Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1007/s12221-010-0877-z
Abstract: The ever-increasing importance of vegetable natural fibers on the global scale, the comparatively low production
of this group of fibers, and the growing fiber imports by the Iranian textile industry have required numerous studies in recent
years to be carried out on long natural cellulosic fibers extracted from Typha australis plant leaf. In this study, such tensile
properties of the fiber under study as tenacity, modulus, elongation and work of rupture, X-ray and FTIR are investigated by
alkali retting at 100 oC for 2 and 4 h. It is found that Leafiran is lignocellulosic with a tenacity approximately 25-40 cN. Tex-
1, a linear density of about 4 tex, and a crystallinity of about 60 %, which are all considered to be suitable properties
compared to those of other natural cellulosic fibers.
Keywords: Leafiran, Natural fibers, Typha australis, FTIR, Tensile properties
877
878 Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.6 S. M. Mortazavi and M. Kamali Moghaddam
using ASTM (D 1577-96) test methods by weighing a Table 2. Fiber composition of leafiran and other natural cellulosic
predefined length of the fibers [12]. fibers [15,16]
Fiber Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin NCWM
Fiber Composition Leafiran 56.5 11.5 26.3 5.7
The fiber composition was determined using Van Soest Jute 72 13 13 2
methods that give the percentages of substances present in
the fiber obtained through extraction [13]. Kenaf 65.7 13.2 21.6 0
Coir 43 <1 45 4
Determination of Crystallinity Sisal 73 13 11 2
The degree of crystallinity of Leafiran fibers was determined Nettle 47.63 18.9 8.15 25.32
using the X-ray diffractometry technique (Philips PW 1877) NCWM: Non- cellulosic wall materials.
and compared with those of cotton, jute, hemp, corn fibers,
etc.
gummy materials such as pectin, lignin, hemicellulose, wax,
IR Measurement and fat materials. The hydrolysis of pectin by sodium
The FTIR spectroscopy was applied to determine the hydroxide takes place at high temperatures with the
functional groups and chemical structure of Leafiran fibers formation of sodium pectate [10]. The interesting point is
[Bomem-MB 100 series, Canada]. that when the impurities are removed uniformly, fibers of
uniform fineness are also produced. Fibers extracted at
Moisture Regain 100 oC for 4 h were observed to be smooth (with a low
Moisture regain of Leafiran fibers were determined coefficient of variation (CV %)).
according to ASTM D 2654-89a [14]. The samples were
dried in an oven at 105 oC for 4 h and then allowed to absorb Fiber Composition
water under standard testing conditions (21 oC and 65 % Naturally, leafiran fibers are lignocellulosic in nature and
relative humidity) for 24 h. the moisture regain was comprising cellulose, pectin, lignin, hemicellulose and etc.
calculated as the ratio of the amount of water absorbed to the The main substances of extracted leafiran fibers and some
dry weight of the sample. cellulosic fibers have shown in Table 2.
It is clear that Leafiran fibers have lower cellulose than
Morphological Structure that of jute, kenaf and ramie, but higher than that of coir and
The morphological structure of the fibers was studied nettle. The lignin content of leafiran fibers are about 26 % of
using the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the cross its total mass, which is as same as kenaf and much higher
section of the fiber was determined using electron microscopy. than that of other natural fibers.
Results and Discussion Tensile Properties
Tensile properties of fibers extracted at 100 oC for 2 and
Fiber Extraction 4 h were determined by an INSTRON tensile tester, the
Fineness in textiles is one of the most important characteristics results of which are listed in Tables 3 and 4. Fiber extraction
that affect application and quality of the final products. Table 1 with EDTA and STPP as chelators at 100 oC for 2 and 4 h
shows the linear density of the fiber extracted at 100 oC for 2 yielded interesting results. The results show that the tenacity
and 4 h. As shown in the previous study [9], Leafiran fibers and fineness of fibers increased with sodium hydroxide
contained a gummy material (mostly pectin) which held the concentration due to the removal of impurities and the
fibers in bundles with different fiber numbers and sizes. arrangement of the cellulosic chain. However, higher
Fiber extraction at high temperature and for longer times concentrations of sodium hydroxide reduced fiber tenacity
resulted in fine fibers due to removal of more impurities and as a result of destruction of cellulosic structure and greater
Table 1.Fineness of fibers extracted at 100 oC
Concentration (w/v) 2h 4h
NaOH EDTA STPP Fineness (tex) CV% Fineness (tex) CV%
A 0.5 0.1 - 7.3 21.3 3.92 13.5
B 1.5 0.1 - 5.47 16.9 3.46 11.2
C 3 0.1 - 5.07 19.8 4.61 9.7
D 4.5 - 3 6.27 12.5 4.38 16.8
E 6 - 3 4.6 23.1 5.84 6.8
Leafiran Properties as a Natural Cellulosic Fiber Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.6 879
Bath Fineness CV% Modulus CV% Tenacity CV% Elongation CV% Work of rupture CV%
chemical (tex) (cN/tex) (cN/tex) (%) (N·mm/tex)
A 7.31 21.3 1469.85 36.4 24.12±5.42 22.94 1.39 35.3 0.042 34.7
B 5.47 16.9 1087.11 22.98 24.61±6.04 24.54 2.10 38.8 0.08 32.6
C 5.07 19.8 2175.3 36.8 40.95±6.96 33.2 2.54 4.09 0.183 35.8
D 6.37 12.5 1234.8 41.2 27.74±10.38 38.14 1.88 34.7 0.67 32.15
E 4.6 23.1 1322.8 36.88 33.17±11.66 3.44 3.31 32.3 0.113 36.85
Bath Fineness CV% Modulus CV% Tenacity CV% Elongation CV% Work of rupture CV%
chemical (tex) (cN/tex) (cN/tex) (%) (N·mm/tex)
A 3.92 13.5 1885.9 41.3 28.58±14.25 33.85 2.18 42.1 0.130 44.7
B 3.46 11.2 1570.3 26.1 33.9±5.3 12.33 2.28 27.18 0.121 28.1
C 4.61 9.7 1009.14 28.6 18.32±3.08 27.19 1.24 18.92 0.069 43.25
D 4.38 16.8 1395.19 19.5 30.17±4.7 14.96 3.36 38.68 0.151 43.75
E 5.84 6.8 1422.07 42.2 32.49±10.4 31.91 3.09 42.67 0.122 43.7
impurity removal (as shown in sample C). It seems that the that Leafiran fibers possess more homogeneity properties
tensile properties of fiber extracted for 4 h are better than than those of cornstalk fibers.
those of 2 h. Moreover, the tenacity of fibers extracted for 2 Comparison of tensile properties of Leafiran fibers with
and 4 h in the presence of STPP increased with increasing other natural fibers (Table 5) showed that the tenacity of
sodium hydroxide concentration. Generally, the role of sodium Leafiran was higher than that of cornhusk, kenaf, or
hydroxide in the extraction chemical bath is to remove pineapple fibers, but similar to that of jute fibers. Leafiran
impurities and gummy materials that hold the fibers also showed fineness higher than pineapple, kenaf, and sisal
together, causing chelators (EDTA and STPP) to combine fibers. It was observed that the lower Leafiran modulus
with calcium ions available in the plant leaves and extracting relative to lignocellulosic fibers resulted in a softer feel;
them from the pectin structure [17]. This caused fibers to therefore, the products made from them must be more likely
release from the sticky net like structure. As a result, it can to wear. The suitable tensile properties such as tenacity,
be gathered that the best conditions of extracting fibers for 2 fineness, modulus, work of rupture, and elongation indicated
and 4 h are conditions of sample C and B, respectively. that this new natural cellulosic fiber, which is called
Unlike synthetic fibers, the coefficient variance of natural Leafiran, can compete quite well with other natural cellulosic
cellulosic fibers properties is high (CV%~30-45) [18]. In fibers in near future.
this study, as shown in Tables 3 and 4, the tensile properties
of Leafiran fibers have approximately CV%~35, which is Stress-Strain
lower than that of cornstalk fiber [19]. It can be concluded The tensile behavior of the fibers in terms of modulus and
880 Fibers and Polymers 2010, Vol.11, No.6 S. M. Mortazavi and M. Kamali Moghaddam
Table 6.Crystallinity and crystal size of Leafiran and other natural fibers [21]
Fiber Leafiran Sisal Jute Kenaf Hemp Linen Ramie Cotton Corn
Crystallinity (%) 60-65 68-78 57.3 61-69 81-89 65-70 70-74 67.6 48-50
Figure 1. Comparison of stress-strain curves for some fibers. Figure 2. X-ray diffraction pattern of Leafiran fiber.
linen and jute fibers. With respect to the points mentioned wavenumber.
about Bast fibers, it is seen that the Leafiran fiber is highly Figure 3 shows that the infrared whole patterns of Leafiran
oriented due to its high modulus but low elongation. fibers are similar to those of Jute and other natural cellulosic
fibers. It can be concluded that Leafiran fibers have a
Determination of Crystallinity and Moisture Regain
The crystallinity of Leafiran fibers was found to be ~60 %
(Table 6) as indicated by the X-ray diffraction pattern in
Figure 2. The results show that the crystallinity of Leafiran
fibers is lower than that of such lignocellulosic fibers as
cotton, sisal, hemp, and ramie, but it is almost similar to jute
and kenaf and yet higher than that of corn fibers [20].
The lower Leafiran fiber crystallinity, relative to the
crystallinity of more common natural cellulosic fibers, has
led this fiber to have unique properties. Lower crystallinity
means a greater number of amorphous regions; therefore,
Leafiran fibers are more permeable to water and other
chemicals. This property gives these fibers relatively higher Figure 3. Fourier transforms infrared spectra of Jute and Leafiran
moisture regains (~9.5 %) and chemical absorption ability fibers.
Moisture regain of Leafiran fibers compared with other natural cellulosic fibers [22,23]
Table 7.
magnification, bar=50 µm and (b) higher. synthetic fibers have induced a rising interest in natural
cellulosic fibers. Along these lines, the United Nations’
General Assembly declared 2009 as the International Year of
Natural Fibers. In the present study, Leafiran fiber derived
from the leaves of the plant called Typha australis was
extracted by alkali retting at 100 C for 2 and 4 h. The
o
8. K. Motivans and S. Apfelbaum, “Applied Ecological 2654-89a, Annual Book of ASTM Standard, Vol.07.02,
Services, Inc; Element Stewardship Abstract for Typha 1989.
Spp”, the Nature Conservancy 1815 North Lynn Street 15. G. Huang, J. Text. Inst., 96, 11 (2005).
Arlington. Virginia 22209 (703) 841 5300. 16. N. Reddy and Y. Yang, AATCC Rev., July, 24 (2005).
9. S. M. Mortazavi and M. Kamali Moghadam, J. Appl. 17. S. D. Bhattacharya and J. N. Shah, Text. Res. J., 74, 622
Polym. Sci., 113, 3307 (2009). (2004).
10. S. D. Bhattacharya and A. K. Das, Color. Technol., 117, 18. J. W. S. Hearle, Third Edition, Textile Institute, 1993.
342 (2001). 19. N. Reddy and Y. Yang, Polymer, 46, 5494 (2005).
11. Test Method for Tensile Properties of Single Textile 20. S. Kunda, P. Mojumder, S. K. Bhaduri, and B. K. Das, Ind.
Fibers; Designation: D 3822, Annual Book of ASTM J. Fiber Text. Res., 30, 153 (2005).
Standard, Vol.07.01, 2001. 21. N. Reddy and Y. Yang, Green Chem., 7, 190 (2005).
12. Test Method for Linear Density of Textile Fibers, ASTM 22. N. Reddy and Y. Yang, Bioresource Technol., 99, 2449
Standard; D 1577-96, Annual Book of ASTM Standard, (2008).
Vol.07.02, 1996. 23. N. Reddy and Y. Yang, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 97, 1021
13. H. K. Goeering and P. J Van Soest, “Forage Fiber (2007).
Analysis”, USDA Handbook No.379; U.S. Government 24. L. Y. Mwakambo and M. P. Ansell, J. Appl. Polym. Sci.,
Printing Office, Washington. DC, 1970. 84, 2222 (2002).
14. Test Method for Moisture in Textile, ASTM Standard; D