in many organic chemistry reactions, such as Fischer esterification and dehydration of alcohols.

Sulfuric acid reacts with most metals via a single displacement reaction to produce hydrogen gas and the
metal sulfate. Dilute H2SO4 attacks iron, aluminium, zinc, manganese, magnesium and nickel, but reactions
with tin and copper require the acid to be hot and concentrated. Lead and tungsten, however, are resistant
to sulfuric acid. The reaction with iron shown below is typical for most of these metals, but the reaction
with tin produces sulfur dioxide rather than hydrogen.

3c c/cc 0c.cc c/c3c 0c

c c/ccc 0c.cc 0c/ccc

c/cc c

These reactions may be taken as typical: the hot concentrated acid generally acts as an oxidizing agent
whereas the dilute acid acts a typical acid. Hence hot concentrated acid reacts with tin, zinc and copper to
produce the salt, water and sulfur dioxide, whereas the dilute acid reacts with metals high in the reactivity
series (such as Zn) to produce a salt and hydrogen. This is explained more fully in 'A New Certificate
Chemistry' by Holderness and Lambert.

Sulfuric acid undergoes electrophilic aromatic substitution with aromatic compounds to give the
corresponding sulfonic acids:[6]

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Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid can be made, this loses SO3 at the boiling point to produce 98.3% acid.
The 98% grade is more stable in storage, and is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated
sulfuric acid." Other concentrations are used for different purposes. Some common concentrations are:

D

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d c c c
10% 1.07 ~1 dilute sulfuric acid
battery acid
29-32% 1.25±1.28 4.2±5
(used in lead±acid batteries)
chamber acid
62±70% 1.52±1.60 9.6±11.5
fertilizer acid
tower acid
78±80% 1.70±1.73 13.5±14
Glover acid
95±98% 1.83 ~18 concentrated sulfuric acid

"Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the lead
chamber process, chamber acid being the acid produced in lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid
contamination with nitrosylsulfuric acid) and tower acid being the acid recovered from the bottom of the
Glover tower.[3][4] They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may
be prepared in the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed. In particular, "10M" sulfuric acid
(the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in many titrations) is prepared by slowly adding 98%
sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the mixture can rise to
80 °C (176 °F) or higher.[4]
When high concentrations of SO3 gas are added to sulfuric acid, H2S2O7, called pyrosulfuric acid, fuming
sulfuric acid or oleum or, less commonly, Nordhausen acid, is formed. Concentrations of oleum are either
expressed in terms of % SO3 (called % oleum) or as % H2SO4 (the amount made if H2O were added);
common concentrations are 40% oleum (109% H2SO4) and 65% oleum (114.6% H2SO4). Pure H2S2O7 is a
solid with melting point 36°C.

Pure sulfuric acid is a viscous clear liquid, like oil, and this explains the old name of the acid ('oil of
vitriol').

Commercial sulfuric acid is sold in several different purity grades. Technical grade H2SO4 is impure and
often colored, but is suitable for making fertilizer. Pure grades such as United States Pharmacopoeia (USP)
grade are used for making pharmaceuticals and dyestuffs. Analytical grades are also available.


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Anhydrous H2SO4 is a very polar liquid, having a dielectric constant of around 100. It has a high electrical
conductivity, caused by dissociation through protonating itself, a process known as autoprotolysis.[5]

cc 1/c/c4c

The equilibrium constant for the autoprotolysis is[5]

5 $6-7c81/9849c7c:;"!4c

The comparable equilibrium constant for water, Kw is 10í14, a factor of 1010 (10 billion) smaller.

In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective conductivities of the H3SO+4 and HSOí4 ions are high due
to an intra-molecular proton-switch mechanism (analogous to the Grotthuss mechanism in water), making
sulfuric acid a good conductor. It is also an excellent solvent for many reactions.

The equilibrium is actually more complex than shown above; 100% H2SO4 contains the following species
at equilibrium (figures shown as millimoles per kilogram of solvent): HSOí4 (15.0), H3SO+4 (11.3), H3O+
(8.0), HS2Oí7 (4.4), H2S2O7 (3.6), H2O (0.1).[5]

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Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and indeed, a nation's sulfuric acid production is a
good indicator of its industrial strength.[7] The major use (60% of total production worldwide) for sulfuric
acid is in the "wet method" for the production of phosphoric acid, used for manufacture of phosphate
fertilizers as well as trisodium phosphate for detergents. In this method, phosphate rock is used, and more
than 100 million tonnes are processed annually. This raw material is shown below as fluorapatite, though
the exact composition may vary. This is treated with 93% sulfuric acid to produce calcium sulfate,
hydrogen fluoride (HF) and phosphoric acid. The HF is removed as hydrofluoric acid. The overall process
can be represented as:

-$3 *1c/c$cc/c"!cc.c$c-<cc/c3c/c1c1*c

Sulfuric acid is used in large quantities by the iron and steelmaking industry to remove oxidation, rust and
scale from rolled sheet and billets prior to sale to the automobile and white goods (appliances) industry.
Used acid is often recycled using a Spent Acid Regeneration (SAR) plant. These plants combust spent acid
with natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oil or other fuel sources. This combustion process produces gaseous
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) which are then used to manufacture "new" sulfuric acid.
SAR plants are common additions to metal smelting plants, oil refineries, and other industries where
sulfuric acid is consumed in bulk, as operating a SAR plant is much cheaper than the recurring costs of
spent acid disposal and new acid purchases.

Ammonium sulfate, an important nitrogen fertilizer, is most commonly produced as a byproduct from
coking plants supplying the iron and steel making plants. Reacting the ammonia produced in the thermal
decomposition of coal with waste sulfuric acid allows the ammonia to be crystallized out as a salt (often
brown because of iron contamination) and sold into the agro-chemicals industry.

Another important use for sulfuric acid is for the manufacture of aluminum sulfate, also known as paper
maker's alum. This can react with small amounts of soap on paper pulp fibers to give gelatinous aluminum
carboxylates, which help to coagulate the pulp fibers into a hard paper surface. It is also used for making
aluminum hydroxide, which is used at water treatment plants to filter out impurities, as well as to improve
the taste of the water. Aluminum sulfate is made by reacting bauxite with sulfuric acid:

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Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry. For example, it is the usual
acid catalyst for the conversion of cyclohexanone oxime to caprolactam, used for making nylon. It is used
for making hydrochloric acid from salt via the Mannheim process. Much H2SO4 is used in petroleum
refining, for example as a catalyst for the reaction of isobutane with isobutylene to give isooctane, a
compound that raises the octane rating of gasoline (petrol). Sulfuric acid is also important in the
manufacture of dyestuffs solutions and is the "acid" in lead-acid (car) batteries.

Sulfuric acid is also used as a general dehydrating agent in its concentrated form. See Reaction with water.
 < 

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The sulfur-iodine cycle is a series of thermo-chemical processes used to obtain hydrogen. It consists of
three chemical reactions whose net reactant is water and whose net products are hydrogen and oxygen.

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c/cc/ccc.ccc/cccccc "!c6-c

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The sulfur and iodine compounds are recovered and reused, hence the consideration of the process as a
cycle. This process is endothermic and must occur at high temperatures, so energy in the form of heat has
to be supplied.

The sulfur-iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for a hydrogen-based economy. It
does not require hydrocarbons like current methods of steam reforming.

The sulfur-iodine cycle is currently being researched as a feasible method of obtaining hydrogen, but the
concentrated, corrosive acid at high temperatures poses currently insurmountable safety hazards if the
process were built on a large scale.

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Another method is the less well-known metabisulfite method, in which metabisulfite in placed at the
bottom of a beaker, and 12.6 molar concentration hydrochloric acid is added. The resulting gas is bubbled
through nitric acid, which will release brown/red vapors. The completion of the reaction is indicated by the
ceasing of the fumes. This method does not produce an inseparable mist, which is quite convenient.

Sulfuric acid can be produced in the laboratory by burning sulfur in air and dissolving the gas produced in
a hydrogen peroxide solution.

c/cc.cc

Another method is to react hydrochloric acid with copper II sulfate:

c-
c/c-c.cc/c--
8Æ

~~9c

Prior to 1900, most sulfuric acid was manufactured by the chamber process.[2] As late as 1940, up to 50%
of sulfuric acid manufactured in the United States was produced by chamber process plants.

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Although sulfuric acid is non-flammable, contact with metals in the event of a spillage can lead to the
liberation of hydrogen gas. The dispersal of acid aerosols and gaseous sulfur dioxide is an additional
hazard of fires involving sulfuric acid.

Sulfuric acid is not considered toxic besides its obvious corrosive hazard, and the main occupational risks
are skin contact leading to burns (see above) and the inhalation of aerosols. Exposure to aerosols at high
concentrations leads to immediate and severe irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract and mucous
membranes: this ceases rapidly after exposure, although there is a risk of subsequent pulmonary edema if
tissue damage has been more severe. At lower concentrations, the most commonly reported symptom of
chronic exposure to sulfuric acid aerosols is erosion of the teeth, found in virtually all studies: indications
of possible chronic damage to the respiratory tract are inconclusive as of 1997. In the United States, the
permissible exposure limit (PEL) for sulfuric acid is fixed at 1 mg/m³: limits in other countries are similar.
Interestingly there have been reports of sulfuric acid ingestion leading to vitamin B12 deficiency with
subacute combined degeneration. The spinal cord is most often affected in such cases, but the optic nerves
may show demyelination, loss of axons and gliosis.


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International commerce of sulfuric acid is controlled under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit
Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988, which lists sulfuric acid under Table II of the
convention as a chemical frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs or psychotropic
substances.[9]

In the US sulfuric acid is included in List II of the list of essential or precursor chemicals established
pursuant to the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act. Accordingly, transactions of sulfuric acid²such
as sales, transfers, exports from and imports to the United States²are subject to regulation and monitoring
by the Drug Enforcement Administration.[10][11][12]

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Ñ  is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. It is a colourless gas with a
characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial
organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a
building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic
and hazardous. In 2006, worldwide production was estimated at 146.5 million tonnes.[4] It is used in
commercial cleaning products.

Ammonia, as used commercially, is often called anhydrous ammonia. This term emphasizes the absence of
water in the material. Because NH3 boils at í33.34 °C, (-28.012 °F) the liquid must be stored under high
pressure or at low temperature. Its heat of vapourization is, however, sufficiently high so that NH3 can be
readily handled in ordinary beakers, in a fume hood (i.e., if it is already a liquid it will not boil readily).
"Household ammonia" or "ammonium hydroxide" is a solution of NH3 in water. The strength of such
solutions is measured in units of baume (density), with 26 degrees baume (about 30 weight percent
ammonia at 15.5 °C) being the typical high concentration commercial product.[5] Household ammonia
ranges in concentration from 5 to 10 weight percent ammonia


cc
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The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape with a bond angle of 107.8° as shown above, as
predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR). The central nitrogen atom has five
outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons,
or four electron pairs which are arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs,
which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel more strongly than bond pairs,
therefore the bond angle is not 109.5° as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but is measured at
107.8°. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, which makes ammonia a base, a proton
acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar. The molecule's polarity and,
especially, its ability to form hydrogen bonds, makes ammonia highly miscible with water. Ammonia is
moderately basic, a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution
until the solution is neutral (pH = 7), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and
salinity also affect the proportion of NH4+. The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is
isoelectronic with methane. It is known to have the highest specific heat capacity of any substance.

d
c
The Romans called the ammonium chloride deposits they collected from near the Temple of Jupiter Amun
(Greek ȝȝȦȞ Ñmmon) in ancient Libya 'sal ammoniacus' (salt of Amun) because of proximity to the
nearby temple.[7] Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term Hammoniacus
sal appears in the writings of Pliny, although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more
modern sal-ammoniac.[8]

In the form of sal-ammoniac (nushadir), ammonia was important to the Muslim alchemists as early as the
8th century, first mentioned by the Islamic chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān,[9] and to the European alchemists
since the 13th century, being mentioned by Albertus Magnus. It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages
in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the 15th century, Basilius Valentinus
showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when
sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hooves and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting
carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the name "spirit of hartshorn" was applied to ammonia.[10]
Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Priestley in 1774 and was termed by him alkaline air.[11]
Eleven years later in 1785, Claude Louis Berthollet ascertained its composition.

The Haber-Bosch process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air was developed by Fritz Haber
and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during
World War I,[4] following the allied blockade that cut off the supply of nitrates from Chile. The ammonia
was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort.[12]

Prior to the advent of cheap natural gas, hydrogen as a precursor to ammonia production was produced via
the electrolysis of water or using the chloralkali process. The Vemork 60 MW hydroelectric plant in
Norway, constructed in 1911, was used purely for plants using the Birkeland-Eyde process




c

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density being
0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules; the
liquid boils at í33.3 °C, and solidifies at í77.7 °C to white crystals. The crystal symmetry is cubic,
Pearson symbol cP16, space group P213 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125 nm.[17] Liquid ammonia possesses
strong ionising powers reflecting its high İ of 22. Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy
change of vapourization (23.35 kJ/mol, cf. water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine
14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels without additional
refrigeration.

It is miscible with water. Ammonia in an aqueous solution can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous
solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a
density of 0.880 g/cm3 and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'. Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain
combustion, except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15±25% air. When mixed with oxygen, it burns
with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia
is decomposed into its constituent elements. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia,
forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride; if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen
trichloride (NCl3) is also formed.

The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful analogy is an
umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and
the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm.
The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed.[18]

Ammonia may be conveniently deodorized by reacting it with either sodium bicarbonate or acetic acid.
Both of these reactions form an odourless ammonium salt.
•c

One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. It combines with acids to form salts;
thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium
nitrate, etc. However, perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride:
moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction.[19]

21c/c-
c.c2-
c

The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the
ammonium ion (NH4+). Anhydrous ammonia is often used for the production of methamphetamine. Dilute
aqueous ammonia can be applied on the skin to lessen the effects of acidic animal poisons, such as from
insects and jellyfish.

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Although ammonia is well known as a strong base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It is a protic
substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH2í ion). For example, lithium and
ammonia react to give a solution of lithium amide:

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c/cc21c.cc?
2c/cc

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 c

Like water, ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates:

c21c
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At standard pressure and temperature, [NH+4][NHí2] = 10í30 M2.

c

The combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic:

c21c/c1cc.cc2c/c#cc Úc @ Ac7cB"#:!cCDE
c

The standard enthalpy change of combustion, ǻHºc, expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation
of the water formed, is ±382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion: all
nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to nitrogen and oxygen, which is the principle behind the catalytic
converter. However, nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate
catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid:

c21c/c$cc.cc2c/c#cc

A subsequent reaction leads to water and N2O

The combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze), as
the temperature of the flame is usually lower than the ignition temperature of the ammonia-air mixture. The
flammable range of ammonia in air is 16±25%.[20]

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In organic chemistry, ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions. Amines can be formed by
the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides, although the resulting ±NH2 group is also nucleophilic and
secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. An excess of ammonia helps minimise
multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. Methylamine is prepared commercially
by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane, and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid
has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70% yield. Ethanolamine is prepared by a ring-opening
reaction with ethylene oxide: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine
and triethanolamine.

Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of carboxylic acid derivatives. Acyl
chlorides are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise
the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium
salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups
present: temperatures of 150±200 °C are required.

The hydrogen in ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium burns in the gas with the
formation of magnesium nitride Mg3N2, and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium,
sodamide, NaNH2, and potassamide, KNH2, are formed. Where necessary in substitutive nomenclature,
IUPAC recommendations prefer the name 
to ammonia: hence chloramine would be named
chloroazane in substitutive nomenclature, not chloroammonia.

Pentavalent ammonia is known as Ȝ5-amine, or more commonly, ammonium hydride. This crystalline solid
is only stable under high pressure, and decomposes back into trivalent ammonia and hydrogen gas at
normal conditions. This substance is was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966.[21]

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Ammonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure ı-donor, in the middle of the
spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard-soft behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is
named  
in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include:

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Ammine complexes of chromium(III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of Alfred
Werner's theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (fac- and mer-) of the
complex [CrCl3(NH3)3] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal
ion at the vertices of an octahedron. This proposal has since been confirmed by X-ray crystallography.

An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule, although
deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the Calomel reaction, where the resulting
amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble.

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Approximately 83% (as of 2004) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts or as solutions.
Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, the production of ammonia is a significant component
of the world energy budget.[4]




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cc

Ammonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds. Virtually all
synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia. An important derivative is nitric acid. This key
material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at
700±850 °C, ~9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this conversion:[33]

21c/ccc.c21c/cc

Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and many organonitrogen compounds.




c

Household ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a general purpose
cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most
common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens
and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime. Household ammonia ranges in concentration from 5 to 10
weight percent ammonia.


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Because of its favourable vaporization properties, ammonia is an attractive refrigerant.[4] It was commonly
used prior to the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in
industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost.
The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to geothermal power plants, depends on the wide boiling
range of the ammonia-water mixture. Ammonia is used less frequently in commercial applications, such as
in grocery store freezer cases and refrigerated displays due to its toxicity.

    
  

Ammonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, and the resulting product is converted to
ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralizes the nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollutants emitted
by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic reduction), relies on a vanadia-based
catalyst.[34]

 
 
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Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines.[35] The
calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb) which is about half that of diesel. In a normal
engine, in which the water vapour is not condensed, the calorific value of ammonia will be about 21% less
than this figure. It can be used in existing engines with only minor modifications to carburettors/injectors.

To meet these demands, significant capital would be required to increase present production levels.
Although the second most produced chemical, the scale of ammonia production is a small fraction of world
petroleum usage. It could be manufactured from renewable energy sources, as well as coal or nuclear
power. It is however significantly less efficient than batteries. The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark,
Norway produced ammonia via electrolysis of water for many years from 1913 producing fertilizer for
much of Europe. If produced from coal, the CO2 can be readily sequestered [35][36] (the combustion products
are nitrogen and water). In 1981 a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using
ammonia as fuel.[37][38]

Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed and
occasionally used [39]. The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with ammonia as the
working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th
century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and in streetcars in New Orleans in the USA.

  

 

As early as in 1895 it was known that ammonia was "strongly antiseptic .. it requires 1.4 grams per litre to
preserve beef tea."[40] Anhydrous ammonia has been shown effective as an antimicrobial agent for animal
feed[41] and is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef.[42][43][44]
The New York Times reported in October, 2009 on an American company, Beef Products Inc., which turns
fatty beef trimmings, averaging between 50 and 70 percent fat, into seven million pounds per week of lean
finely textured beef by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation, then disinfecting the lean product
with ammonia; the process was rated by the US Department of Agriculture as effective and safe on the
basis of a study (financed by Beef Products) which found that the treatment reduces E. coli to undetectable
levels.[45] Further investigation by £he New York £imes published in December, 2009 revealed safety
concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of beef treated at
optimal levels of ammonia.[46]

    

Ammonia has found significant use in various sports ± particularly the strength sports of powerlifting and
Olympic weightlifting as a respiratory stimulant.[citation needed]

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Liquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, give a properties like mercerisation using
alkalies. In particular, it is used for pre-washing of wool.[47]
 
 

At standard temperature and pressure ammonia is lighter than air, and has approximately 60% of the lifting
power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill weather balloons as a lifting gas.
Because of its relatively high boiling point (compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially
be refrigerated and liquefied aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add
lift and reduce ballast).



Ammonia was historically used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and Mission style
furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change colours.[48]

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Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionising solvent. Its most
conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting
solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in
liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the
physical properties of NH3 with those of water shows that NH3 has the lower melting point, boiling point,
density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity; this is due at least in part to the weaker H
bonding in NH3 and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH3 molecule
has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H2O molecule. The ionic self-dissociation
constant of liquid NH3 at í50 °C is about 10í33 mol2·Lí2.

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Liquid ammonia is an ionising solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic
compounds including many nitrates, nitrites, cyanides and thiocyanates. Most ammonium salts are soluble,
and these salts act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from
fluoride to iodide. A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia,
and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C (77 °F).

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Liquid ammonia will dissolve the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as calcium, strontium,
barium, europium and ytterbium. At low concentrations (<0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed:
these contain metal cations and solvated electrons, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of
ammonia molecules.

These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are
metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can
coexist as immiscible phases.

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The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for
oxidation to dinitrogen, ð (N2 + 6NH4+ + 6eí 8 8NH3), is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to
dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the
solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal
amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions:
although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if
transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.




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Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly produced inorganic chemicals. Dozens of
chemical plants worldwide produce ammonia. The worldwide ammonia production in 2004 was
109 million metric tonnes.[13] The People's Republic of China produced 28.4% of the worldwide production
(increasingly from coal as part of urea synthesis)[14] followed by India with 8.6%, Russia with 8.4%, and
the United States with 8.2%.[13] About 80% or more of the ammonia produced is used for fertilizing
agricultural crops.[13]

Before the start of World War I, most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation[15] of nitrogenous
vegetable and animal waste products, including camel dung, where it was distilled by the reduction of
nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen; in addition, it was produced by the distillation of coal, and also by
the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides[16] such as quicklime, the salt most generally
used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac) thus:

c2-
c/cc-c.c--
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Today, the typical modern ammonia-producing plant first converts natural gas (i.e., methane) or liquefied
petroleum gas (such gases are propane and butane) or petroleum naphtha into gaseous hydrogen. The
process used in producing the hydrogen begins with removal of sulfur compounds from the natural gas
(because sulfur deactivates the catalysts used in subsequent steps). Catalytic hydrogenation converts
organosulfur compounds into gaseous hydrogen sulfide:

c/cNc.cNc/cc c

The hydrogen sulfide is then removed by passing the gas through beds of zinc oxide where it is adsorbed
and converted to solid zinc sulfide:

c/cKc.cKc/cc

Catalytic steam reforming of the sulfur-free feedstock is then used to form hydrogen plus carbon monoxide:

-c/cc.c-c/c1cc

In the next step, the water gas shift reaction is used to convert the carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and
more hydrogen:

-c/cc.c-c/cc

The carbon dioxide is then removed either by absorption in aqueous ethanolamine solutions or by
adsorption in pressure swing adsorbers (PSA) using proprietary solid adsorption media.

The final step in producing the hydrogen is to use catalytic methanation to remove any small residual
amounts of carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide from the hydrogen:

-c/c1cc.c-c/cc

-c/ccc.c-c/ccc

To produce the desired end-product ammonia, the hydrogen is then catalytically reacted with nitrogen
(derived from process air) to form anhydrous liquid ammonia. This step is known as the ammonia synthesis
loop (also referred to as the Haber-Bosch process):

1cc/c2c.cc21c

Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis could also be produced economically using other sources like
coal or coke gasification, less economically from the electrolysis of water into oxygen + hydrogen and
other alternatives which are presently impractical for large scale. At one time, most of Europe's ammonia
was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork, via the electrolysis route. Various renewable energy
electricity sources are also potentially applicable.

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In certain organisms, ammonia is produced from atmospheric nitrogen by enzymes called nitrogenases.
The overall process is called nitrogen fixation. Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods will be
developed that are competitive with the Haber process, intense effort has been directed toward
understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is
motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe7 MoS9 ensemble.

Ammonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination. Ammonia excretion is common in
aquatic animals. In humans, it is quickly converted to urea, which is much less toxic. This urea is a major
component of the dry weight of urine. Most reptiles, birds, as well as insects and snails solely excrete uric
acid as nitrogenous waste.

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Ammonia is an important source of nitrogen for living systems. Although atmospheric nitrogen abounds,
few living creatures are capable of using this nitrogen. Nitrogen is required for the synthesis of amino acids,
which are the building blocks of protein. Some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes
incorporated into the soil by decaying matter. Others, such as nitrogen-fixing legumes, benefit from
symbiotic relationships with rhizobia which create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen.[50]

Ammonia also plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology. Ammonia is biosynthesised
through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations.[51] The liver converts ammonia
to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle. Liver dysfunction, such as that seen in
cirrhosis, may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia). Likewise, defects in
the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle, such as ornithine transcarbamylase, lead to hyperammonemia.
Hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy as well as the
neurologic disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias.[52]

Ammonia is important for normal animal acid/base balance. After formation of ammonium from glutamine,
Į-ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two molecules of bicarbonate, which are then available as
buffers for dietary acids. Ammonium is excreted in the urine, resulting in net acid loss. Ammonia may
itself diffuse across the renal tubules, combine with a hydrogen ion, and thus allow for further acid
excretion

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An  is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete
solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases
that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually
have different properties from those of the component elements.

Alloys' constituents are usually measured by mass.

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The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and
iron. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was.[4]
Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many
cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils.
Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.[5]

Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was
used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold and
platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was
the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to
the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore, and, around 2500
B.C, began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which is much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare,
however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc
to form brass.[6] Ancient civilizations made use of the information contained in modern alloy constitution
diagrams, taking into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness,
toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening.[7]

The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 B.C. Called the bloomery process, it
produced very soft but ductile wrought iron and, by 800 B.C., the technology had spread to Europe. Pig
iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 B.C.,
but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. These metals found little practical use until the
introduction of crucible steel around 300 B.C. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of
pattern welding, around the first century A.D., sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by
laminating them, to create a tougher metal.[8]

Mercury had been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as
gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams, (an alloy in a soft, paste, or liquid form at ambient temperature).
Amalgams have been used since 200 B.C. in China for plating objects with precious metals, called gilding,
such as armor and mirrors. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor.
The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver,
or tin behind.[9] Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their
ores.[10]

Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae,
gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Silver
was often found alloyed with gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical
purposes. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive
buyers.[11] Around 250 B.C., Archimedes was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity
of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of
Archimedes principle.[12]

×    ×  < 

   

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Did you know that metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass
of the planet? They are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires, aluminum foil, and
gold jewelry. Metals are widely used because of their favorable properties such as strength, ductility, high
melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness. These properties also offer clues as to
the structure of metals. As with all elements, metals are composed of atoms. The strength of metals
suggests that these atoms are held together by strong bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to
move;otherwise how could metals be hammered into sheets or drawn into wires?

A reasonable model would be one in which atoms are held together by strong, but delocalized, bonds.
Such bonds could be formed between metal atoms that have low electronegativities and do not attract
their valence electrons strongly. This would allow the outermost electrons to be shared by all the
surrounding atoms, resulting in positive ions (cations) surrounded by a sea of electrons, or an
electroncloud.
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Because these valence electrons are shared by all the atoms, they are not considered to be associated
with any one atom. This is very different from ionic or covalent bonds, where electrons are held by one or
two atoms. The metallic bond is therefore strong and uniform. Above their melting point, metals are
liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged and relatively free to move. However, when cooled below
their melting point, metals rearrange to form ordered, crystalline structures.


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Metals are described as 

 
 (can be beaten into sheets) and

 (can be pulled out into wires).
This is because of the ability of the atoms to roll over each other into new positions without breaking the
metallic bond.

If a small stress is put onto the metal, the layers of atoms will start to roll over each other. If the stress is
released again, they will fall back to their original positions. Under these circumstances, the metal is said
to be 


If a larger stress is put on, the atoms roll over each other into a new position, and the metal is permanently
changed.

   

This rolling of layers of atoms over each other is hindered by grain boundaries because the rows of atoms
don't line up properly. It follows that the more grain boundaries there are (the smaller the individual crystal
grains), the harder the metal becomes.
 Offsetting this, because the grain boundaries are areas where the atoms aren't in such good contact with
each other, metals tend to fracture at grain boundaries. Increasing the number of grain boundaries not only
makes the metal harder, but also makes it more brittle.



  
 

If you have a pure piece of metal, you can control the size of the grains by    or by 



Heating a metal tends to shake the atoms into a more regular arrangement - decreasing the number of grain
boundaries, and so making the metal softer. Banging the metal around when it is cold tends to produce lots
of small grains. Cold working therefore makes a metal harder. To restore its workability, you would need
to reheat it.

You can also break up the regular arrangement of the atoms by inserting atoms of a slightly different size
into the structure. 

 such as brass (a mixture of copper and zinc) are harder than the original metals
because the irregularity in the structure helps to stop rows of atoms from slipping over each other.



    

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There are many different bronze alloys but bronze is typically 88% copper and 12% tin . [ 6 ] Ñ c

consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4±5% tin are used to make
coins , springs , turbines and blades .
 
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Zinc) are actually brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient. They are
commonly used in architectural applications. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]

Bismuth bronze is a bronze alloy with a composition of 52 parts copper, 30 parts nickel, 12 parts zinc, 5
parts lead, and 1 part bismuth. It is able to hold a good polish and so is sometimes used in light reflectors
and mirrors. [ 9 ]

Other bronze alloys include aluminum bronze , phosphor bronze , manganese bronze, bell metal ,
speculum metal and cymbal alloys .




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Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and
chemical properties . Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, the
excellent deep drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the
resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by sea water of several bronze alloys.

The melting point of Bronze varies depending on the actual ratio of the alloy components and is about
950 °C.




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Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless
steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion. Bronze is still commonly
used in ship propellers and submerged bearings.

In the twentieth century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with
wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminum is also used for
the structural metal aluminum bronze.
It is also widely used for cast bronze sculpture. Many common bronze alloys have the unusual and very
desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a mold.
Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs.

Spring bronze weatherstripping comes in rolls of thin sheets and is nailed or stapled to wood windows and
doors. There are two types, flat and v-strip. It has been used for hundreds of years because it has low
friction, seals well and is long lasting. It is used in building restoration and custom construction.

Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal friction, which made it invaluable for the building of cannon
where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.[citation needed] It is still widely used today for
springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly
common in the bearings of small electric motors. Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade
bearings and springs. It is also used in guitar and piano strings.

Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium
copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive
atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors.

Brass
Composition
•

is any alloy of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of
brasses with varying properties.[1] In comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin.[2] Despite
this distinction some types of brasses are called bronzes and vice-versa.[3] Brass is a substitutional alloy. It
is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where low friction is required
such as locks, gears, bearings, doorknobs, ammunition, and valves; for plumbing and electrical applications;
and extensively in musical instruments such as horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is also used in
zippers. Because it is softer than most other metals in general use, brass is often used in situations where it
is important that sparks not be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive gases.[4]




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The malleability and acoustic properties of brass have made it the metal of choice for brass musical
instruments such as the trombone, tuba, trumpet, cornet, euphonium, tenor horn, and the French horn. Even
though the saxophone is classified as a woodwind instrument and the harmonica is a free reed aerophone,
both are also often made from brass. In organ pipes of the reed family, brass strips (called tongues) are
used as the reeds, which beat against the shallot (or beat "through" the shallot in the case of a "free" reed).

Brass has higher malleability than copper or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900 to 940°C,
depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By
varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and
soft brasses. The density of brass is approximately 8400 to 8730 kilograms per cubic metre[11] (equivalent
to 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre).

Today almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled.[12] Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be
separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. Brass scrap is collected and
transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the
desired form and size.

Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial
hard layer of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent and self healing.
Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in sea water applications (naval brasses). Combinations
of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant.

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The so called dezincification resistant (DZR) brasses are used where there is a large
corrosion risk and where normal brasses do not meet the standards. Applications with high water
temperatures, chlorides present or deviating water qualities (soft water) play a role. DZR-brass is excellent
in water boiler systems. This brass alloy must be produced with great care, with special attention placed on
a balanced composition and proper production temperatures and parameters to avoid long-term failures.

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The copper in brass makes brass germicidal, via the oligodynamic effect. For
example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of many bacteria within eight hours.[20] This effect is
important in hospitals, and useful in many contexts.

•

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Brass hardware is generally lacquered when new, which prevents tarnishing of the
metal. Freshly polished brass is similar to gold in appearance, but becomes more reddish within days of
exposure to the elements. A traditional polish is Brasso.


 Brass was used to make fan blades, fan cages and motor bearings in many antique fans that date
before the 1930s. Brass can also be used for fixings for use in cryogenic systems.[21] Brass has also been
used to make lower end Paiste cymbals.

Stainless steel
Composition
In metallurgy
 


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, also known as !c


 or ! from French "inoxydable", is defined as a
steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5[1] or 11% chromium content by mass.[2] Stainless steel does not stain,
corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel, but it is not stain-proof.[3] It is also called 
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 or  when the alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. There
are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will
be subjected in its lifetime. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and resistance to
corrosion are required.

Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when
exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming
more iron oxide. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide,
which prevents further surface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal
structure.




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High oxidation-resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with additions of a minimum
of 13% (by weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[9] The chromium forms a
passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be
visible, and the metal remains lustrous. The layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal
beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called
passivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. Corrosion-resistance can be
adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being
underwater keel bolts buried in timber.

When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off,
causing the parts to weld together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an
effect known as galling. This destructive galling can be best avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for
the parts forced together, e.g. bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels
(martensitic against austenitic, etc.), when metal-to-metal wear is a concern. Nitronic alloys (trademark of
Armco, Inc.) reduce the tendency to gall through selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen. Threaded
joints may also be lubricated to prevent galling.

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Stainless steel¶s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relatively low cost, and familiar
luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of
stainless steel, of which fifteen are most commonly used. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars,
wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances,
industrial equipment e.g. in sugar refineries, and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and
construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other
food are often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance and antibacterial properties. This also
influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned, sterilized,
and does not need painting or application of other surface finishes.

Stainless steel is used for jewellery and watches. 316L is the stainless steel commonly used for such
purpose. It can be re-finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black.

Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some
handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely
from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating; but, unlike
plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off due to rubbing (as when repeatedly removed
from a holster over the course of time), or rust when scratched.

Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.

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A 
 is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units typically connected
by covalent chemical bonds. While polymer in popular usage suggests plastic, the term actually refers to a
large class of natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties.

Because of the extraordinary range of properties of polymeric materials,[2] they play an essential and
ubiquitous role in everyday life[3], ranging from familiar synthetic plastics and elastomers to natural
biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are essential for life. A simple example is polyethylene, whose
repeating unit is based on ethylene (IUPAC name ethene) monomer. Most commonly, as in this example,
the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of
carbon atoms. However, other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar
materials such as silicones, examples being silly putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. The backbone of
DNA is in fact based on a phosphodiester bond, and repeating units of polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose) are
joined together by glycosidic bonds via oxygen atoms.

Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber have been used for centuries.
Biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids play crucial roles in biological processes. A variety of other
natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper.

The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite, neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.

Polymers are studied in the fields of polymer chemistry, polymer physics, and polymer science.

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Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did pioneering work in derivative cellulose compounds, perhaps the
earliest important work in polymer science. The development of vulcanization later in the nineteenth
century improved the durability of the natural polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-
synthetic polymer. In 1907, Leo Baekeland created the first completely synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by
reacting phenol and formaldehyde at precisely controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite was then
publicly introduced in 1909.

Despite significant advances in synthesis and characterization of polymers, a correct understanding of

polymer molecular structure did not emerge until the 1920s. Before then, scientists believed that polymers
were clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite molecular weights, held together by an
unknown force, a concept known as association theory. In 1922, Hermann Staudinger proposed that
polymers consisted of long chains of atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea which did not gain
wide acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger was ultimately awarded the Nobel Prize.
Work by Wallace Carothers in the 1920s also demonstrated that polymers could be synthesized rationally
from their constituent monomers. An important contribution to synthetic polymer science was made by the
Italian chemist Giulio Natta and the German chemist Karl Ziegler, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
in 1963 for the development of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst. Further recognition of the importance of
polymers came with the award of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1974 to Paul Flory, whose extensive
work on polymers included the kinetics of step-growth polymerization and of addition polymerization,
chain transfer, excluded volume, the Flory-Huggins solution theory, and the Flory convention.

Synthetic polymer materials such as nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, and silicone have formed the basis for a
burgeoning polymer industry. These years have also shown significant developments in rational polymer
synthesis. Most commercially important polymers today are entirely synthetic and produced in high
volume on appropriately scaled organic synthetic techniques. Synthetic polymers today find application in
nearly every industry and area of life. Polymers are widely used as adhesives and lubricants, as well as
structural components for products ranging from children's toys to aircraft. They have been employed in a
variety of biomedical applications ranging from implantable devices to controlled drug delivery. Polymers
such as poly(methyl methacrylate) find application as photoresist materials used in semiconductor
manufacturing and low-k dielectrics for use in high-performance microprocessors. Recently, polymers
have also been employed as flexible substrates in the development of organic light-emitting diodes for
electronic display.


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Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which the property is
defined as well as upon its physical basis[7]. The most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its
constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describe the
arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural
properties play a major role in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how
the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale,
describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the
bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents.





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The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of
monomer residues along the backbone of the chain[8]. These are the elements of polymer structure that
require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on the other
properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even
though their molecules comprise the same monomers.

   

• 

 

 c
An important microstructural feature determining polymer properties is the polymer architecture.[9] The
simplest polymer architecture is a linear chain: a single backbone with no branches. A related unbranching
architecture is a ring polymer. A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain with one or
more substituent side chains or branches. Special types of branched polymers include star polymers, comb
polymers, brush polymers, dendronized polymers, ladders, and dendrimers[9].

Branching of polymer chains affects the ability of chains to slide past one another by altering
intermolecular forces, in turn affecting bulk physical polymer properties. Long chain branches may
increase polymer strength, toughness, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) due to an increase in the
number of entanglements per chain. The effect of such long-chain branches on the size of the polymer in
solution is characterized by the branching index. Random length and atactic short chains, on the other hand,
may reduce polymer strength due to disruption of organization and may likewise reduce the crystallinity of
the polymer.

A good example of this effect is related to the range of physical attributes of polyethylene. High-density
polyethylene (HDPE) has a very low degree of branching, is quite stiff, and is used in applications such as
milk jugs. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), on the other hand, has significant numbers of both long and
short branches, is quite flexible, and is used in applications such as plastic films.

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Dendrimers are a special case of polymer where every monomer unit is branched. This tends to reduce
intermolecular chain entanglement and crystallization. Alternatively, dendritic polymers are not perfectly
branched but share similar properties to dendrimers due to their high degree of branching.

The architecture of the polymer is often physically determined by the

   of the monomers from
which it is formed[10]. This property of a monomer is defined as the number of reaction sites at which may
form chemical covalent bonds. The basic functionality required for forming even a linear chain is two
bonding sites. Higher functionality yields branched or even crosslinked or networked polymer chains.

An effect related to branching is chemical crosslinking - the formation of covalent bonds between chains.
Crosslinking tends to increase Tg and increase strength and toughness. Among other applications, this
process is used to strengthen rubbers in a process known as vulcanization, which is based on crosslinking
by sulfur. Car tires, for example, are highly crosslinked in order to reduce the leaking of air out of the tire
and to toughen their durability. Eraser rubber, on the other hand, is not crosslinked to allow flaking of the
rubber and prevent damage to the paper.

A cross-link suggests a branch point from which four or more distinct chains emanate. A polymer molecule
with a high degree of crosslinking is referred to as a polymer network.[11] Sufficiently high crosslink
concentrations may lead to the formation of an infinite network, also known as a gel, in which networks of
chains are of unlimited extent²essentially all chains have linked into one molecule.[12]\\


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Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently
bonded chain. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer.
This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester. The monomers are terephthalic acid
(HOOC-C6H4-COOH) and ethylene glycol (HO-CH2-CH2-OH) but the repeating unit is -OC-C6H4-COO-
CH2-CH2-O-, which corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two water
molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat
unit or monomer residue.



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Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and
chain-growth polymerization[4]. The essential difference between the two is that in chain growth
polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a time only[5], whereas in step-growth
polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly[6]. However, some newer
methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization
reactions may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers, especially of
proteins, is an area of intensive research.

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There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides. In living
cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by
DNA polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to transcribe
genetic information from the DNA to RNA and subsequently translate that information to synthesize the
specified protein from amino acids. The protein may be modified further following translation in order to
provide appropriate structure and functioning.

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Many commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring
polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of nitric acid and cellulose to form nitrocellulose and
the formation of vulcanized rubber by heating natural rubber in the presence of sulfur.


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(), also known as  

, is a thermoplastic polymer, made by the chemical
industry and used in a wide variety of applications, including packaging, textiles (e.g. ropes, thermal
underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and reusable containers of various types, laboratory
equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer banknotes. An addition polymer made
from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many chemical solvents, bases and
acids.

In 2007, the global market for polypropylene had a volume of 45.1 million tons, which led to a turnover of
about 65 billion US-dollars (47.4 billion Euro).[1]

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Since polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges, such as those on flip-top bottles, are
made from this material. However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are oriented across the
hinge to maximize strength.

Very thin sheets of polypropylene are used as a dielectric within certain high-performance pulse and low-
loss RF capacitors.

High-purity piping systems are built using polypropylene. Stronger, more rigid piping systems, intended
for use in potable plumbing, hydronic heating and cooling, and reclaimed water applications, are also
manufactured using polypropylene.[10] This material is often chosen for its resistance to corrosion and
chemical leaching, its resilience against most forms of physical damage, including impact and freezing, its
environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined by heat fusion rather than gluing.[11][12][13]

Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from polypropylene because it can withstand
the heat in an autoclave. Its heat resistance also enables it to be used as the manufacturing material of
consumer-grade kettles. Food containers made from it will not melt in the dishwasher, and do not melt
during industrial hot filling processes. For this reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are
polypropylene sealed with aluminum foil (both heat-resistant materials). After the product has cooled, the
tubs are often given lids made of a less heat-resistant material, such as LDPE or polystyrene. Such
containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference in modulus, since the rubbery (softer, more
flexible) feeling of LDPE with respect to polypropylene of the same thickness is readily apparent. Rugged,
translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a wide variety of shapes and sizes for consumers from
various companies such as Rubbermaid and Sterilite are commonly made of polypropylene, although the
lids are often made of somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap on to the container to close it.
Polypropylene can also be made into disposable bottles to contain liquid, powdered, or similar consumer
products, although HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate are commonly also used to make bottles. Plastic
pails, car batteries, wastebaskets, cooler containers, dishes and pitchers are often made of polypropylene or
HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar appearance, feel, and properties at ambient
temperature.

A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These BOPP
sheets are used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When polypropylene is biaxially
oriented, it becomes crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging material for artistic and retail
products.

Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used at
home.[14]

Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in water.[15] For
equal mass and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester rope. Polypropylene
costs less than most other synthetic fibers.
Polypropylene is also used as an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as insulation for electrical cables
for LSZH cable in low-ventilation environments, primarily tunnels. This is because it emits less smoke and
no toxic halogens, which may lead to production of acid in high-temperature conditions.

Polypropylene is also used in particular roofing membranes as the waterproofing top layer of single-ply
systems as opposed to modified-bit systems.

Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected into a mold while molten,
forming complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume; examples include bottle tops, bottles, and
fittings.

Recently[when?], it has been produced in sheet form, which has been widely used for the production of
stationery folders, packaging, and storage boxes. The wide color range, durability, and resistance to dirt
make it ideal as a protective cover for papers and other materials. It is used in Rubik's cube stickers because
of these characteristics.

The availability of sheet polypropylene has provided an opportunity for the use of the material by designers.
The light-weight, durable, and colorful plastic makes an ideal medium for the creation of light shades, and
a number of designs have been developed using interlocking sections to create elaborate designs.

Polypropylene sheets are a popular choice for trading card collectors; these come with pockets (nine for
standard-size cards) for the cards to be inserted and are used to protect their condition and are meant to be
stored in a binder.

Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is a foam form of polypropylene. EPP has very good impact characteristics
due to its low stiffness; this allows EPP to resume its shape after impacts. EPP is extensively used in model
aircraft and other radio controlled vehicles by hobbyists. This is mainly due to its ability to absorb impacts,
making this an ideal material for RC aircraft for beginners and amateurs.

Polypropylene is used in the manufacture of loudspeaker drive units. Its use was pioneered by engineers at
the BBC and the patent rights subsequently purchased by Mission Electronics for use in their Mission
Freedom Loudspeaker and Mission 737 Renaissance loudspeaker.

Polypropylene fibres are used as a concrete additive to increase strength and reduce cracking and
spalling.[16]

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Polypropylene is a major polymer used in nonwovens, with over 50% used[citation needed] for diapers or
sanitary products where it is treated to absorb water (hydrophilic) rather than naturally repelling water
(hydrophobic). Other interesting non-woven uses include filters for air, gas, and liquids in which the fibers
can be formed into sheets or webs that can be pleated to form cartridges or layers that filter in various
efficiencies in the 0.5 to 30 micrometre range. Such applications could be seen in the house as water filters
or air-conditioning-type filters. The high surface area and naturally oleophilic polypropylene nonwovens
are ideal absorbers of oil spills with the familiar floating barriers near oil spills on rivers.
In New Zealand, in the US military, and elsewhere, polypropylene, or 'polypro' (New Zealand 'polyprops'),
has been used for the fabrication of cold-weather base layers, such as long-sleeve shirts or long underwear
(More recently, polyester has replaced polypropylene in these applications in the U.S. military, such as in
the ECWCS [17]). Polypropylene is also used in warm-weather gear such as some Under Armour clothing,
which can easily transport sweat away from the skin. Although polypropylene clothes are not easily
flammable, they can melt, which may result in severe burns if the service member is involved in an
explosion or fire of any kind.[18]. Polypropylene undergarments are known for retaining body odors which
are then difficult to remove. The current generation of polyester does not have this disadvantage.[19]

The material has recently been introduced into the fashion industry through the work of designers such as
Anoush Waddington, who have developed specialized techniques to create jewelry and wearable items
from polypropylene.

·
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Its most common medical use is in the synthetic, nonabsorbable suture Prolene, manufactured by Ethicon
Inc.

Polypropylene has been used in hernia and pelvic organ prolapse repair operations to protect the body from
new hernias in the same location. A small patch of the material is placed over the spot of the hernia, below
the skin, and is painless and is rarely, if ever, rejected by the body. However, a polypropylene mesh will
erode over the uncertain period from days to years. Therefore, the FDA has issued several warnings on the
use of polypropylene mesh medical kits for certain applications in pelvic organ prolapse, specifically when
introduced in close proximity to the vaginal wall due to a continued increase in number of mesh erosions
reported by patients over the past few years.[20]

·
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Since 2001, expanded polypropylene (EPP) foams are gaining in popularity and in application as a
structural material in hobbyist radio control model aircraft. Unlike expanded polystyrene foam (EPS)
which is friable and breaks easily on impact, EPP foam is able to absorb kinetic impacts very well without
breaking, retains its original shape, and exhibits memory form characteristics which allow it to return to its
original shape in a short amount of time. In consequence, a radio-control model whose wings and fuselage
are constructed from EPP foam is extremely resilient, and able to absorb impacts that would result in
complete destruction of models made from lighter traditional materials, such as balsa or even EPS foams.
EPP models, when covered with inexpensive fibreglass impregnated self adhesive tapes, and decorated
with coloured self adhesive tapes, often exhibit much increased mechanical strength, in conjunction with a
lightness and surface finish that rival those of models of the aforementioned types. EPP is also chemically
highly inert, permitting the use of a wide variety of different adhesives. EPP can be heat molded, and
surfaces can be easily finished with the use of cutting tools and abrasive papers. The principle areas of
model making in which EPP has found great acceptance are the fields of:

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combat (the active process of friendly competitors attempting to knock each other's planes out of the air by
direct contact) and slope pylon racing have become commonplace, in direct consequence of the strength
characteristics of the material EPP.

Nylon
X is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers known generically as polyamides, first
produced on February 28, 1935 by Wallace Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont
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Nylon is a thermoplastic silky material, first used commercially in a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938),
followed more famously by women's stockings ("nylons"; 1940). It is made of repeating units linked by
peptide bonds (or amide bonds) and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first
commercially successful synthetic polymer. There are two common methods of making nylon for fiber
applications. In one approach, molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with
molecules containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the basis of the
number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two amines. These are formed into
monomers of intermediate molecular weight, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains.

Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products
after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes
and flak vests, and was used in many types of vehicle tires.

Nylon fibres are used in many applications, including fabrics, bridal veils, carpets, musical strings, and
rope.

Solid nylon is used for mechanical parts such as machine screws, gears and other low- to medium-stress
components previously cast in metal. Engineering-grade nylon is processed by extrusion, casting, and
injection molding. Solid nylon is used in hair combs. Type 6,6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial
grade of nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of molded nylon. Nylon is available in
glass-filled variants which increase structural and impact strength and rigidity, and molybdenum sulfide-
filled variants which increase lubricity.

Aramids are another type of polyamide with quite different chain structures which include aromatic groups
in the main chain. Such polymers make excellent ballistic fibres.
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Bill Pittendreigh, DuPont, and other individuals and corporations worked diligently during the first few
months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp with nylon in parachutes. It was also
used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of
a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all
fibers used and manufactured, and wool fibers accounted for the remaining 20%. By August 1945,
manufactured fibers had taken a market share of 25% and cotton had dropped.

Some of the terpolymers based upon nylon are used every day in packaging. Nylon has been used for meat
wrappings and sausage sheaths.

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