Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
TLER, 0 c V 19
snerrv ^^ icerzs
INDUSTRIAL
HYDRAULICS
MANUAL
1
C. S. :1.. 1
Heat. Mauatj-;t (M LIAJ
Shcly c•sc+l MiII,
Copyright 1970
SPERRY RAND CORPORATION
Troy, Michigan 48084
i-'
PREFACE
Like many branches of engineering, hydraulics is both ancient and modern. The
use of the water wheel, for example, is so ancient that its invention precedes
written history. On the other hand, the use of fluid under pressure to transmit
power and to control intricate motions is relatively modern and has had its
greatest development in the past two or three decades.
We have often been asked the question, "Why is industrial hydraulics necessary
when we have at our disposal many well known mechanical, pneumatic and electric
devices?"
It can move rapidly in one part of its length and slowly in another. No other
medium combines the same degree of positiveness, accuracy, and flexibility,
maintaining the ability to transmit a maximum of power in a minimum of bulk and
weight.
The laws of physics governing fluids are as simple as the mechanics of solids
and simpler than the laws governing electricity, vapors, or gases. The use of
engineering in general, and hydraulics in particular, has been to achieve the end
of extending man's physical and mental power to enable a job to be done more
accurately, more quickly, and with a smaller expenditure of human energy.
I II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Appendices
Ii
The study of hydraulics deals with the use and Pascal's Law, simply stated, says this:
characteristics of liquids. Since the beginning
of time, man has used fluids to ease his burden.
Pressure applied on a confined fluid is trans-
It is not hard to imagine a caveman floating down
mitted undiminished in all directions, and acts
a river, astride a log with his wife--and towing
with. equal force on equal areas, and at right
his children and other belongings aboard a
angles to them.
second log with a rope made of twisted vines.
Earliest recorded history shows that devices This precept explains why a full glass bottle will
such as pumps and water wheels were known in break if a stopper is forced into the already full
very ancient times . It was not , however, until chamber. The liquid is practically non-com-
the 17th century that the branch of hydraulics pressible and transmits the force applied at the
with which we are to be concerned first came stopper throughout the container ( Fig. 1-1).The
into use . Based upon a principle discovered by result is an exceedingly higher force on a larger
the French scientist Pascal, it relates to the use area than the stopper . Thus it is possible to
of confined fluids in transmitting power , multi- break out the bottom by pushing on the stopper
plying force and modifying motions. with a moderate force.
2. A 10 POUND FORCE
APPLIED TO A STOPPER
WITH A SURFACE AREA
OF ONE SQUARE INCH...
3. RESULTS IN 10 POUNDS
OF FORCE ON EVERY SQUARE
INCH (PRESSURE) OF THE
CONTAINER WALL.
1. THE BOTTLE IS FILLED
WITH A LIQUID, WHICH
IS NOT COMPRESSIBLE.
Figure 1-1. Pressure (Force per Unit Area) is Transmitted Throughout a Confined Fluid
2. WILL BALANCE 100 POUNDS HERE...
1. TEN POUNDS HERE...
1 00#
2. DEVELOPES A PRESSURE
OF 10 POUNDS PER SQUARE
INCH (psi) THROUGHOUT
THE CONTAINER.
1-2
Perhaps it was the very simplicity of Pascal's operating principle of the hydraulic jack, as wel
Law that prevented men from realizing its tre- as the hydraulic press.
mendous potential for some two centuries. Then,
in the early stages of the industrial revolution, a It is interesting to note the similarity betweer
British mechanic named Joseph Bramah utilized this simple press and a mechanical 1e7 yer (view
Pascal's discovery in developing a hydraulic B). As Pascal had previously stated--here again
press. force is to force as distance is to distance.
1-4
2. LINES CARRY THE LIQUID TO
1. THE PUMP PUSHES THE HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS WHICH ARE PUSHED
LIQUID INTO LINES. TO CAUSE A MECHANICAL OUTPUT
TO MOVE A LOAD.
VIEW,B ROTARY.-AKCTUATOR
1-6
1. IN THIS POSITION OF 2. PUMP DELIVERY IS DIRECTED TO THE
THE DIRECTIONAL VALVE ... CAP END OF THE CYLINDER.
3. THE CYLINDER ROD EXTENDS.
DIRECTIONAL
VALVE
4. EXHAUST OIL IS PUSHED OUT
OF THE ROD END AND DIRECTED
I TO THE TANK.
5. IN ANOTHER POSITION, OIL
IS DIRECTED TO THE ROD END OF
THE CYLI NDER...
3. A'TWO-FOOT COLUMN
WEIGHS TWICE AS MUCH, THUS
THE PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM
IS 0.8 psi.
reated at the pump inlet when the pump is in ever, the available pressure difference should
)eration . Water and various fire-resistant be much less. For one thing, liquids vaporize
(draulic fluids are heavier than oil, and there- in a vacuum. This puts gas bubbles in the oil.
ire require more vacuum per foot of lift. The bubbles are carried through the pump;
collapsing with considerable force when exposed
TMOSPHERIC PRESSURE CHARGES THE to load pressure at the outlet, and causing dam-
UMP age that will impair the pump operation and
reduce its life.
inlet of a pump normally is charged with oil
is difference in pressure between the reser- Even if the oil has good vapor pressure charac-
Dir and the pump inlet. Usually the pressure teristics (as most hydraulic oils do), too low an
i the reservoir is atmospheric pressure, which inlet line pressure (high vacuum) permits air
> 14. 7 psi on an absolute gauge. It then is dissolved in the oil to be released. This oil mix-
ecessary to have a partial vacuum or reduced ture also collapses when exposed to load pressure
ressure at the pump inlet to create flow. and causes the same cavitational damage. Driving
the pump at too high a speed increases velocity
igure 1-9 shows a typical situation for a hy- in the inlet line and consequently increases the
raulic jack pump, which is simply a reciprocating low pressure condition, further increasing the
iston. On the intake stroke, the piston creates possibility of cavitation.
partial vacuum in the pumping chamber. At-
iospheric pressure in the reservoir pushes oil
to the chamber to fill the void. (Ina rotary If the inlet line fittings are not tight, air at
ump, successive pumping chambers increase in atmospheric pressure can be forced through to
ize as they pass the inlet, effectively creating the lower pressure area in the line and can be
n identical void condition. ) carried into the pump. This air-oil mixture also
causes trouble and noise but it is different from
it were possible to "pull" a complete vacuum cavitation. When exposed to pressure at the
t the pump inlet, there would be available some pump outlet, this additional air is compressed
4. 7 psi to push the oil in. Practically, how- forming in effect a cushion, and does not col-
1-8
1. IF THE OIL LEVEL IS
10 FEET ABOVE THE PUMP
INLET...
1-9
1. ON ITS INTAKE STROKE,
THE PUMP PISTON MOVES OUT 2. A PARTIAL VACUUM OR VOID
EXPANDING THE PUMPING IS CREATED HERE.
CHAMBER SPACE.
TO ACTUATOR
lapse as violently. It is not dissolved in the oil the pump for loss of pressure, with few excep-
but passes on into the system as compressible tions pressure can be lost only when there is a
bubbles which cause erratic valve and actuator leakage path that will divert all the flow from the
operation. pump.
Most pump manufacturers recommend a vacuum To illustrate, suppose that a 10 gallon per minute
,,of no more than 5 inches of mercury. (in,, hg. ), (gpm) pump is used to push oil under a 10-
'the equivalent of about 12. 2 psi absolute at the square-inch piston and raise an 8000 pound load
pump inlet. With 14. 7 psi atmospheric pressure (Fig. 1-10) While the load is being raised or
available at the reservoir, this leaves only a supported by the hydraulic oil, the pressure
2-1/2 psi pressure difference to push oil into the must be 800 psi.
pump. Excessive lift must be avoided and pump
inlet lines should permit the oil to flow with Even if a hole in the piston allows 9-1/2 gpm to
minimum resistance. leak t 800 psi, pressure still will be maintained.
With only 1/2 gpm available to move the load, it
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS CREATE will of course raise very slowly. But the pres-
FLOW sure required to do so remains the same.
Most pumps used in hydraulic systems are Now imagine that the 9 - 1/2 gpm leak is in the
classed as positive displacement. 'his means pump instead of the cylinder . There still would
that, except for changes in efficiency, the pump be 1/2 gpm moving the load and there still would
output is constant regardless of pressure. the be pressure . Thus , a pump can be badly worn,
outlet is positively sealed from the inlet, so that losing nearly all of its efficiency , and pressure
whatever gets in is forced out the outlet port. still can be maintained .. )ff aintenance of pressu
alone is no indicator of a pump 's condition. ,f's
The sole purpose of a pump is to create flow; necessary to measure the flow at a given pressure
pressure is caused by a resistance to flow. to determine whether a pump is in good or bad
Although there is a common tendency to blame condition.
1-10
I . THE FORCE IS 8000 POUNDS AND
VIEW A
NO LEAK IN SYSTEM
VIEW B
LEAK I N CYLINDER
2. THERE IS NO PRESSURE
IN THIS CONDITON.
3. AS FLOW IS RESTRICTED BY
CLOSING THE FAUCET...
Figure 1-11. Pressure Caused by Restriction and Limited by Pressure Control Valve
1-12
HOW PRESSURE IS CREATED Similarly, when the pump outlet is directed to
two actuators, the actuator which needs the lower
Pressure results whenever the flow of a fl Yid is pressure will be first to move. Since it is
resisted. The resistance may come from (1) a difficult to balance loads exactly, cylinders
load on an actuator or (2) a restriction (or ori- which must move together are often connected
fice) in th&-piping. mechanically.
O OOOa
O 00 O
VIEWA
FLOW IS THROUGH
100 psi VALVE
3. IF FLOW IS BLOCKED BEYOND "A"....
1-14
1. THERE IS NO RESISTANCE TO
FLOW HERE, SO...
A
100 psi
3. AT THIS POINT, FLOW
IS RESISTED BY A SPRING
EQUIVALENT TO 100 psi.
B
5. HERE, FLOW IS RESISTED BY
200 psi A 200 psi SPRING PLUS A 100 psi
BACK-PRESSURE FROM VALVE A
4. AN INCREASE IN
PRESSURE HERE. .. 5. CAUSES OIL TO FLOW THROUGH
THE ORIFICE.
6. THE PRESSURE DROP IS
500 psi TO 100 psi OR 400 psi.
C 8. IF FLOW IS BLOCKED
BEYOND THE ORIFICE,
FLOW CEASES.
9. PRESSURE THEN
EQUALIZES ON BOTH
SIDES OF THE ORIFICE.
1-16
We can express this relationship by the general press, its output force can be computed as
formula: follows:
In tillK rc^Ia1ioushil):
t' is pressure in psi (p)uin(is per square inch) i' is l)ressurc ill IV-I
i' i (c rcc it hnuucis F is force in p1Iulld:-
r1. .; II'a ill sgU^l]'f` 1 nl ile
Pressure gauge readings normally ignore at= The area of a piston or ram can be computed by
mospheric pressure. That is, a standard gauge this formula:
reads zero at atmospheric pressure. An abso-
lute gauge reads 14. 7 psi at sea level atmos- A --.7854xd2
pheric pressure. Absolute pressure is usually'
designated "psia". A is area in square inches
d is diauneter of the piston in inches
FORCE IS PROPORTIONAL TO PRESSURE AND
AREA The foregoing relationships are sometimes il-
lustrated as shown to indicate the three relation-
When a hydraulic cylinder is used to clamp or ships:
PRESSURE
FROM PUMP REGULATING 2000 psi
VALVE 2. AND HE'
RAM AREA
1. IF THIS VALVE IS 20 SQ.IN.
REGULATES THE
PRESSURE AT 2000 psi...
RAM
PLATEN
MATERIAL
FIXED PLATEN
Figure 1-16. Speed Depends on Cylinder Size and Rate of Oil Flow To It
1-18
F=PxA a line is proportional to the velocity
P=F/A However, should the flow become turbulent
A= F/P friction varies as the square of the velocity
v(,l tililt If the gpm and desired velocity are 'known, use
I1 C('<i this relationship to find the inside cross-section-
al area:
(d . tinl( l 5] )('c(I ;t r- J
lint ^_ . ?''?..(IN
IkI , ,%
ui.'tlll! t('ln('It', (III. i(' 4 I,( I' :f'cond)
.I Fc,l
speed
When the gpm and size of pipe are given, US
CU. in. niinute
this formula to find what the velocity will be
t. ill.
t,^ nl
))elks minute ^,N1?LOCI'T'Y ;Icc^t i'('l
3. 117 x :i rc:
From this we can conclude :( 1) that the force or
torque of an actuator is directly proportional to In Chapter 4, you will find a nomographic char
the pressure and independent of the flow, (2) that which permits making these computations b}
its speed or rate of travel will depend upon the laying a straight edge across printed scales.
amount of fluid flow without regard to pressure.
SIZE RATINGS OF LINES
VELOCITY IN PIPES
The nominal ratings in inches for pipes, tubes
The velocity at which the hydraulic fluid flows etc. are not accurate indicators of the inside
through the lines is an important design consid- diameter.
eration because of the effect of velocity on
friction. In standard pipes, the actual inside diameter is
larger than the nominal size quoted. To selec
Generally, the recommended velocity ranges are: pipe, you'll need a standard chart which show:
actual inside diameters (see Chapter 4).
wimp Inlet Line ----2 - 4 feet per second
-Working Lines -----7 - 20 feet per second For steel and copper tubing, the quoted size is
the outside diameter. To find the inside diame•
In this regard, it should be noted that: ter, subtract twice the wall !llickness (Fig. 1-18)
I =11!0, =111111,
2„ 1"
1-20
2. TO FIND THE
INSIDE DIAMETER...
Torque in this formula must be in pound - inches. The hp needed to drive the pump is a function of
its delivery and the maximum pressure at which
DESIGNING A SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM it will operate. The following formula will
determine the size of the electric motor drive
From the information given in this chapter, it is required:
possible to design a simple hydraulic circuit.
Following is a simple description of how the job lip- -.,pmxpsi x.0007
might proceed. See figures 1-19 thru 1-21.,
lip 26 x 1000 x . 0007 = 18. 2
A Job To Be Done
To prevent overloading of the electric motor and
All circuit design must start with the job to be to protect the pump and other components from
done. There is a weight to be lifted, a tool head excessive pressure due to overloads or stalling,
1-22
1. TO RAISE AN 8000 POUND LOAD 30 INCHES...
2. USE A HYRAULIC CYLINDER
WITH A STROKE OF AT LEAST 30 INCHES.
30"
8000#
8000#
10 SQ. IN.
,Y-
1-24
71
a relief valve set to limit the maximum system 11. What can you say definitely about the pres
pressure should be installed in the line between sures on opposite sides of an orifice whet
the pump outlet and the inlet port to the direc- oil is flowing through it?
tional valve.
12. What pressure is usually available to charg(
A reservoir sized to hold approximately two to the pump inlet?
three times the pump capacity in gallons per
minute and adequate interconnecting piping would 13. Why should the pump inlet vacuum be mini-
complete the system. mized?
This chapter has presented a brief introductory 15. Why is loss of pressure usually . not a symp-
overview of hydraulics to demonstrate the basic tom of pump malfunction?
principles involved in hydraulic system opera-
tion. There are, of course, countless variations 16. How is pressure created?
of the system presented. Many of these will be
developed with a more detailed study of operating 17. If three 200 psi check valves are connected
principles and components in future chapters. in series, how much pressure is required at
the pump to push oil through all three?
3. If a force of 1000 pounds is applied over an 20. What determines the sliced of an actuator?
area of 20 square inches, what is the pres-
sure ? 21. What is the relationship between fluid veloc-
ity and friction in a pipe ?
4. What is meant by "conservation of energy"?
22. What is work? Power?
5. What is the output component of a hydraulic
system named? The input component? 23. How do you find the horsepower in a hydrau-
lic system?
6. What is the prime mover?
24. With which component does the design of a
7. Name several advantages of a hydraulic hydraulic circuit begin?
system.
25. What determines the size pump needed in a
8. What is the origin of the term "hydraulics"? hydraulic circuit?
9. What makes petroleum oil suitable as a 26. What is the piston area of a 5-inch cylinder?
hydraulic fluid?
27. What does the relief valve do?
10. What is the pressure at the bottom of a 20
foot column of oil? 28. What does a directional valve do?
CHAPTER
K
This chapter is divided into three sections: PRINCIPLES OF PRESSURE
* Principles of Pressure
A Precise Definition
* Principles of Flow
Hydraulic Graphical Symbols It has been noted that the term hydraulics is
derived from a Greek word for vat r. There-
The first two sections will further develop the fore, it might be assumed correctly that the
fundamentals of the physical phenomena that science of hydraulics encompasses any device
combine to transfer power in the hydraulic cir- operated by water. A water wheel or turbine
cuit. The third section, illustrating graphical (Fig. 2-1) for instance, is a hydraulic device.
symbols for circuit diagrams, will deal with the
classes and functions of lines and components. However, a distinction must be made between
All this material will serve as a background for devices which utilize the impact or momentum of
following chapters on the equipment that makes a moving liquid and those which are operated by
up a hydraulic system. pushing on a confined fluid: that is, by pressure.
1. LIQUID EXPELLED
FROM A NOZZLE
AT HIGH VELOCITY
CONTAI NS KINETIC
ENERGY.
2. THE ENERGY I N
THE STREAM OF LIQUID
IS TRANSFERRED TO
ROTARY MOTION BY
THE TURBINE.
Figure 2-1. Hydrodynamic Device Uses Kinetic Energy Rather Than Pressure
2-1
operly speaking: increases with depth. The pressure is always
equal at any particular depth due to the weight of
A hydraulic device which uses the irnpoet the water above it. Around Pascal's time, an
+.,r kinetic ener^,y in the liquid to transmit Italian scientist named Torricelli proved that if
power is called a hvdrodynarnic device. a hole is made in the bottom of a tank of water,
the water runs out fastest when the tank is full
When the dcvict is operated by a force and the flow rate decreases as the water level
applied to a confined liquid, it is called a lowers. In other words, as the "head" of water
hydrostatic device : pressure being the above the opening lessens, so does the pressure.
force applie d distributed over the area
exposed and heinw^: expressed as force per Torricelli could express the pressure at the
unit area ! lhs. 'sq. in. or psi). bottom of the tank only as "feet of head", or the
height in feet of the column of water. Today,
course, all the illustrations shown so far, and with the pound per square inch (psi) as a unit
fact, A11 the systems and equipment covered pressure, we can express pressure anywhere in
this man] are hydrostatic. All operate by any liquid or gas in more convenient terms. All
shing On a confined i; that is, by trans- that is required is knowing how much a cubic
-ring epsergy through pressure. foot of the fluid weighs.
1. A FOOT- SQUARE
SECTION OF WATER
10 FEET HIGH
CONTAINS 10
CUBIC FEET. IF
EACH CUBIC FOOT 3. I F 10 FEET OF WATER
WEIGHS 62.4 POUNDS... IS EQUIV,AI ENT TO 4.33 psi,
ONE FOOT EQUALS 0.433
5 FEET EQUALS
2.165 AMP 5O ON.
•2.165 psi
2-2
ing water in confinement. The terms pressure cury is inverted in a pan of the lip
and "head" are sometimes used interchangeably. column in the tube will fall only a cer,
tance. He reasoned that atmospheric pi
Atmospheric Pressure on the surface of the liquid was supportir.,
weight of the column of mercury with a pei
Atmospheric pressure is nothing more than vacuum at the top of the tube.
pressure of the air in our atmosphere due to its
weight. At sea level, a column of air one square In a normal atmosphere, the column will always
inch in cross section and the full height of the be 29. 92 inches high. Thus. 29. 92 (usually
atmosphere weighs 14. 7 pounds (Fig. 2-3). Thus rounded off to 30) in. Hg. becomes another
the pressure is 14. 7 psia. At higher altitudes, equivalent of the pressure of one atmosphere.
of course, there is less weight in the column, so
the pressure becomes less. Below sea level, Measuring Vacuum
atmospheric pressure is more than 14. 7 psia.
Since vacuum is pressure below atmospheric,
Any condition where pressure is less than at- vacuum can be measured in the same units.
mospheric pressure is called a vacuum or Thus, vacuum can be expressed as psia or psi (in
partial vacuum. A perfect vacuum is the com- negative units) as well as in inches of mercury.
plete absence of pressure or zero psia.
Most vacuum gauges, however, are calibrated in
The Mercury Barometer inches of mercury. A perfect vacuum, which
will support a column of mercury 29.92 inches
Atmospheric pressure also is measured in high is 29.92 in. Hg. Zero vacuum (atmospheric
inches of mercury (in. Hg.) on a device known pressure) reads zero on a vacuum gage.
as a barometer.
Summary of Pressure and Vacuum Scales
The mercury barometer (Fig. 2-4), a device in-
vented by Torricelli, is usually credited as the Since a number of ways of measuring pressure
inspiration for Pascal's studies of pressure and vacuum have been discussed, it would be
Torricelli discovered that when a tube of mer- well to place them all together for comparison.
2-3.
3. WITH A PERFECT VACUUM 2. WOULD SUPPORT A
HERE . COLUMN OF MERCURY
THIS HIGH...
1. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
HERE...
II
Indicates that the scale is not used in this range . Values are shown for comparison only.
2-4
I
it
Figure 2-6. Flow is Volume Per Unit of Time; Velocity is Distance Per Unit of Tilme
2-5
and flow rate. A constant flow of one gallon per Figure 2-7 illustrates pressure drop due to fric-
minute either increases or decreases in velocity tion. The succeeding pressure drops (from
when the cross section of the pipe changes size. maximum pressure to zero pressure ) are shown
as differences in head in succeeding vertical
Flow Rate and Speed pipes.
1. PRESSURE IS MAXIMUM
4. SUCCEEDINGLY LOWER
HERE BECAUSE OF THE
LEVEL OF LIQUID IN
HEAD HEIGHT OF LIQUID
THESE PIPES IS A MEASURE
OF REDUCED PRESSURE AT
POINTS DOWNSTREAM
FROM THE SOURCE.
2-6
f[I
1. THE LIQUID IS SUBJECT TO
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT
ALL POINTS, SO IS AT THE
SAME LEVEL AT ALL POINTS.
3. RESULTS I N A, HIGHER
LEVEL AT THES E POINTS.
2. AN INCREASE OF PRESSURE HERE .
HIGHER
2-7
1. LOW VELOCITY FLOW IN A
STRAIGHT PIPE IS STREAMLINED.
THE FLUID PARTICLES MOVE ti
PARALLEL TO FLOW DIRECTION.
2. A GRADUAL CHANGE IN
CROSS-SECTION DOES
NOT UPSET THE STREAMLINE
FLOW.
3. SO DOES AN
ABRUPT CHANGE
IN DIRECTION.
4*1
2. AN ABRUPT CHANGE
I N CROSS-SECTION
MAKES IT TURBULENT. NON-PARALLEL PATHS
OF PARTICLES INCREASE
RESISTANCE TO FLOW
(FRICTION)
2-8
through a pipe, they will move in straight, Bernoulli's principle says that the sums of the
parallel flow paths (Fig. 2-9). This condition is pressure energy and kinetic energy at various
called laminar flow and occurs at low velocity points in a system must be constant if flow rate
in straight piping. With laminar flow, friction is constant. When the pipe diameter changes
is minimized. (Fig. 2-11), the velocity changes. Kinetic energy
thus either increases or decreases. However,
Turbulence is the condition where the particles energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
do not move smoothly parallel to the flow direc- Therefore, the change in kinetic energy must be
tion (Fig. 2-10). Turbulent flow is caused by offset by a decrease or increase in pressure.
abrupt changes in direction or cross section, or
by too high velocity. The result is greatly increa- The use of a venturi in an automobile engine
sed friction, which generates heat, increases carburetor (Fig. 2-12) is a familiar example of
operating pressure and wastes power. Bernoulli's principle. Air flowing through car-
buretor barrel is reduced in pressure as it
passes through a reduced cross section of the
throat. The decrease in pressure permits gaso-
Bernoulli's Principle
line to flow, vaporize and mix with the air
stream.
Hydraulic fluid in a working system contains
energy in two forms: kinetic energy by virtue of Fig. 2-13 shows the combined effects of friction
the fluid's weight and velocity and potential and velocity changes on the pressure in a line.
energy in the form of pressure.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist, demon-
strated that in a system with a constant flow
rate, energy is transformed from one form to Hydraulic circuits and their components are
the other each time the pipe cross-section size depicted in various ways in drawings. Depending
changes. on what the picture must convey, it may be a
3. IGNORING FRICTION
2. VELOCITY DECREASES I N THE LOSSES, THE PRESSURE
LARGER PIPE. THE KINETIC AGAIN BECOMES THE
ENERGY LOSS IS MADE UP BY SAME AS AT "A" WHEN
AN INCREASE I N PRESSURE. THE FLOW VELOCITY
BECOMES THE SAME AS
AT "A".
Figure 2-11. The Sum of Pressure and Kinetic Energy is Constant With a Constant Flowi Rate
2-9
1. VOLUME OF AIR, 3. PRESSURE IN FUEL
DETERMINED BY BOWL IS EQUAL
"BUTTERFLY" VALVE TO PRESSURE I N
OPENING, FLOWS "AIR HORN" ABOVE
THROUGH CARBURETOR VENTURI
"BARREL".
Figure 2-12. Venturi Effect in a Gasoline Engine Carburetor is an Application of Bernoulli's Principle
2-10
pictorial representation of the components' ex- * A working line (solid) carries the ma
teriors; a cutaway showing internal construction; stream of flow in the system. For graph
a graphical 'a-gram which shows function; or a cal diagram purposes, this includes t
combination of any of the three. pump inlet (suction) line, pressure lin^
and return lines to the tank.
All three types are of necessity used in this
manual. In industry , however , the graphical * A pilot line (long dashes) carries fluid th
symbol and diagram are most common. Graphi- is used to control the operation of a val`
or other component.
cal symbols are the "shorthand " of circuit
diagrams , using simple geometric forms which
show functions and inter - connections of lines and
* A drain line (short dashes) carries leakat
components.
oil back to the reservoir.
Rotating Components
The complete "standard" for graphical symbols
is reproduced in Appendix of this manual. Fol- • X circle is the basic symbol for rotating compo
lowing is a brief exposition of the most common nents. Energy triangles (Fig. 2-15) are placed i
symbols and how they are used, along with an the symbols to show them as energy source
abbreviated classification of some hydraulic (pumps) or energy receivers (motors). 'if th
lines and components. component is uni-directional, the symbol ha
only one triangle. A reversible pump or moto.
is drawn with two triangles-.---
Lines
Cylinders
Hydraulic pipes, tubes and fluid passages are
drawn as single lines (Fig. 2-14). There are A cylinder is drawn as a rectangle (Fig. 2-16) witt
three basic classifications: indications of a piston, piston rod and port con-
1. THE PUMP
INLET LINE
IS A WORKING RETURN LINES ARE
LINE. WORKING LINES
2-11
1. THE ENERGY TRIANGLE
3. THE TRIANGLE POINTS IN.
POINTS OUT,SHOWING
THE MOTOR RECEIVES ENERGY
THE PUMP AS A SOURCE
1. DENOTES A PISTON
ROD
2. DENOTES A
PISTON
3. PORT
CONNECTIONS
SINGLE-ACTING DOUBLE-ACTING
CYLINDER CYLINDER
2-12
f,0 1 I, 4
2. PILOT L! NE
I. ENVELOPE IS DENOTES OPERATION
BASIC SYMBOL BY PRESSURE
IN
4. ARROW INDICATES
3. ARROW SHOWS FLOW
ADJUSTABLE
PATH AND DIRECTION
OUT OF FLOW
VIEW A
RELIEF VALVE (INFINITE POSITIONING)
VIEW B
,2-13
nection(s). A single acting cylinder is shown Reservoir Tank Symbol
open at the rod end and with only a cap-end port
connection. A double-acting cylinder appears The reservoir is drawn as a rectangle (Fig. 2-18).
closed with two ports. It is open at the top for a vented reservoir and
closed for a pressurized reservoir. For con-
venience, several symbols may be drawn in a
Valves diagram; though there is only one reservoir.
The basic symbol for a valve is a square - re- Connecting lines are drawn to the bottom of the
ferred to as an envelope (Fig. 2-17 ). Arrows are symbol when the lines terminate below the fluid
added to the envelopes to show flow paths and the level in the tank. If a line terminates above the
direction of flow, fluid level, it is drawn to the top of the symbol.
Conclusion
,Anfinite- positioning valves , such as relief
valves, have single envelopes . They are
Figure 2-18 shows a graphical diagram of an entire
assumed to be able to take any number, of hydraulic circuit. Note that there is no attempt
positions between fully open and fully closed, to show the size, shape, location or construction
depending on the volume of liquid passing of any component. The diagram does show func-
through them. tion and connections, which suffice for most
purposes in the field.
<.-'f'inite-positioning valves are directional
-------------- --- Variations and refinements of these basic sym-
valves. Their symbols contain an individual
envelope for each position the valve can be bols will be dealt with in the chapters on com-
shifted to. ponents and systems.
DIRECTIONAL VALVE
2-14
i
6. How is the mercury column supported in a 17. What is the basic graphical symbol for a
barometer? pump or motor'?
7. Express 30 psig in psia. 18. How many envelopes are in the symbol for
a relief valve 9
8. What are two ways to measure flow?
19. Which connecting lines are drawn to the
9. Express 5 gpm in cubic inches per minute. bottom of the reservoir symbol?
10. What happens when a liquid is subject to 20. How many positions does the directional
different pressures? valve in Fig . 2-18 have? The relief valve ?
2-15
CHAPTER
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Selection and care of the hydraulic fluid for a provide good demulsibility as well as protection
machine will have an important effect on how it against rust. These oils are generally known as
performs and on the life of the hydraulic compo- antiwear type hydraulic oils.
nents. The formulation and application of hy-
draulic fluids is a science of itself, far beyond
the scope of this manual. In this chapter, you Experience has shown that the 10W and 20-20W
will find the basic factors involved in the choice SAE viscosity automotive crankcase oils, having
of a fluid and its proper use. letter designation "SC", "SD", or "SE", are ex-
cellent for severe hydraulic service where there
A fluid has been defined in Chapter 1 as any is little or no water present. The only adverse
liquid or gas. However, the term fluid has come effect is that their "detergent" additives tend to
into general use in hydraulics to refer to the hold water in a tight emulsion and prevent sepa-
liquid used as the power-transmitting medium. ration of water, even on long time standing. It
In this chapter, fluid will mean the hydraulic should be noted that very few water problems
fluid, whether a :,,pecially-compounded petroleum have been experienced to date in the use of these
oil or one of the special fire-resistant fluids, crankcase oils in machinery hydraulic systems.
which may be a synthetic compound. Normal condensation has not been a problem.
3-1
. INSIDE ITS BODY...
1. A TYPICAL SLIDING 3. ON A THIN FILM OF
VALVE SPOOL MOVES HYDRAULIC FLUID (SHOWN
BACK AND FORTH... GREATLY EXAGGERATED).
TO HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
FROM HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
3-2
Maintain its own stability and thereby re- And should the viscosity be too low:
duce fluid replacement cost
* Internal leakage increases
✓* Maintain relatively stable body over a wide
temperature range * Excessive wear or even seizure under
heavy load may occur due to breakdown of
✓ * Prevent corrosion and pitting the oil film between moving parts.
Absolute Viscosity
VISCOSITY
Considering viscosity as the resistance when
Viscosity is the measure of the fluid's resistance moving one layer of liquid over another is the
to flow; or an inverse measure of fluidity. basis for the laborato y method of measuring
absolute viscosity. ise viscosity is defined as
If a fluid flows easily, its viscosity is low. You the force per unit of area required to move one
also can say that the fluid is thin or has a low parallel surface at a speed of one centimeter-
body. per-second past another parallel surface sepa-
rated by a fluid film one centimeter thick (Fig.
A fluid that flows with difficulty has a high vis- 3-3). (In the metric system, force is expressed
cosity. It is thick or high in body. in dynes; area in square centimeters)...,ft ted
another way, poise is the ratio between the
Viscosity a Compromise shearing stress and the rate of shear of the fluid:
* High temperature caused by friction The concept of kinematic viscosity is the out-
growth of the use of a head of liquid to produce a
* Increased pressure drop because of the flow through a capillary tube. A he coefficient of
resistance absolute viscosity, when divided by the density
of the liquid is called the kinematic viscosity.
* Possibility of sluggish or slow operation In the metric system, the unit of viscosity is
called the Stoke and it has the units of centi-
* Difficulty in separating air from oil in meters squared per second. One one-hundredth
reservoir of a Stoke is a Centistoke.
3-3
1. IF THIS MOVING SURFACE IS ONE SQUARE
CENTIMETER IN AREA AND MOVES AT A VELOCITY
OF ONE CENTIMETER PER SECOND ON...
THERMOMETER
1. A MEASURED QUANTITY
OF OIL IS HEATED TO THE
TEST TEMPERATURE ...
3-4
r
Following are conversions between absolute and liquid which flows faster. Since oil becomes
kinematic viscosity: thicker at low temperature and thins when
warmed, the viscosity must be expressed as so
many SUS's at a given temperature. The tests
are usually made at 100 degrees F. or 210` F.
Figure 3-5. Viscosity Index ( VI) is a Relative Measure of Viscosity Change with Temperature Change
3-5
TABLE 1. SAE VISCOSITY NUMBERS FOR CRANKCASE OILS
Less than
\^ Centipoises 1, 200
Centistokes 1, 300
SUS 6, 000
Less than
10th Centipoises 1, 20G J 2. 400
Centistokes 1, 300 2. 600
S f; .Co 6, b(i(i 12. 006
I,css than
20W Centipoises 2, 400C(f ) 9, 600
Centistokes 2, 600 10, 500
SUS 12, 000 48,000
The official values in this classification are based upon 210'F viscosity in centistokes (ASTM
D 445) and 0" F viscosities in centipoises (ASTM D 260-2). Approximate values in other units
of viscosity are given for information only. The approximate values at 0` F were calculated
using an assumed oil density of 0. 9 gm/cc at that temperature
® The viscosity of all oils included in this classification shall not be less than 3. 9 cs at 210 F
(39 SUS).
c@. Minimum viscosity at 0` F may be waived provided viscosity at 210` F is not below 4. 2 cs
(40 SUS).
iscosity index is an arbitrary measure of a 50 12, 000 SUS 150 SUS 41 SUS
fluid ' s resistance to /v iscosity change with tem- 90 8, 000 SUS 150 SUS 43 SUS
perature changes . fluid that has a relatively
stable viscosity at temperature extremes has a Note that the 90 VI oil is thinner at zero degrees
high viscosity index (VI). A fluid that is very and thicker at 210 degrees, while both have the
thick when cold and very thin when hot has a low same viscosity at 100 degrees.
VI.
The original VI scale was from 0 to 100, repre-
Figure 3-5 shows a comparison between a 50 VI senting the poorest to best VI characteristics
and a 90 VI oil. Compare these actual viscosi- then known. Today, chemical additives and
ties at three temperatures: refining techniques have increased the VI of
3-6
I;.t1
I
1. MICROSCOPIC IMPERFECTIONS
OF THE MATING PARTS ARE
SEPARATED...
some oils considerably above 100. ,,®f high VI is called boundary lubrication occurs. Here, there
desirable when the equ ment operates in tem- may be metal-to-metal contact between the tips
perature extremes. I owever, in a machine that of the two mating part surfaces and some chemi-
runs at relatively constant temperatures the cal lubricating ability is needed.
viscosity index of the fluid is less critical.
OXIDATION RESISTANCE
POUR POINT
Oxidation, or chemical union with oxygen, is a
our point is the lowest temperature at which a serious reducer of the service life of a fluid.
fluid will flow. It is a very important specifica- Petroleum oils are particularly susceptible to
tion if the hydraulic system will be exposed to oxidation, since oxyg^p readily combines with
extremely low temperature. or a thumb rule, both carbon and hydrogen in the oil's makeup.
the pour point should be 20 degrees F below the
lowest temperature to be encountered. Most of the oxidation products are soluble in the
oil, and additional reactions take place in the
LUBRICATING ABILITY products to form gum, sludge and varnish. The
first stage products which stay in the oil are
It is desirable for hydraulic system moving acid in nature and can cause corrosion through-
parts to have enough clearance to run together out the system, in addition to increasing the
on a substantial film of fluid (Fig. 3-6). This viscosity of the oil. The insoluble gums, sludge
condition is called full-film lubrication. So long and varnish plug orifices, increase wear and
as the fluid has adequate viscosity, the minute cause valves to stick.
imperfections in the surfaces of the parts do not
touch. CATALYSTS
However, in certain high performance equip- There are always a number of oxidation catalysts
ment, increased speeds and pressure, coupled or helpers in a hydraulic system . Heat, pres-
with lower clearances, cause the film of fluid to sure, contaminants, water, metal surfaces and
be squeezed very thin (Fig. 3-7) and a condition agitation all accelerate oxidation once it starts.
3-7
1. IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE
EQUIPMENT, CLEARANCES
ARE DECREASED.
3-8
\pmperature is particularly important. Tests particles of metal are dissolved and washed
have shown that below 135`F, oil oxidizes very away (Fig. 3-9). Both rust and corrosion con-
slowly. 9 t the rate of oxidation ( or any other taminate the system and promote wear. They
chemical reaction) approximately doubles for also allow excessive leakage past the affected
every 18 ° F increase in temperature. parts and may cause components to seize.
Oil refiners incorporate additives in hydraulic ,,,Rdst and corrosion can be inhibited by incorpo-
oils to resist oxidation, since many systems rating additives that "Qlttj ' on the metal sur-
operate at considerably higher temperature. faces to prevent their being attacked chemically.
These additives either:
DEMULSIBILITY
Stop oxidation from continuing immediately
after it starts (chain breaker type) or .... Small quantities of water can be tolerated in
most systems. In fact, some anti-rust com-
Reduce the effect of oxidation catalysts pounds promote a degree of emulsification, or
(metal deactivator type). mixture with any water that gets into the system.
This prevents the water from settling and break-
RUST AND CORROSION PREVENTION ing through the anti-rust film. However, very
much water in the oil will promote the collection
5xfst ( Fig. 3-8 ) is the ch mical union of iron (or of contaminants and can cause sticky valves and
steel ) with rrosion is a chemical accelerated wear.
reaction between a metal and a chemical--
usually an acid. Acids result from the chemical With proper refining, a hydraulic oil can have a
union of water with certain elements. high degree of demulsibility or ability to sepa-
rate out water.
Since it is usually not possible to keep air and
atmosphere-borne moisture out of the hydraulic USE OF ADDITIVES
system, there will always be opportunities for
rust and corrosion to occur. During corrosion, Since most of the desirable properties of a fluid
3-9
^e at least partly traceable to additives, it Characteristics
ight be supposed that commercial additives
)uld be incorporated in any oil to make it more Water -glycol fluids generally have good wear
iitable for it hydraulic system. Refiners, how- resistance characteristics , providect that high
✓ er, warn against this, saying that additives speeds and loads are avoided . The fluid has a
gust be compatible with the base fluid and with high gravity ( it is heavier than oil ), which can
ich other and further that this compatibility create a higher vacuum at pump inlets . Certain
moot be determined in the field. Unless one metals such as zinc, cadmium a nd magnesium
is laboratory facilities for ascertaining their react with water glycol fluids and cannot be used
ampatibility it is best to leave the use of addi- in systems where compatible paints and enamels
ves to the discretion of the fluid manufacturer. also must be used with these fluids.
ETROLEUM OIL AS A HYDRAULIC FLUID. Most of the newer synthetic seal materials are
compatible with water-glycol fluid. Asbestos.
etroleum oil is still by far the most highly used leather and cork-impregnated materials should
ase for hydraulic fluids. The characteristics be avoided in rotating seals, since they tend to
r properties of petroleum oil fluids depend on absorb water.
reefactors:
Sonic disadvantages of these fluids arc: (1) it is
1. The type of crude Oil used necessary to continually measure water content
2. The degree and method of refining and make up for evaporation to maintain required
3. The additives used viscosity and (2) evaporation may also cause
loss of certain additives, thereby reducing the
general , petroleum oil has excellent lubricity. life of the fluid and of the hydraulic components.
ome crude oils have better than average lubri- Also, (3) operating temperatures must be kept
ating or anti - wear properties . Depending on low and (4) the cost (at the present time) is
Heir makeup , some crude oils may display greater than for conventional oils.
igher deniulsibility , more oxidation resistance
t higher temperatures or higher viscosity index
Changing to Water-Glycol
an others . Oil naturally protects against rust,
eats well. dissipates heat easily and is easy to When a system is changed from petroleum oil to
eep clean by filtration or gravity separation of
water -glycol, it must be . thoroughly cleaned and
ontaniinants . Most of the desirable properties flushed. Recommendations include removing
I a fluid, il not already present in the crude oil, original paint from inside the reservoir , chang-
an be incorporated through refining or additives.
ing zinc or cadmium plated parts , and replacing
certain die cast fittings . It may also be neces-
c principal disadvantage of petroleum oil is that sary to replace aluminum parts unless properly
t will burn. For applications where fire could
treated , as well as an y instrumentation equip-
c a hazard, such as heat treating, hydro- ment which is not compatible with the fluid.
lectric welding, die casting, forging and many I'll 'v
thers, there are available several kinds of fire
WATER - OIL EMULSIONS
esistant fluids.
Emulsion-type fluids are the least expensive fire
IRE RESISTANT FLUIDS resistant fluids. Like water-glycol, they also
depend on water content for fire-resistant prop-
:'here are three basic types of fire resistant erties. In addition to water and oil, the emul-
vdraulic tluicls: sions contain emulsifiers, stabilizers and other
1. Water-Glycols additives to hold the two liquids together.
2. Water-Oil Emulsions
3. Synthetics Oil-in-Water
3-10
I
ventional hydraulic pumps are also available for genated) hydro-carbons, (3) synthetic base fluids
use with it. which are mixtures of 1 and 2 may contain other
material as well.
Water-in-Oil
Characteristics
Water-in-oil emulsions are more common in
use. Tiny droplets of water are dispersed in a Since the synthetics do not contain any water or
continuous oil phase. Like oil, these fluids have other volatile material, they operate well at high
excellent lubricity and body. Additionally, the temperature without loss of any essential ele-
dispersed water gives the fluid a better cooling ments. They also are suitable for high-pressure
ability. Rust inhibitors are incorporated for systems.
both the water and oil phases. Anti-foam addi-
tives also are used with no difficulty. Synthetic fire resistant fluids do not operate best
in low-temperature systems. Auxiliary heating
These emulsions usually contain about 40% water may be required in cold environments.
as used in the system. However, some manu-
facturers furnish a fluid concentrate and the Also, these fluids have the highest specific
customer adds water when the fluid is installed. gravity (weight) of any type and pump inlet con-
As with the water-glycol fluid, it is necessary to ditions require special care when they are used.
replenish the water to maintain proper viscosity. Some vane pumps are built with special bodies to
provide the improved inlet conditions needed to
Other Characteristics prevent pump cavitation when a synthetic fluid is
used.
Operating temperatures must be kept low with
any water-oil emulsion to avoid evaporation and The viscosity index of synthetic fluids is gener-
oxidation. The fluid must circulate and should ally low- -ranging 'from" 80 to as low as minus
not be repeatedly thawed and frozen or the two 400. Thus, they should not be used except where
phases may separate. Inlet conditions should be the operating temperature is relatively constant.
carefully chosen because of the higher density of
the fluid and its inherent high viscosity. Synthetic fluids are probably the most costly
hydraulic fluids being used at this time.
Emulsions seem to have a greater affinity for
contamination and require extra attention to Seal Compatibility
filtration, including magnetic plugs to attract
iron particles. Synthetic fluids are not compatible with the com-
monly used Nitrile (Buna) and Neoprene seals.
Compatibility With Seals and Metals Therefore, a changeover from petroleum, water
glycol or water-oil requires dismantling all the
Emulsion fluids are generally compatible with components to replace the seals. Special seals
0,
all metals and seals found in petroleum hydraulic made of compatible materials are available for
systems. replacement on all Vickers components4 They
can be purchased singly or in kits, or can be
Change-Over to Emulsion built into new units ordered specifically for this
type fluid.
When a hydraulic system is changed over to
water-oil emulsion fluid, it should be completely Figure 3-10 is a chart showing the types of mate-
drained, cleaned and flushed. It's essential to rials that are compatible with various hydraulic
get out any contamination (such as water-glycol fluids.
fluids) which might cause the new fluid to break
down. Most seals can be left undisturbed. Butyl FLUID MAINTENANCE
dynamic (moving) seals should be replaced,
however. In changing from synthetic fluids, Hydraulic fluid of any kind is not an inexpensive
seals must be changed to those rated for petro- item. Further, changing the fluid and '.ushing
leum oil use. or cleaning improperly maintained systems is
time consuming and costly. Therefore, it's
SYNTHETIC FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS important to care for the fluid properly.
3-11
WATER-BASE FLUIDS NON-WATER-BASE FLUIDS
BUTYL, VITON,
TABll VYRAM
NEJP''i NE, NEI?PONT,
EAL ANE' SILICONE,
BUNA N, BUNA N,
PA K INC, ?.)NA N
NO CORK NO CORK TEFLON
MATERIAL FBA
"AIR CURE,
cry., AS RECOMMENDED
,ENTIONAL CONVENTI O NAL EPOXY AS
BY SUPPLIER
RECOMMEND[,
AVOID
ACCEPTABLE GALVANIZED
METALS OF CONVENTIONAL CONVENTIONAL METAL AND CONVENTIONAL
CONSTRUCTION CADMIUM
PLATING
1. Store drums on their sides. If possible, 2. Establish fluid change intervals so the
keel) them inside or under a roof. fluid will be replaced before it breaks
down. If necessary , the supplier can test
2. Before opening a drum, clean the top and samples in the laboratory at intervals to
the hung thoroughly so no dirt can get in. help establish the frequency of change.
3. Use only clean containers , hoses, etc. to 3. Keel) the reservoir filled properly to take
transfer thr fluid from the drum to the advantage of its heat dissipating charac-
hydraulic reservoir . An oil transfer teristics and prevent moisture from con-
pump equipped with 25 micron filters is densing on inside walls.
recommended.
4. Repair all leaks immediately.
Provide a 200 mesh screen in the reser-
voir filler pipe. QUESTIONS
Keeping the fluid clean and free from moisture 1. Nance four primary functioiiS of the hydrau-
will help it last 11m'11 longer and avoid contami- lic' fluid.
nation damage to close-fitting parts in the hy-
draulic components. 2. Name four quality properties of a hydraulic
fluid.
IN-OPERATION CARE
3. Define viscosity . What is the common unit
Proper in-operation care of hydraulic fluid in- of viscosity?
cludes:
4. How is viscosity affected by cold'? By heat?
1. Prevent contamination by keeping the
system tight and using proper air and 5. If viscosity is too high, what can happen to
fluid filtration. the system?
3-12
T 6. Wht is viscosity index? When is viscosity 12. What are the three basic types of fire -resis-
index important? tant hydraulic fluid?
7. Which type of hydraulic fluid has the best 13. Which type of hydraulic fluid is not compat-
natural lubricity ? ible with Buna or Neoprene seals?
8. Name several catalysts to oxidation of hy- 14. Which type of fire-resistant hydraulic fluid
draulic oil. is best for high temperature operation?
9. How are rust and corrosion' prevented? 15. How does the specific gravity of the fluid
affect the pump inlet conditions?
10. What is demulsibility?
16. What is the most important factor in good
11. What are the three factors that determine fluid maintenance?
the properties of a hydraulic oil?
CHAPTER
12
This chapter is comprised of two parts. First is specified by the American National Standards
a description of the hydraulic system "plumbing" Institute (ANSI) fronto 160 (Fig. 4-2). The
--the types of connecting lines and fittings used numbers cover ten sets of wall thickness.
to carry fluid between the pumps, valves, actua-
tors, etc. The second part deals with the pre-
I
For comparison, schedule 40 corresponds closely
vention of leakage and the types of seals and seal to standard. Schedule 80 essentially is extra
materials required for hydraulic applications. heavy. Schedule 160 covers pipes with the
greatest wall thickness under this system.
PIPING
The old double, extra heavy classification is
Piping is a general term which embraces the slightly thicker than schedule 160. Figures 4-1
various kinds of conducting lines that carry and 4-2 show pipe sizes up to 12 inches (nominal).
hydraulic fluid between components; plus the Larger sizes are available., Schedule 10, which
fittings or connectors used between the conduc- appears blank in the chart in Fig. 4-2, is used
tors. Hydraulic systems today use principally only for pipes larger than 12 inches.
three types of conducting lines: sel i e, steel
tubingand flexible hose. At preste ent, pipe is the Pipe Sealing
least expensive of the three while tubing and hose
offer more. convenience in making connections Pipe threads are tapered (Fig. 4-3) as opposed
and in servicing the "plumbing". The future may to tube and some hose fittings which have straight
see plastic plumbing, which is gradually coming threads. Joints are sealed by an interference fit
into use for certain applications. between the male and female threads as the pipe
is tightened.
Pipes
This creates one of the major disadv Cages of
Iron and steel pipes were the first conductors pipe. When a joint is broken, the pip must be
used in industrial hydraulic systems and are tightened further to reseal. Often thiF iecessi-
still used widely because of their low cost. tates replacing some of the pipe with slightly
Seamless steel pipe is recommended for hydrau- longer sections. However, the difficulty has
lic systems with the pipe interior free of rust, been overcome somewhat by using teflon tape or
scale and dirt. other compounds to reseal pipe joints.
Sizing Pipes Special taps and dies are required for threading
hydraulic system pipes and fittings. The threads
Pi e and pipe fittings are classified by nominal are the "dryseal" type. They differ from stand-
size and wall thickness. Originally; a given size ard pipe threads by engaging the roots and crests
pipe had-only-one wall thickness and the stated before the flanks; thus avoiding spiral clearance
size was the actual inside diameter. (Fig. 4-3).
Currently, wall thickness is being expressed as The many fittings necessary in a pipe circuit
a schedule number. Schedule numbers are present multiple opportunities for leakage, par-
4-1
1. THE OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF A
GIVEN SIZE PIPE REMAINS CONSTANT
WITH CHANGES IN WALL THICKNESS. 2. THE NOMINAL PIPE
IT IS ALWAYS LARGER THAN THE SIZE IS APPROXIMATELY
QUOTED SIZE IN INCHES. THE INSIDE DIAMETER OF
EXTRA HEAVY PIPE.
INSIDE DIAMETER
NOMINAL PIPE DOUBLE
SIZE O . D. EXTRA
STANDARD EXTRA
HEAVY
HEAVY
-_J t
4-2
(STANDARD) (EXTRA HEAVY) COMPARISON
INSID IAMETER
NOMINAL PIPE
SIZE O.D. SCHED . SCHED . SCHED . SCHED. SCHED. SCHED . SCHED. SCMED . SCMED . SCHED,
10 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
1/8 .405 .269 .215
1/4 .540 .364 302
3/8 .675 .493 .423
1/2 .840 .622 .546 .466
3/4 1.050 .824 .742 .614
1 1.315 1.049 .957 .815
1.'!4 1.660 1.380 1.278 1,160
1-1/2 1.900 1.610 1.500 1.338
2 2.375 2.067 1.939 1.689
2-1/2 2.875 2.469 2.323 2.125
3 3.500 3.068 2 900 2.624
3-1/2 4.000 3.548 3.364
4 4.500 4,026 3.826 3.624 3.438
5 5.563 5.047 4.813 4.563 4.313
6 6.625 6.065 5.761 5.501 5.189
8 8.625 8.125 8.071 7.981 7.813 7.625 7.439 7.189 7.001 6.813
10 10.750 10.250 10.136 10.020 9.750 9.564 9.314 9.064 8.750 8.500
12 2.750 12.250 12.090 11.934 11.626 11.376 11.064 10.750 1 10.500 . 1 10.12.
A tubing size specification refers to the outside 2. Sleeve or O-Ring Compression Fittings.
diameter. Tubing is available in 1/16 inch in- For tubing that can't be flared, or to simply
crements from 1/8 inch to one inch O. D. and in avoid the need of flaring, there are various
1/4 inch increments beyond one inch. Various sleeve or ferrule compression fittings (views
wall thicknesses are available for each size. D-F), and 0- ring compression flings (view E).
The inside diameter, as previously noted, equals The 0-ring fitting allows consid0 le variation
the outside diameter less twice the wall thickness. in the length and squareness of the tube cut.
4-3
2. SCREWS INTO THE
FEMALE THREAD IN THE
1. 1 HF TAPERED MALE FITTING OR HYDRAULIC
THREAD ON THE COMPONENT. THIS
SECTION OF PIPE ... THREAD ALSO IS TAPERED.
6. IN DRY-SEAL THREADS,
5. THERE CAN BE A THE ROOTS AND CRESTS
SPIRAL CLEARANCE AROUND ENGAGE FIRST, ELIMINATING
THE THREADS. SPIRAL CLEARANCE.
4-4
1 [I'1 '111'(1;
A PE PL U I S
USED TO PLUG
A PORT OR A NIPPLE MAKES
FITTING OPENING SHORT CONNECTIONS
THAT ISN'T USED. BETWEEN COMPONENTS
AND/OR FITTINGS.
A TEE IS USED TO
'MAKE PARALLEL CONNECTIONS
FROM A SINGLE PIPE.
90° ELBOW-OR ELL
IS USED TO CHANGE
DIRECTION. THERE ARE
ALSO 600 AND 450 ELLS.
A REDUCING BUSHING IS
USED TO GO FROM ONE
PIPE SIZE TO ANOTHER.
A REDUCING COUPLING
ALSO IS USED TO CHANGE
PIPE SIZE, BUT HAS
A UNION HAS TWO BOTH FEMALE THREADS.
THREADED FITTINGS PLUS
AN EXTERNAL NUT
TO PERMIT MAKING A STRAIGHT COUPLING
OR BREAKING A JOINT JOINS TWO PIPE SECTIONS
WITHOUT TURNING THE SAME SIZE.
THE PIPE.
A CAP CLOSES AN
OPEN PIPE END.
A STREET ELBOW
(OR ELL) HAS ONE
FEMALE AND ONE
MALE THREAD.
A GLOBE VALVE
IS USED FOR
THROTTLING FLOW.
Fig. 4-4. Fittings Make the Connections Between Pipes and Components
4-5
LOCK WASHER
SCREW
WELD
"O" RING
PIPE
F
FLANGE
LOCK WASHER
SCREW
J-=
"0" RING
FLANGE
4
Fig. 4-5. Flanged Connections for Large Pipe
4-6
STANDARD INVERTED
MI{yiCV'C}:4: ^1{iY^rf,
A. 37°FLARE FITTING
B. 45°FLARE FITTING
4-7
3. Straight Thread O-Ring Connector. When are reusable screw-on or cl„ I)-on connectors.
the hydraulic component is equipped with straight It is usually desirable to connect the hose ends
thread ports, fittings as shown in view 4-6,C can be with union -type fittings which have free-turning
used. It is ideal for high-pressure use, since nuts. The union is usually in the mating connec-
the seal becomes tighter as pressure increases. tor but may be built into the hose coupling. A
short hose may be screwed into a rigid connec-
Flexible Hose tion at one end before the other end is connected.
A hose must never be installed twisted.
Flexible hose is used when the hydraulic lines
are subjected to movement, for example, the 2. Pressure and Flow Considerations. tI
lines to a drill head motor. Hose is fabricated dustry standards recommend a safety factor of
in layers of synthetic rubber and braided fabric at least four toone , and as much as eight to one,
or wire (Fig. 4-7). Wire braids, of course, in pressure capacity. If the operating pressure
permit higher pressure. will be from 0 to 1000 psi , there should be an 8
to 1 factor of safety. From 1000 psi to 2500 psi,
The inner layer of the hose must be compatible the factor of safety should be 6 to 1; and at
with the fluid being used. The outer layer is pressures above 2500 psi , a factor of safety of
usually rubber to protect the braid layer. The 4 to 1 is recommended.
hose may have as few as three layers, one being
F h,
braid, or may have mtl^tiple layers depending on
the operating pressure. When there are multiple
wire layers, they may alternate with rubber In any nominal size pipe , the greater the schedule
layers, or the wire layers may be placed directly number the thicker the walls and the higher the
over one another. burst strength . This decreases inside cross
sectional area and increases flow velocity.
1. Hose Fittings. Fittings for hose are es-
sentially the same as for tubing. Couplings are Thus, it is necessary to see that the conductor
fabricated on the ends of most hose, though there has the required inside diameter to handle the
4-8
100
20000 90
Z7 so BASED ON FORMULA
70
.P.M. X 0.3206
AREA (30. IN.) G
VELOCITY (FT./SEC.)
80
3. A FLOW VELOCITY
OF 10 fps WILL RESULT.
.9
7
8
6 7/6 .6 MAXIMUM
3/4 S RECOMMENDED VELOCITY
5 FOR
INTAKE LINES 10
1000
4
900
800
700 3 7/16 -
600
46
t4
01 9
500 .08
2 .07
. 06 a
N
400 V4 .05
W .04 W O
W Ls.
N
_ (n Z
1- 0 .03 0
Cl, I Is 0U
Cr
w w MAXIMUM LI
a I- .02 Z RECOMMENDED
0. w < VELOCITY FOR 2
O: 2
Li 0
PRESSURE LINES- . 20 W
200
W
a O fb-
0) I- I-
O O H W
Z wO(n W
-j 0ZW -.008 W Is.
V)<I -.007 CL 30 1
< - . 006
? w2 a
J -.005 W
<
Z_ .004 0 40 O
100 i w0 W
4 0 Ua 0: J
W
L. Z < 50 >
< a=
4-9
low at recommended velocity or less, as well should be avoided because zinc can react with
s sufficient wall thickness to provide pressure some oil additives. Copper tubing also should
apacity. be avoided because vibration in the hydraulic
system can work-harden the copper and cause
'igure 4-8 is a nomographic chart that can be cracks at the flares. Moreover, copper de-
sed to ( 1) select the proper conductor internal creases the life of the oil.
.iameter if the flow rate is known or (2) deter-
nine exactly what the velocity will be if the pipe INSTALLATION RECOMMENDATIONS
;ize and flow rate are known. To use the chart,
ay a straight edge across the two known values Proper installation is essential to avoid leaks,
end read the unknown on the third column. contamination of the system and noisy operation.
Following are souse general installation recom-
3iping manufacturers usually furnish data on mendations.
pressure capacities and sizes of their conductors.
^ typical sizing chart is shown in Fig. 4-9. Cleanliness
4-10
I III III,
tubing before they are installed. Additional avoid chafing or tangling with moving parts.
information on these processes can be obtained Hose subject to rubbing should be encased in a
from component manufacturers (Fig. 4-10) and protective sleeve or guard.
from distributors of commercial cleaning equip-
ment. SEALS AND LEAKAGE
There are a number of special considerations Internal leakage, of course, is not loss of fluid.
relating to the function of the lines that should be The fluid eventually is returned to the reservoir
mentioned. either through an external drain line or by way
of an internal passage in the component.
1. The pump inlet port is usually larger than
the outlet to accommodate a larger intake line. Additional internal leakage occurs as a compo-
It is good practice to maintain this size through- nent begins' to wear and clearances between
out the entire length of the pump inlet. Keep the parts increase. This increase in internal leak-
line as large as specified and as short as possi- age can reduce the efficiency of a system by
ble. Also avoid bends and keep the number of slowing down the work and generating heat.
fittings in the inlet line to a minimum.
Finally, if the internal leakage path becomes
2. Since there usually is a vacuum at the large enough, all the pump's output may be by-
pump inlet, inlet line connections must be tight. passed and the machine will not operate at all.
Otherwise air can enter the system.
External Leakage
3. In return lines, restrictions cause pres-
sure to build up resulting in wasted power. External leakage is unsightly and can be very
Adequate line sizes should be used to assure low hazardous. It is expensive because the oil that
flow rates. Here too, fittings and bends shoulc' leaks out seldom can be returned to the system.
be held to a minimum. The principal cause of external leakage is im-
proper installation. Joints may leak because
4. Loose return lines also can let air into -they weren't put together properly or because
the system by aspiration. The lines must be vibration or shock in the line looses ed them.
tight and must empty below the oil level to Failure to connect drain lines , excess ve oper-
prevent splashing and aeration. ating pressure and contamination in the fluid all
are common reasons for seals becoming damaged.
5. Lines between actuators and speed control
valves should I short and rigid for precise flow Sealing
control.
Sealing is required to maintain pressure, to
Hose Installation prevent fluid loss , and to keep out contamination.
There are various methods of sealing hydraulic
Flexible hose should be installed so there is no components, depending on whether the seal must
kinking during machine operation. Some slack be positive or non-positive, whether the sealing
should always be present to relieve strain and application is static or dynamic, how m ich pres-
permit absorption of pressure surges. sure must be contained, and other fac t, s.
Twisting the hose and unusually long loops also Apositive seal prevents even a minute amount
are undesirable. Clamps may be required to of i uidffrom getting past.
4-11
IC KEF ZS Industrial
and Mobile
Machinery
PREPARATION OF PIPES, TUBES , AND FITTINGS
BEFORE INSTALLATION IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Gem ii.i requirernents. When installing the var- strainers or fluid that has been stored in
ious u„r and steel pipes, tubes, and fittings of contaminated containers.
a hyilt.i Iii system, it is necessary that they be
absohitely clean, free from scale, and all kinds 11. Use a#120 mesh screen when filling the re-
of foreign matter. To attainthis end, the follow- servoir . Operate the system for a short time
;r,g steps should be taken. to eliminate air in the lines. Add hydraulic
fluid if necessary.
Tubing, pipes, and fittings should be brushed
with boiler tube wire brush or cleaned with 12. Safety precautions . Dangerous chemicals
ornrnercial pipe cleaning apparatus. The are used in the cleaning and pickling oper-
inside edge of tubing and pipe should be ations to he described. They should be kept
reamed afte i cutting to remove burrs. only in the proper containers and handled
with extreme care.
Short pieces of pipe and tubing and steel
fittings are sandblasted to remove rust and
scale. Sandblasting is a sure and efficient
method for short straight pieces and fittings. PICKLING PROCESS
Sandblasting is not used , however , if there
is the slightest possibility that particles of 1. Thoroughly degrease parts in degreaser,
sand will remain in blind holes or pockets using tri-chlor Ethylene or other commer-
in the work after flushing. cial degreasing solution.
8. Be sure that all openings into the hydraulic 5. Place in tank No. 3. The solution in this
system are properly covered to keep out dirt tank should contain antirust compounds as
and metal slivers when work such as drilling, recommended by the manufacturer . Usually
tapping, welding, or brazing is being done the parts being treated should be left to dry
on or near the unit. with antirust solution remaining on them.
4-12
A non-positive seal allows a small amount of 0- Ring Seals
internal leakage; such as the clearance of a
spool in its bore to provide a lubricating film.
Probably the most common seal in use in modern
Static Seals hydraulic equipment is the O-ring (Fig. 4-12).
An. O-ring is a molded, synthetic rubber seal
A seal that is compressed between two rigidly which has a round cross-section in the free state.
connected parts is classified as a static seal.
The seal itself may move somewhat as pressure
The O-ring is installed in an annular groove
is alternately applied and released, but the mat-
machined into one of the mating parts. At in-
ing parts do not move in relation to each other.
stallation, it is compressed at both the inside
and outside diameters. HoweN-,,r, it is a pres-
Some examples of static seals are mounting
sure-actuated seal as well as a compression
gaskets, pipe thread connections, flange joint
seal. Pressure forces the O-ring against one
seals (Fig. 4-11), compression fitting ferrules
side of its groove and outward at both diameters.
(Fig. 4-6) and O-rings. Static sealing applica-
It thus seals positively against two annular. sur-
tions are relatively simple. They are essentially
faces and one flat surface . Increased pressure
"non-wearing" and usually are trouble-free if
results in a higher force against the sealing
assembled properly.
surfaces. The O-ring, therefore, is capable of
containing extremely high pressure.
Dynamic Seals
Dynamic seals are installed between parts which O-rings are used principally in static applica-
do move relative to one another. Thus, at least tions. However, they are also found in dynamic
one of the parts must rub against the seal and applications where there is a short reciprocating
therefore dynamic, seals are subject to wear. motion between the parts . They are not gener-
This naturally makes their design and applica- ally suitable' for sealing rotating parts or for
tion more difficult. applications where vibration is a problem.
GASKET
METAL-TO-METAL JOINTS
4-13
NOTE: CLEARANCES ARE
GREATLY EXAGERATED
1. THE O-RING IS INSTALLED FOR EXPLANATION
IN AN ANNULAR GROOVE
AND COMPRESSED AT BOTH
DIAMETERS.
FT
A
Fig. 4-12. An O-Ring is a Positive Seal
4-14
NOTE: CLEARANCES ARE GREATLY
EXAGERATED FOR
EXPLANATION.
2. A BACK-UP RING
PREVENTS EXTRUSION.
4-15
Back Up l?^on Extrusion) Rings thetic rubber molded in the shape of a "T", and
reinforced by back-up rings on either side. The
At high pre sure, the O - ring has a tendency to sealing edge is rounded and seals very much like
extrude into the clearance space between the an 0-ring. Obviously, this seal will not have
mating parts (Fig. 4-13). This may not be the O-ring's tendency to roll. The T-ring is not
objectionable in a static application . But this limited to short-stroke applications.
extrusion can cause accelerated wear in a dyna-
nmic application. It is prevented by installing a Lip Seals
stiff back- up ring in the 0-ring groove opposite
the pressure source. If the pressure alternates, Lip seals are low-pressure dynamic seals, used
back-up rin,; 5 can be used on both sides of the principally to seal rotating shafts.
0-ring.
A typical lip seal (Fig. 4-16) is constructed of a
Lathe-Cut Rings stamped housing for support and installation
alignment, and synthetic rubber or leather
In many static applications, the lathe - cut seal formed into a lip which fits around the shaft.
(Fig. 4-14 ) makes an acceptable substitute for an Often there is a spring to hold the lip in contact
O-ring. Lathe- cut rings are less expeit 'siie than with the shaft.
O-ring s, being cut from extruded tubes rather
than individually molded. There are many appli- Lip seals are positive seals. Sealing is aided by
cations where lathe-cut seals and O-rings are pressure up to a point. Pressure on the lip (or
interchang eable if made from the same material. .vacuum behind the lip) "balloons" it out against
the shaft for a tighter seal. High pressure can-
T-Ring Seals not be contained because the lip has no back-up.
The T-ring seal ( Fig. 4 - 15) is used extensively In some applications, the chamber being sealed
to seal cylinder pistons , piston rods and 'other alternates from pressure to vacuum condition.
reciprocating parts . It is constructed of syn- Double lip seals are available for these applica-
IN, i
i
4-16
Fig. 4-15. T-Ring is a ..Dynamic Seal, for Reciprocating Parts
SPRING HELPS
SEALING WHEN
THERE IS NO
PRESSURE.
4-17
CUP SEALS
ARE PRESSURE
ACTUATED.
4-18
tions to prevent air or dirt from getting in and Compression Packings
oil from getting out.
Compression packings (Fig. 4 - 19) were among
Cup Seals the earliest sealing devices used in hydraulic
systems and are found in both static and dyna-
A cup seal (Fig. 4-17) is it positive seal used on mic applications . Packings are being replaced
many cylinder pistons. It is pressure actuated in most static applications by 0-rings or lathe-
in both directions. Sealing is accomplished by cut seals.
forcing the cup lip outward against the cylinder
barrel. This type of seal is backed up and will Most packings in use today are molded or formed
handle very high pressures. into "U" or "V" shapes, and multiple packings
are used for more effective sealing. The pack-
Cup seals must be clamped tightly in place. The ings are compressed by tightening a flanged
cylinder piston actually is nothing more than the follower ring against them. Proper adjustment
backing plate and retainers that hold the cup seals. is critical, because excessive tightening will
accelerate wear . In some applications, the
Piston Rings packing ring is_ .spring -loaded to maintain the
correct force and take up wear.
Piston rings (Fig. 4-18) are fabricated from cast
iron or steel, highly polished and sometimes Face Seal
plated. They offer considerably less resistance
to motion than leather or synthetic seals. They A face seal (Fig. 4-20) is used in applications
are most often found on cylinder pistons. where a high pressure seal is required around
a rotating shaft. Sealing is accomplished by con-
One piston ring does not necessarily form a stant contact between two flat surfaces, often
positive seal. Sealing becomes more positive carbon and steel. The stationary sealing mem-
when several rings are placed side-by-side. ber is attached to the body of the component. The
Very high pressures can be handled. other is attached to the shaft and turns against the
1. THREADED FOLLOWER
. FLANGED FOLLOWER
3. SPRING LOADED
FEMALE SUPPORT RING
30 deg. BEVEL
GLAND
WIDTH GLAND FOLLOWER RING
4-19
'AVE WASHER PROVIDES
PRING TENSION TO FORCE
TATIONARY FACE AGAINST
;OTATING FACE. "0" RINGS PROVIDE
STATIC SEAL
4
BEARING
SHAFT
Fig. 4-20. Face Seal for High Pressure Sealing of Rotating Shaft
ationary member. One of the two parts is the most part quite compatible with oil. Elas-
ually spring- loaded to improve contact initially tomers can be made in many compositions to
d to take up wear. Pressure increases the meet various operating conditions. Most of the
)tact force and tightens the seal. As one might hydraulic equipment seals today are made of one`
;pest, the multiplicity of parts and the need for of these elastomers: Bursa-N (Nitrilc), Silicone,
•et isioi) n;achinin of the sealing faces make Neoprene, Teflon or Butyl
is tylx of scnl very (-().,;fly.
Leather Seals
iskets
Leather has survived the elastomer sealing
iskets are flat sealing devices, usually fabri- revolution because it is inexpensive and is very
ited in the shape of the flat mating surfaces to tough. Many cup seals, lip seals and compres-
sealed . Early designs of connection flanges sion packings still are being made from leather.'
d surface mounted valves were sealed with Some leather seals are impregnated with an
Lskets. Today they have been largely replaced elastomer to improve their sealing ability.
hydraulic equipment by 0-rings, lathe-cut
als or formed packings. The disadvantages of leather are a tendency to
squeal when dry and a limited temperature
AL MATERIALS range. Few leather seals are able to operate
above 165` F, which is insufficient for many
gather, cork and impregnated fibers were the modern systems. Their absolute temperature
xliest sealing materials for hydraulic equip- limit seems to be around 200'F. However,
ent. They were used extensively until after leather functions well in extreme cold--to -65" F.
e development of synthetic rubber during World
ar II. Natural rubber is seldom used as a Buna-N
aling material because it swells and deterio-
.tes in the presence of oil. The elastomer Buna-N (or Nitrile) is by far the
most widely used sealing material in modern
nthetic rubbers (elastomers), however, are for hydraulic systems. It is moderately tough, wears
1--
4-20
I
One of the earliest elastomers used in hydraulic Installation recommendations were covered
system sealing was neoprene. A tough material, earlier in this chapter. Careful installation.
it still is in limited use in low temperature with attention to avoiding pinching or cocking a
systems using petroleum fluids. Above 150°F seal, usually assures a leak-proof connection.
neoprene is unsuitable as a sealing material Manufacturers often recommend a special driver
because of a tendency to vulcanize or "cook". for inserting lip type shaft seals to be certain
they are installed correctly. Vibration and
Plastics, Fluoro-Plastics and Fluoro-Elastomers undue stress at joints, which are common causes
of external leakage, also are avoided by good
Several sealing materials are synthesized by installation practice.
combining fluorine with an elastomer or plastic.
They include Kel- F, Viton A and Teflon. Nylon Operating Conditions
is another synthetic material with similar prop-
erties. It is often used in combination with the Control over operating conditions can be very
elastomers to give them reinforcement. Both important to seal life. These are the operating
nylon and teflon are used for back-up rings as factors that can help prevent leakage:
well as sealing materials. Teflon, of course, is
used in a tape form for sealing pipe joints. All 1. Avoid Contamination. An atmosphere
have exceptionally high heat resistance (to 500°F) contaminated with moi Lure, dirt or any abrasive
and are compatible with most fluids. material shortens the life of shaft seals and
piston rod seals exposed to the air. Protective
devices should be used in contaminated atmos-
PREVENTING LEAKAGE pheres. Equally important is clean fluid to
avoid damage to internal seals.
The three general considerations in preventing
leakage are: 2. Fluid Compatibility. Some fire-resistant
fluids attack and disintegrate certain elastomer
1. Design to minimize the possibility. ( Back,' seals. Few seals , in fact , are compatible with
gasket or sub-plate mounting) all fluids . The fluid supplier should always be
4-21
Fig. 4-21. Back-Mounting Leaves Pipe Connections Undisturbed
4-22
Fig. 4-22. Manifold Contains Interconnecting Passages to Eliminate Piping Between Valves
4-23
12. Name tw pressure-actuated seals. 17. Describe the differences between Buna-N
and silicone.
13. Where are lip seals used?
18. Name three general ways to' prevent leakage.
14. Where are face seals used?
19. What does back-mounting mean?
15. What is an elastomer?
16. What is the upper temperature limit for a 20. Name three operating factors that affect seal
# ^ hthor seal'? life.
4-24
CHAPTER
RESERVOIRS AND FLUID CONDITIONERS
This chapter deals with conditioning the fluid; be drained completely. Easily removable cov,
that is, providing storage space for all the fluid as shown, are desirable for access for cleani
required in the system plus a reserve, keeping A sight glass- for checking the fluid also is hig
the fluid clean, and maintaining the proper oper- desirable. (It is far more likely that perio
ating temperature. checks will be made through a sight glass tl
with a dipstick or cover which must be remove
The storage space for the fluid, of course, is
the oil reservoir. The fluid is kept clean v The filler hole is provided with a fine me
using strainers, filters and magnetic plugs to screen to keep out contamination when the fli
the degree required by the conditions. is replenished.
The design of the circuit has considerable effect Breather. A vented breather cap is used
upon the fluid temperature. Heat exchangers, most reservoirs and should also contain an a
however, are sometimes required, particularly filtering screen. In dirty atmospheres, an
where operating temperatures are critical or the bath air filter may be better. The filter
system can,:: k dissipate all the heat that is breather must be large enough to handle the a
generated. flow required to maintain atmospheric pressui
whether the tank is empty or filled. In genera
RESERVOIRS the higher the flow rate, the larger the breath(
required. On a pressurized reservoir, of,cours
The designer of industrial hydraulic systems has a breather is not used. It is replace by an a
an advantage over his counterpart in aerospace valve to regulate the pressure in the tAink betwe(
or mobile equipment. This advantage is in a preset limits.
good deal of flexibility in reservoir design.
Baffle Plate. A baffle plate (Fig. 5-2) exten(
With almost no location or sizing problems, the lengthwise through the center of the tank; it
reservoir for a piece of shop equipment can usually about 2/3 the height of the oil level a
usually be designed to perform a number of is used to separate the pump inlet line from tl
functions. It is first a storehouse for the fluid return line so that the same fluid cannot recii
until called for by the system. The reservoir culate continuously, but must take a circuitoi
also should provide a place for air to separate route through the tank.
out of the fluid and should permit contaminants
to settle out as well. In addition, a well-designed Thus, the baffle (1) prevents local turbulence
reservoir will help dissipate any heat that is the tank, (2) allows foreign material to settle
generated in the system. the bottom, (3) gives the fluid an opportunity
get rid of entrapped air, and (4) helps increa;
Reservoir Construction heat dissipation through the tank walls.
5-1
MOUNTING PLATE
DRAIN FOR ELECTRIC MOTOR
RETURN AND PUMP
BAFFLE
PLATE
CLEAN-OUT
PLATE-BOTH ENDS
5-2
2. TURBULENCE IS AVOIDED
BY FORCING THE FLUID TO
TO TAKE AN INDIRECT PATH TO RETURN
PUMP THE PUMP INLET LI NE
avoid pressure build-up in drain passages or consider. In industrial equipment, it's cus
siphoning oil through them. Connections above tomary to provide a reservoir that holds two o:
the fluid level must be tightly sealed to prevent three gallons of liquid for each gallon per minut(
the entry of air into the system. Connections (gpm) "of pump delivery.
below the fluid level need only be tightened suf
ficiently to remain connected. Sizing Thumb Rule:
5-3
it usually refers to the filter's nominal rating.
A filter nominally rated at 10 microns, for
example, would trap most particles 10 microns
in size or larger. The filter's absolute rating,
however, would be a somewhat higher size;
perhaps 25 microns.
Filters, which may be made of many materials Pressure line filters, of course, must be able to
other than wire screen, are rated by micron withstand the operating pressure of the system.
size. A micron is one-millionth of a meter or
39-millionths of an inch. For comparison, a Return Line Filters
grain of salt is about 70 microns across. The
smallest particle a sharp eye can see is about Return line filters (Fig. 5-7) also can trap very
40 microns. small particles before the fluid returns to the
reservoir. They are particularly useful in sys-
Figure 5-4 compares various micron sizes with tems which do not have a large reservoir to
mesh and standard sieve sizes. allow contaminants to settle out of the fluid. A
return line filter is nearly a must in a system
Nominal and Absolute Ratings with a high-performance pump, which has very
close clearances and usually cannot be suffi-
When a filter is specified as so many microns, ciently protected by an inlet line filter.
5-4
RELATIVE SIZE OF MICRONIC PARTICLES
MAGNIFICATION 500 TIMES
'
0
2 MICRONS
0
8 MICRONS
0
5 MICRONS
25 MICRONS
RELATIVE SIZES
LOWER LIMIT OF' VISIBILITY ( NAKED EYE) ............................... 40 MICRONS
WHITE BLOOD CELLS ................................................... 25 MICRONS
RED BLOOD CELLS ....................................................... 8 MICRONS
BACTERIA (COCCI) ....................................................... 2 MICRONS
LINEAR EQUIVALENTS
1 INCH .25.4 MILLIMETERS 25,400 MICRONS
1 MILLIMETER . 0394 INCHES 1,000 MICRONS
1 MICRON 25, 400 OF AN INCH .001 MILLIMETERS
1 MICRON 3. 94 x 10-5 .000039 INCHES
SCREEN SIZES
MESHES PER U.S. OPENING IN OPENING IN
LINEAR INCH SIEVE NO. INCHES MICRONS
52.36 50 .0117 297
72.45 70 .0083 210
101.01 100 . 0059 149
142.86 140 .0041 105
200.00 200 .0029 74
270.26 270 .0021 53
323.00 325 .0017 44
.00039 10
.000019 .5
5-5
INDICATOR ROTATES SHOWING:
GREEN FCt CLEAN ELEMENT STRAINER ELEMENT
YELLOW FOR PARTIAL BY-PASS
RED FOR COMPLETE BY-PASSING
PUMP
TO SYSTEM
INLET
LINE
5-6
TO S STEM
INLET
LINE
5-7
Figure 5-8. Inlet Strainer is Made of Fine
Mesh Wire
:ering',Ma erials
.ering ma rials are classified as mechanical, Figure 5-9. OFM Filter uses a Surface Type
orbenl or adsorbent. Element
5-8
1. THICKNESS OF SPACERS
SANDWICHED BETWEEN PLATES 3. WHEN THIS HANDLE
DETERMINES FINENESS OF IS TURNED
FI LTERATION
8 OIL
INLET
CLEANER BLADE-
DISC OIL
OUTLET
CLEANING
ASSEMBLY ' BLADES
4. CLEANING BLADES
REMOVE MATERIAL FROM
BETWEEN PLATES
5. PLUG CAN BE
REMOVED TO FLUSH
2. CLEANING BLADES OUT SOLIDS
EXTEND INTO SPACE
BETWEEN DISCS
5-9
n edge type filter (Fig. 5-11) separates parti- Proportional-Flow Filters
es from oil flowing between finely spaced
ates. The filter shown features stationary -A proportional-flow filter (Fig. 5-13) may utilize
eaner blades which scrape out the collected the Venturi effect to filter a portion of the fluid
)ntaminants when the handle is twisted to turn flow. The oil can flow in either direction. As it
e element. passes through the filter body, a venturi throat
causes an increase in velocity and a decrease in
all-Flow Filters pressure. The pressure difference forces some
oil through the element to rejoin the main stream
he term full-flow applied to a filter means that at the venturi.
1 the flow into the filter inlet. port passes
trough the filtering element. In most full-flow The amount of fluid filtered is proportional to
lters , however , there is a bypass valve preset the flow velocity. Hence the name proportional
^ open at a given pressure drop and divert flow flow filter. Vickers OF1 series proportional-
ist the filter element. This prevents a dirty flow filters are suitable for pressure-line use to
.ement from restricting flow excessively. The 3000 psi.
ickers OFM series filter (Fig. 5-12) is of this
pe. It is designed primarily for return line Indicator Type Filters
se with nominal filtration to 10 or 25 microns
trough a surface -type element (Fig. 5-9). Indicating filters (Fig. 5-14) are designed to
signal the operator when the element needs
low, as shown, is out-ti in; that is, from cleaning . The element is designed so that it
round the element through 14 to its center. The begins to move as the pressure increases due to
ypass opens when total flo i t can no longer pass dirt accumulation. One end is linked to an indicator
trough the contaminated elf ent without raising which shows the operator just how clean or dirty
ie pressure . The element ' is replaceable after the element is. Another feature of this type of
emoving a single bolt. filter is the ease and speed with which the ele-
4. AND TO
OUTLET PORT 2. FLOWS DOWN
AROUND CARTRIDGE
CARTRIDGE
BODY
3. THROUGH FILTERING
MEDIUM TO CENTER
OF HOUSING
5-10
1. OIL ENTERS EITHER
PORT AND LEAVES BY
F OPPOSITE PORT
2. VENTURI CAUSES
LOW PRESSURE HERE
3. RESULTING I N
OUT-TO-IN FLOW
THROUGH CARTRIDGE
5-11
OIL
CONNECTIONS
COOLING
FINS
Figure 5-15 . Air Cooler Uses Motor Driven Blower to Increase Cooling
Figure 5-16 . Shell - and-Tube Heat Exchanger Uses Water to Cool or Warm Oil
5-12
ment can be reutoved and replaced. Most filters QUESTIONS
of this kind are designed for inlet line installa-
tion.
L. Name three functions of the reservoir.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
2. Where should the reservoir drain plug be
Since no system is 100 percent efficient or ever located ?
can be, heat is a common problem. For this
reason, we customarily think of cooling when the What is the most desirable method ^>1 checl
fluid must be temperature conditioned. In fact, ing fluid level in the reservoir'?
we will call the two heat exchangers illustrated
here coolers. They are designed principally to 4. What is the purpose of the reservoir breathe
cool the fluid.
5. What does a reservoir baffle plate accom-
However, there are some applications where the plish,?
fluid must be heated. For example, some fluids
with low viscosity index will not flow readily 6. Why is a return line often cut at a 45-degree
when cold and must be warmed and kept warm by angle ?
heaters.
7. What would probably be an adequate size
Air Coolers reservoir for a system with a 5 gpm pump ?
An air cooler (Fig. 5-15) is used where water 8. What is a filter ? A strainer ?
for cooling is not readily available. The fluid is
pumped through tubes bonded to fins. The fins 9. What is the micron size of a 170 sieve
are aluminum or some other metal which trans- screen?
fers heat easily from the tube to the outside air.
The cooler may incorporate a blower to increase 10. How large is a micron?
the heat transfer.
1.1. What is meant by absolute micron rating?
Water Coolers
12. Name three possible locations for a filter.
In a typical water cooler (Fig. 5-16), hydraulic
fluid is circulated through the unit and around the 1.3. What type of filter element provides precise
tubes containing the water. The water carries away control of pore size?
heat from the hydraulic fluid and can be regu-
lated thermostatically to maintain a desired 14, What does full-flow mean?
temperature. The unit may be used as a heater
by circulating hot rather than cold water through 15. What is the purpose of an indicator type
it. filter ?
CHAPTER
HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
In this chapter we will consider the output mem- acting and as differential or non-differential
ber or actuator, where design of the system Variations include ram or piston ai"i '-tact de:
actually begins.. The type of job done and the sign; and solid or te1 coping-rods. The differ-
power requirements determine what type and ences are illustrated in Figures 6-1 through 6-6
size motor or cylinder will be used. Only after with the graphical symbol for each type.
the actuator is chosen and sized can the remain-
ing circuit components be selected to complete Ram Type Cylinder (Fig. 6-1). Perhaps the sim-
the system. plest actuator is the ram type. It has only one
fluid chamber and exerts force in only one direc-
CYLINDERS tion. Most are mounted vertically and retract
by the force of gravity on the load. Practical for
Cylinders are ,linear actuators. By linear, we long strokes, ram type cylinders are used in
mean simply that the output of a cylinder is elevators, jacks and automobile hoists.
straight-line motion and/or force.
Telescoping Cylinder (Fig. 6-2). A telescoping
TYPES OF CYLINDERS cylinder is used where the collapsed length must
be shorter than could be obtained with a standard
Cylinders are classified as single - or double- cylinder. Up to 4 and 5 sleeves can be used;
t I
LOAD SYMBOL LOAD
EXTEND
6-1
I
LOAD
EXTEND . RETRACT
ROM PUMP EXHAUST TO TANK
LOAD
■J
EXHAUST
TO TANK
FROM PUMP
■ G^
Fig. 6-3. Standard Double - Acting Cylinder has Two Power Strokes
6-2
while most are single-acting, double-acting units CYLINDER CONSTRUbION
are available.
Standard Double-Acting (Fig. 6-3). The double- The essential parts of a cylinder (Fig. 6-5) are a
acting cylinder is so named because it is oper- barrel; a piston and rod; end caps and suitable
ated by hydraulic fluid in both directions. This seals. Barrels usually are seamless steel tub-
means it is capable of a power stroke either way. ing, honed to a fine finish on the inside. The
The standard double-acting cylinder is classed piston , usually cast-tibn or ,incorporates
as a differential cylinder because there are seals to reduce leakage between it and the cylin-
unequal areas exposed to pressure during the der barrel. Step cut automotive type piston rings
forward and return movements . The difference are used where some leakage can be tolerated.
being a function of the cross-sectional area of For supporting loads or very low feed rates,
the rod. The extending stroke is slower, but
a T,-ring or "O" ring with 2 heavy duty back-up
capable of exerting a greater force than can be
rings is often used. The ports of the cylinder
obtained when the piston and rod are being are in the end caps, which may be attached di-
retracted. rectly to each end of the barrel, or secured by
tie bolts. The rod packing is a cartridge type
Double-Rod Cylinder (Fig. 6-4). Double-rod cyl- including both the seal and wiper for easy re-
inders are used where it is advantageous to
placement.
couple a load' Lo each end, or where equal dis-
placement is needed on each end. They too are CYLINDER MOUNTINGS
double-acting cylinders but are classified as
non-differential. With identical areas on either Various cylinder mountings ( Fig. 6 - 64 provide
side of the piston, they can provide equal speeds flexibility in anchoring the cylinder. Rod ends
and/or equal forces in either direction. Any are usually threaded for attachment directly to
double-acting cylinder may be used as a single- the load or to accept a clevis, yoke or similar
acting unit by draining the inactive end to tank. coupling device.
ANNULAR AREAS
ARE EQUAL
6-3
HEAD CUSHION RING
OPTIONAL AIR VENTS
BRONZE BUSHING (FOR BLEEDING AIR PISTON SEALS
FROM CYLINDER)
CAP
TIE ROD
ROD WIPER
CUSHION PLUNGER
BARREL
The ratings of a cylinder include its size and GPM Effective Piston Area in Sq. In. x Speed*
pressure capability. Most come with a standard 231
rod size although intermediate and heavy duty
rods are available. Cylinder size is piston c Inches Per Minute
diameter and stroke length. The speed of the
cylinder, the output force available and the
pressure required for a given load all depend on To Find the Force Output for a Given Pressure:
the piston area (. 7854 multiplied by the diameter
squared). The area of the piston rod must be' Force (Pounds) = Pressure (psi) x
subtracted when the piston is being retracted. Effective Piston Area (Sq. In.)
6-4
FOOT AND RECTANGULAR SQUARE FLANGE
CENTERLINE FLANGE MOUNT MOUNT
LUG MOUNTS
6-5
TABLE 1
EFFECT ON
OUTPUT FORCE
CHANGE SPEED OPERATING PRESSURE AVAILABLE
Abov table assumes a constant work load. times be pressurized , most hydraulic motors
are externally drained.
Table 2 lists piston areas , output forces and
speeds ffr cylinders of various sizes. MOTOR RATINGS
6-6
I
3/4" TUBE OD 1-3/4" INT'MEO. 8.296 2.405 1.41/1.00 4148 2945 8296 5891 12444 8836 16592 11782
V. 3/4"
(1-1/16-12 THD . )
5.891
4 OD.
/4" TUBE THD 4712 12366 9424 18849 14136 ) 5132 18848
3/4„ 2" 1 NT'MED . 12.566 9 . 424 3.142 1 . 33/1.00 6283
(1-3 1/16-12 )
4.900 1.64/1.00 3833 7666 11500 15332
2-1/2" HVY . 7.666
2-1/7' STD . 23.374 4.900 1.21 /1.00 11687 23374 35061 46748
6 I„ 1" TUBE OD 3- 1/2" INT'MED . 28.274 18 . 653 9 . 621 1.52/1.00 14137 9326 28274 18653 42411 27979 56548 37306
( 1 -5/ 1 6- 12 THD .)
4" HVY. 15.708 12.566 1.80/1.00 7854 15708 23562 31416
'Straight thread connections available upon request . I "Pull" force values apply in both directions for cylinders with double-ended piston reds.
" Fluid displacement per inch of stroke is the some value (in cubic inches) as piston area ( in square inches).
Table 2
6-7
1
1. EXHAUST FLOW
PASSES FREELY OUT
OF CYLINDER UNTIL .. .
5. CHECK VALVE
2. PLUNGER ENTERS
ALLOWS FREE FLOW
CAP...
TO PISTON FOR
EXTENSION
6-8
1I
i
1 4 11 10 LB.
WITHOUT STOP TUBE SIDE
LOAD
^150 LB. REACTION FORCE AT BUSHING
10 LB.
WITH STOP TUBE SIDE
12" LOAD
BUSHING
^7^
LOAD
zUZL1qR
SIDE LOADING
OUTLET
ROTATION
6-9
A
I ur(luc 1- ^)_t^t ^11^_- in. ) Thus, a 10 pound-inch motor rated at 2500 psi
prk,s sure (psi) x . 01 can handle a maximum load of 250 pound inches:
6-10
TABLE 3
Effect On
Change Speed Operating Pressure Torque Available
Increase Pressure Setting No Effect No Effect Increases
Decrease Pressure Setting No Effect No Effect Decreases
Increase GPM Increases No Effect No Effect
Decrease GPM Decreases No Effect No Effect
Increase Displacement (Size) Decreases Decreases Increases
Decrease Displacement (Size) Increases Increases Decreases
Above table assumes a constant load.
GPM Speed (rpm) x Displacement (cu. in. /rev.) These are offset, however, by somewhat lower
231 efficiency. With current emphasis on higher
performance and more sophisticated filtering
A motor with a displacement of 10 cubic inches equipment, the trend is toward piston type
per revolution would require just over 43 gpm to motors in many machinery and mobile equipment
run at 1000 rpm. applications.
6-11
4. THESE TWO TEETH HAVE ONLY
TANK LINE PRESSURE OPPOSING
THEM
3. PRESSURE BETWEEN TEETH IN 3. PRESSURE BETWEEN TEETH I N
THIS SEGMENT PUSHES BOTH WAYS THIS SEGMENT PUSHES BOTH WAYS
AND DOES NOT AFFECT TORQUE AND DOES NOT AFFECT TORQUE
AS OIL IS CARRIED AROUND TO AS OIL IS CARRIED AROUND TO
OUTLET OUTLET
1. THIS VANE IS
SUBJECT TO HIGH OUTLET
PRESSURE AT THE
ROTATION
INLET SIDE AND LOW
PRESSURE OPPOSITE
INLET
3. THE INLET
CONNECTS TO TWO
OPPOSING PRESSURE
2. THE RESULTING FORCE
PASSAGES TO BALANCE
ON THE VANE CREATES
SIDE LOADS ON THE
TORQUE ON THE ROTOR
ROTOR.
SHAFT
VIEW B BALANCED DESIGN
6-13
1. AS THIS VANE IS
MOVING OUT OF ITS SLOT
CLIP
2. THIS VANE IS BEING FORCED'
IN.
ROCKER ARM
RING BODY
6-14
WAVE WASHER
DRIVE CARTRIDGE
LJ
3...OUTER SURFACE
OF PRESSURE PLATE
TO SEAL IT AGAINST
RING AND ROTOR
SEAT
1. WITH PRESSURE
2. ..SHUTTLE VALVE AT THIS PORT.. .
SEATS AT LEFT TO
PORT PRESSURE TO
6-15
3. AND UNDER THE VANES TO
HOLD THEM EXTENDED.
Fig. 6-15. " S2" Modification Eliminates Shuttle Valves and Rocker Arms
6-16
I
RING
ROTOR
Fig. 6-16. Ring "Throw" Determines Displacement Within a Given Package Size
These motors have fixed displacements. The flow to and from the ports. Both side plates
displacement of a' given unit, however, can be function alternately as pressure plates (Fig.
changed by installing a cam ring with more or 6-20), depending on the direction of flow.
less "throw" (Fig. 6-16).
MHT HIGH TORQUE MOTOR
Another modification of this motor is a uni-
directional or non-reversible design (Fig. 6-17). Another design of balanced vane motor is the
A check valve in its inlet port assures pressure MHT series high torque, low speed motor (Fig.
to hold the vanes extended. Thus, this design' 6-21). Available in several sizes, one size oper-
does not require rocker arms, shuttle valves, or ates from 5 to 150 rpm and has an actual torque
an external pressure source. Its application capacity of 4500 pound feet, A double version
might be a fan drive or similar device which produces 9000 pound feet. It is adaptable to
would rotate in only one direction. screw drives, mixer drives, heavy conveyors
and turntables, dumping units, winches a0d others
HIGH-PERFORMANCE VANE MOTORS where their tremendous torque capabilities can
be used to advantage.
The high performance vane motor (Fig. 6- 18) is a
later design of balanced vane motor. It develops INLINE PISTON MOTORS
torque in the same way as the "square" motor
but has significant changes in construction. Piston motors generate torque through pressure
on the ends of reciprocating pistons operating in
i In this design, the vanes are held out against the a cylinder block. In the inline design (F ig. 6-221
ring by coil springs. The entire assembly of the motor driveshaft and cylinder lock are
ring, rotor, vanes and side plates is removable centered on the same axis. Pressure a the ends
and replaceable as a unit (Fig. 6-19). In fact, of the pistons causes a reaction again, i canted
preassembled and tested "cartridges" are avail- swash plate and drives the cylinder block and
able for field replacement. motor shaft in rotation. Torque is proportional
to the area of the pistons and is a function of the
These motors also are reversible by reversing angle at which the swash plate ispositioned.
6-17
Fig. 6-17. Construction of Uni-Directional Vane Motor
VANE
FROM PUMP
TO RESERVOIR
6-18
i
COVER PORT
DRAIN
BEARING
6-19
I
COVER BODY
COUNTER
CLOCKWISE
ROTATION
PRESSURE PLATE
Fig. 6 - 20. Both Side Plates are Pressure Plates in High Performance Design
6-20
i
Fig. 6-21 . High Torque Vane Motor
6-21
5. AS THE PISTON PASSES THE
INLET, IT BEGINS TO RETURN
INTO ITS BORE BECAUSE OF
THE SWASH PLATE ANGLE. 4. THE PISTONS, SHOE PLATE,
EXHAUST FLUID IS PUSHED AND CYLINDER BLOCK ROTATE
INTO THE OUTLET PORT. TOGETHER. THE DRIVE SHAFT
IS SPLINED TO THE CYLINDER
BLOCK.
OUTLET PORT
1. OIL UNDER
PRESSURE AT INLET
2. EXERTS A FORCE
ON PISTONS, FORCING
THEM OUT OF THE
CYLINDER BLOCK
6-22
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
VALVE PLATE
CYLINDER BLOCK SUBASSEMBLY
PORT CONNECTIONS PISTON AND SHOE SUBASSEMBLY
SHOE RETAINER PLATE
SWASH PLATE IS
STATIONARY
DRIVE SHAFT
THESE PARTS ROTATE
BEARING HOUSING
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
COMPENSATOR
CONTROL PISTON
VALVE PLATE
ROTATING GROUP
PI NTLE YOKE
HOUSING
6-23
-4 I
(MAXIMUM DISPLACEMENT) (MINIMUM DISPLACEMENT)
hese motors are built in both fixed-displace- maximum performance under all lead conditions
gent (Fig. 6-23) and variable displacement models up to the relief valve setting.
rig. 6-24). The swash plate angle determines the
Lsplacement. In the variable model, the swash
BENT -AXIS PISTON MOTORS
Late is mounted in a swinging yoke, and the
ngle can be changed by various means ranging
-om a simple lever or handwheel to sophisti- Bent-axis piston motors (Fig. 6-26) also develop
ited servo controls. Increasing the swash torque through a reaction to pressure on recip-
date angle increases the torque capability but rocating pistons. In this design, however, the
educes the drive shaft speed. Conversely, cylinder block and drive shaft are mounted on an
educing the angle reduces the torque capability angle to each other and the reaction is against
ut increases drive shaft speed. Minimum angle the driveshaft flange.
tops are usually provided so that torque and
peed stay within operating limits. Speed and torque change with changes in the
angle--from a predetermined minimum rpm with
OMPENSATOR CONTROL a maximum displacement and torque at an angle
of approximately 30° to a maximum rpm with
he compensator control (Fig. 6-25) is used to minimum displacement and torque at about 72°.
ary the motor displacement in response to Both fixed (Fig. 6-27) and variable displacement
hanges in the work load. A,spring-loaded piston (Fig. 6-28) models are available.
connected mechanically to the yoke and moves
in response to variations in operating pres- The variable displacement unit can be equipped
ure. Any load increase is accompanied by a with a number of controls, including a pressure
orresponding pressure increase as a result of compensator. Output rotation is usually re-
e additional torque requirements. The control versed by reversing oil flow to and from the
en automatically adjusts the yoke so that the motor. It is not practical to reverse a motor by
)rque increases under a heavy load and de- swinging the yoke over center, since the torque
reases when the load is light. Ideally, the would go to zero and its speed infinitely high (if
ompensator regulates the displacement for it did not stall before reaching center).
6-24
1. YOKE RETURN SPRING
INITIALLY MOVES YOKE
TO MINIMUM DISPLACEMENT
POSITION FOR MAXIMUM
SPEED AND MINIMUM TORQUE 2. ADJUSTMENT SPRING
SETS INITIAL COMPENSATING
PRESSURE
ii lll9lil9l0lWlil
^•
i i11iD
9iL
3. COMPENSATOR SPOOL IS
FORCED OPEN AGAINST SPRING
5. DRAI N PASSAGE CARRIES
BY SYSTEM PRESSURE AND PORTS
CONTROL OIL BACK TO
OIL TO YOKE PISTON AT IF
MOTOR CASE.
PRESSURE SETTING.
6-25
3. UNIVERSAL LINK MAINTAINS
ALIGNMENT SO SHAFT AND
4
CYLINDER BLOCK ALWAYS
TURN TOGETHER
4. OIL IS CARRIED IN PISTON
BORE TO OUTLET AND FORCED
OUT AS PISTON IS PUSHED BACK
IN BY SHAFT FLANGE
SHAFT
TO INLET
CYLINDER BLOCK
1. OIL AT REQUIRED PRESSURE AT
INLET CAUSES A THRUST ON PISTONS
5. THEREFORE PISTON
DISPLACEMENT AND
TORQUE CAPABILITY
DEPEND ON ANGLE
6-26
fk i
PORTS
VALVE PLATE
PISTONS i OUTLET FLANGE
OUTLET FLOW
INLET FLOW
VALVE
BLOCK
CYLINDER BLOCK
ACTUATING CONTROL
(HANDWHEEL TYPE)
. 6-27
ISTON MOTOR OPERATING CHARACTERIS- to 2000 psi. What is the maximum output
ICS force?
iston motors are probably the most efficient of 4. How much pressure is required for a force
le three types discussed and generally are output of 14, 000 pounds if the effective pis-
apable of the highest speeds and pressure. In ton area of the cylinder is 7 square inches?
erospace applications in particular, they are
sect because of their high power to weight ratio. 5.. Define displacement and torque ratings of a
iline motors, because of their simple construe- hydraulic motor.
,on and resultant lower costs, are finding many
pplications on machine tools and mobile equip- 6. A winch requires 50 pound feet maximum
lent. torque to operate. What size hydraulic
motor is needed if maximum pressure must
OROUE GENERATORS be limited to 1500 psi?
6-28
CHAPTER
DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS
II
Directional valves, as the name implies, are is used universally and therefore will be shown
used to control the direction of flow. Though to designate a check valve throughout this manual.
sharing this common function, directional valves
vary considerably in construction and operation. INLINE CHECK VALVES
They are classified according to their principal
characteristics. such as: Inline check valves (Fig. 7-2) are so named
because they are connected into the line and the
Type of Internal Valving Element--poppet oil flows straight through. The valve body Is
(piston or ball), rotary spool and sliding threaded for pipe or a tubing connector, and is
spool. machined inside to form a seat for the poppet or
ball (Fig. 7-3). A light spring holds the poppet
* Methods of Actuation- -cams, plungers, seated in the normal closed position permitting
manual lever, mechanical, electric solenoid, the valve to.be. mounted in any attitude.
hydraulic pressure (pilot-operated) and
others, including combinations of these. In the free flow direction, the spri,,,, will be
overcome and the valve will crack open at about
* Number of Flow Paths--two-way, three- 5 psi pressure drop. The springs are not adjust-
way, four-way, etc. able, although a variety of sizes are available
for special requirements such as creating pilot
* Size--nominal size of pipe connections to pressure or -as a means of bypassing heat ex-
valve or its mounting plate, or rated gpm changers or oil filters in the event of high flow
flow. surges or clogging. In such instances they are
not being used as check valves in their true
* Connections- -pipe thread, straight thread, sense but rather as sequence or relief valves.
flanged, and back-mounted (sometimes
called gasket or subplate-mounted). Although operating pressures of 3000 psi are
permissible, the inline check valves are not
Finite Positioning recommended for applications in which they
could be subjected to high velocity return flow.
Most industrial directional valves are finite
positioning. That is,^hey control_w re the oil RIGHT ANGLE CHECK VALVES
goes by_opening and closinl;_flow att t h e
valve positions. You will note that the graphical A heavier-duty unit, the right angle valve, has a
symboTTfor a directional valve will contain a steel poppet and a hardened seat pressed into the
separate envelope (square) for each finite posi- iron body ( Fig. 7 -4 and 7-5). It gets its name
1P tion, showing the flow paths in that position. from the angle between the flow passage to the
poppet and the passage away from the poppet.
CHECK VALVES These valves are built in threaded, flanged con-
nected and back-connected versions. Sizes range
A check valve can function as either a directional from three gpm to 320 gpm with a wide rangc of
control or a pressure control. In its simplest cracking pressures.
form, however , a check valve is nothing more
than a one-way directional valve ( Fig. 7 - 1). It RESTRICTION CHECK VALVE'
permits free flow in one direction and blocks
flow in the otfier. A restriction check valve (Fig. 7-6) is a modifi-
cation of a simple check valve. An orifice plug
Note that the composite graphical symbol for a is placed in the poppet to permit a restricted
check valve indicates two valve positions--open flow in the normally closed position.
and closed . This is a rather complicated dia-
gram for such a simple valve, and is seldom While their usage is somewhat limited, applica-
used . Rather , the simple ball-and - seat symbol tions would include those which require a free
7-1
GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
COMPOSITE
FLOW BLOCKED AS
VALVV SEATS
FREE FLOW NO FLOW
7-2
IN OUT
FREE FLOW
7-3
IN
,RESTRICTION PLUG
IN IN
7-4
flow of fluid in one direction and a controlled Three operating conditions of the valve are
amount in the other. One example would be in shown in Figure 7-8. In views A and B there is
controlling the rate of decompression in a large no -pilot pressure and the operation is the same
press. as a conventional check valve. In A, pressure
at the head of the poppet (valve inlet) as over-
PILOT- P' RATED CHECK VALVES come spring force to open the valve a d permit
flow. In B, pressure is higher on N spring
dot-operated' check valves are designed to side of the poppet and reverse flow i, blocked.
permit free flow in one direction and to block
return flow, until opened by a pressure (pilot)
View C shows the condition when pilot pressure
signal. They are used in hydraulic presses as
is applied to the head of the pilot piston. The
prefill valves--to permit the main ram to fill by
stem pushes the poppet off its seat and allows
gravity during the "fast approach" part of the
reverse flow. The pilot pressure required to
stroke. They also are used to support vertical
unseat the poppet this way must exceed 40 per-
pistons which otherwise might drift downward
cent of the pressure in the "outlet" chamber.
due to leakage past the directional valve spool.
Two designs of pilot-operated check valves are
2C Series
identified as "2C" or "4C" models.
7-5
PISTON
UNSEATS
VALVE
POPPET
DRAIN OR
PILOT PRESSURE
PORT TO CLOSE
FREE FLOW INLET
POPPET
FREE-FLOW OUTLET
7-6
Fig. 7-10. "2C" Check Valve Operation
Figure 7-10, views A and B, show the operation cycle or preventing a cylinder from drifting due
as a conventional check valve with no pilot pres- to leakage through a directional valve.
sure imposed. Reverse flow (view C) can occur
only when a pressure e2u eeding_80_percent of the The "2C" valve is u§^d effectively to intermit-
pressure in the_.outlet chamber is effec`t''1ve tently block flow from an accumulator. It per-
against the iilot piston. mits free flow to the accumulator, and can easily
be pilot actuated to permit the accumulator to
The valve is also built in a "no-spring" version discharge even though pressure is present at
(Fig. 7-11) for applications where it is desirable both ports.
to hold the poppet either open or closed. In the
no-spring design, the drain and pilot ports both TWO-WAY AND FOUR -WAY VALVES,
act as pilot pressure ports and are reversed by
use of a separate directional valve. Pilot pres- The basic function of two-way and four-way
sure is used to hold the valve in the desired valves is to direct inlet now to either of two
position. outlet ports. As shown in Figure 7-13, flow to
the "P" .(pump) port of the valve can be directed
Pilot-Operated Check Valve Applications to either outlet port (labeled A and B for con-
venience). In the four-way valve the alternate
Figure 7-12 illustrates the basic operational port is open to the tank port permitting return
difference between the "2C" and "4C" valves. flow to the reservoir. In two-way valves the
In the "4C" type, pressure in the inlet chamber alternate port is blocked and the tank port serves
acts against the pilot piston to resist pilot oper- only to drain leakage from within the valve.
ation. In the ' 2C" type, inlet pressure assists
pilot actuation. Most of these valves are the sliding spool type,
although there are rotary valves which are used
The "4C" valve thus is used in applications principally for pilot control. They are built in
where the inlet port is connected to tank during two-position or three-position versi ns. The
reverse flow. Typical applications are blocking three-position valve has a center or neutral
flow around a volume control valve during.a feed position. Methods of actuation inclu a manual
7-7
DIRECTIONAL VALVE
REVERSES PILOT AND
DRAIN PORTS
LL
DRAI N
PILOT PRESSURE
CLOSES VALVE
PILOT PRESSURE
PRESSURE OPPOSES
PI LOT PRESSURE
ASSISTS
PI LOT
PILOT PRESSURE
7-8
CYLINDER PORT "A"
PUM P TANK
PORT " P" PORT "T"
2
-CYLINDER PORT "
TWO-WAY VALVE
GRAPjh,IICAL SYMBOLS
A B
C1
T
P T
FOUR-WAY VALVE
A
11
P T
Fig. 7 -13 . Flow Paths in Two Way and Four -Way Valves
7-9
ROTOR TURNS I N
TANK BODY TO TANK
INTERCONNECT
OR BLOCK PORTS
TT7TT
I TT X
GRAPHICAL SYMBOL
levers, mechanical cams or linkages, springs, from the "P" port to the "A" port; in the other
solenoids, pilot pressure and others. position from "P" to "B". All other ports and
passages are blocked.
ROTARY FOUR -WAY VALVE
SPOOL TYPE FOUR -WAY VALVE
A rotary four-way valve (Fig. 7-14) consists
simply of a rotor closely fitted in a valve body. The spool type four-way valve (Fig. 7-16) is
Passages in the rotor connect or block the ports identical to the two-way valve in Figure 7-15
in the valve body to provide the four flow paths except for the machining of the spool lands. The
as shown. A center position can be incorporated land width is reduced to uncover the "T" (tank)
if required- port-in the extreme positions and allow return
flow to tank.
Rotary valves are actuated manually or mechan-
ically. They are capable of reversing cylinders OPERATING CONTROLS
or motors; however, they are used principally
as pilot valves to control other valves. Spool valves can be actuated or shifted in a
number of ways. A typical manually-operated
SPOOL TYPE TWO-WAY VALVE four-way valve is shown with its graphical sym-
bol in Figure 7-16A; a mechanically-operated
In the spool type directional valve ( Fig. 7-15) a valve in Figure 7-17. Note that the basic valve
cylindrical spool moves back and forth in a symbol is the same, with the addition of the
machined bore in the valve body. Cored or controlling symbol.
machined passages from the port connections in
the body are interconnected through annular Figure 7-18 illustrates a spool type four-way
grooves ( undercuts ) in the spool or blocked by valve that is shifted by air pressure against a
the spool lands. piston at either end of the valve spool.
The two-way version permits selection of two A very common method of actuating a small
flow paths. In one position, flow is permitted spool valve is with a solenoid (Fig. 7-19). Elec-
LAND ON GROOVE BETWEEN
VALVE SPOOL LANDS COMPLETES
BLOCKS- PASSAGE FLOW PASSAGE BETWEEN A
TWO PORTS
T P T
PRESSURE TO "B"
"A" BLOCKED A B
VI
SLIDING SPOOL TO
LEFT CHANGES FLOW
GRAPHICAL SYMBOL PAT H
P T
7=11
P (PRESSURE) PASSAGE-7 / / %
fl
P A
T B
7-12
AIR INTRODUCED THROUGH CENTERING SPRINGS PUSH AGAINST
THIS PASSAGE PUSHES WASHERS CENTERING WASHERS TO
AGAINST THE PISTON CENTER THE SPOOL WHEN
WHICH SHIFTS THE NO AIR IS APPLIED
SPOOL TO THE RIGHT
SPOOL
7-13
4. THROUGH THE
DRAIN PORT OF
THE PILOT VALVE 3. EXHAUST OIL FROM
THE OPPOSITE END-IS
DIRECTIONAL VALVE
RETURNED TO TANK
PILOT VALVE
5. IN-THE REVERSE
POSITION OF THE
PILOT VALVE 6. THE DIRECTIONAL VALVE
IS SHIFTED TO THE OPPOSITE
POSITION
7-14
i
7-15
A B
TYPE
11 014
P T
A B
TYPE
" 3 11
TYPE
2
11 11
TT
P T CLOSED CENTER-ALL PORTS CLOSED
x
A B
TYPE
11 611
A B
TYPE
IIIII
s
A B
TYPE
P T TANDEM
7-16
2. WHEN SPOOL IS
ACTUATED, ONE
CENTERING SPRING
1. EXTERNAL CONTROL IS COMPRESSED BY
ACTUATES SPOOL WASHER
3. OPPOSITE WASHER
IS STATIC AND BUTTS
AGAINST VALVE BODY
WHEN DETENT
POPPET IS IN
NOTCH SPOOL
IS HELD IN
POSITION
DETENTED
7-17
rmitting two or more valves to be connected electric , limit switch controlled. l.)y the spool
series or "tandem:" movement, as well as several different solenoid
designs for special applications.
ools may be held in their centered positions by
ntering springs, by spring-loaded detents (Fig. DG3 AND DG5 SERIES VALVES
23), or by oil under pressure. The latter
ovides the fastest and perhaps most positive Larger valves in the DG series are actuated
sans of centering. hydraulically, many of them using the DG4 as
their pilot. Figure 7-27 illustrates the DG3 pilot
34 SERIES operated valve, which also is sub-plate mounted.
The spool is shifted by pressure against one end,
ie DG4 series valves (Fig. 7-24) are sliding with the opposite end open to tank. The pressure
,ool valves built for direct solenoid operation. connections from the remote pilot valve are
)rt connections are made by means of a sub- made through the mounting plate. In some
ate permitting easy removal of the valve body earlier valves, these connections are in the end
r service or replacement. The solenoids are caps.
!If -contained, push-type units which bolt to the
ids of the valve body. DG5 valves are pilot operated, solenoid con-
trolled valves with the pilot valve actually
I
ost of these valves are rated in the 10-20 gpm mounted on the main valve body (Fig. 7-28).
nge. They are built in tlh ee-position spring- Both DG3 and DG5 valves are available in spring-
ntered versions and in two position spring- centered, no-spring and spring-offset versions
fset or no-spring. Figure 7-25 illustrates the (Fig. 7-29) with various spool configurations.
ree schematically along with their graphical
'mbols. Two-inch and larger valves have flange connec-
tions rather than sub-plates and are designated
:odifications of this design include a spring- as DF3 (pilot operated) or DF5 (solenoid-con-
Ifset, cam-operated version (Fig. 7-26) with an trolled, pilot operated).
7-18
SPRING CENTERED
A B
P T
SPRING OFFSET
A B
P T
DETENTED
A B
P T
7-19
PUSH ROD TRIPS
SWITCH WHEN
CAM ACTUATES
T"
P tt "
SPOOL
ROLLER
CAM FOLLOWER)
SPRING HOLDS
VALVE OFFSET
IN NORMAL
OPERATION
1
P T
T J VV
Fig. 7-26. Cam-Operated "DG " Valve With Electric Switch
7-20
f
PILOT PRESSURE IS
INTRODUCED INTO ' T (TANK) PASSAGE
THIS CHAMBER TO SHIFT
SPOOL TO RIGHT
"A" PASSAGE
P (PRESSURE) PASSAGE
"B" PASSAGE
EXTERNAL PILOT
DRAIN PORT MANUAL OVERRIDE
TO SHIFT PILOT STAGE
MECHANICALLY WHEN
TROUBLESHOOTING
2. CAN BE DIRECTED
TO EITHER END OF
THE MAIN STAGE
SPOOL
Fig. 7-28. Typical "DG5" Type Solenoid Controlled, Pilot Operated Valve
7-21
DG3 DG5
(PILOT OPERATED VALVE) (PILOT OPERATED-SOLENOID CONTROLLED)
SPRING CENTERED
OPEN CENTER
- .--I
SPRING CENTERED
OPEN CENTER
AA
[J_ '411 1 M
PILOT PRESSURE
XIH
SYSTEM PRESSURE
SPRING OFFSET
PI LOT
SPRING OFFSET
I DRAIN
PI LOT!
PRESSURE
PILOT PRESSURE
H
SYSTEM PRESSURE
NO SPRING DETENTED
NO SPRING
PILOT PRESSURE
7-22
PILOT PRESSURE SOURCES DECELERATION VALVES
Normally, pilot pressure is supplied in the DG5 Hydraulic cylinders often have cushions built in
valves through an internal passage from the "P" to slow down the cylinder pistons at the extreme
port of the main valve (Fig. 7-29). ends of their travel. When it is necessary to
decelerate a cylinder at some intermediate posi-
Where the pump port is open to tank in the center tion or to slow down or stop a rotary actuator
position, it may be necessary to install a check (motor), an external valve is required.
valve in the tank (return) line to create pilot
pressure (Fig. 7-30). Most deceleration valves are cam operated
valves with tapered spools. They are used to
There also are conditions which make it desir- gradually decrease flow to or from an actuator
able or necessary to use an external source of for smooth stopping, or deceleration. A "nor-
pilot pressure. In this case, the internal pilot mally, open" valve cuts off flow when its plunger
connection is plugged, and pilot oil is supplied is depressed by a cam. It may be used to slow
through a separate port in the sub-plate. A a drill head cylinder down at the transition from
connection ahead of a check valve installed up- rapid traverse to feed or to stop heavy index
stream from the directional valve as shown in tables and large presses smoothly.
Figure 7-30 is one method of accomplishing this.
However, some models of the DG5 valve are Some applications require a valve to permit flow
available with a check valve installed in the when it is actuated and to cut off flow when the
pressure port of the body for this purpose. The plunger is released. In this case a "normally
pilot oil is then available internally. See Figure closed" valve is used. This type valve often is
7-31. used to provide an interlocking arrangement
whereby flow can be directed to another branch
PILOT CHOKE of the circuit when the actuator or load reaches
a certain position. Both the "normally open" and
A pilot choke (Fig. 7-32) may be incorporated to "normally closed" type valves are available with
slow the spool travel for smoother reversals or integral check valves to permit reverse free
flow. 1
to provide a brief time delay or dwell period
before the actuator is reversed.
TAPERED PLUNGER DESIGN
The pilot choke functions in effect as a meter-out
restriction valve. It allows free pilot flow to the An early design of deceleration valve (Fig. 7-35)
end of the main spool, but restricts flow out of uses a tapered plunger to reduce flow as it is
opposite end; thus reversing flow gradually and actuated by the cam. Before the plunger is
cushioning the spool ' s contact when it shifts. depressed (view A), free flow is permitted from
The controlling orifices are adjustable. Free the inlet to the outlet. Depressing the plunger
flow in is accomplished by check valves. gradually cuts the flow off (view B). Reverse
free flow (view C) is permitted by the integral
check valve.
A pilot choke assembly is available for mounting
directly on a DG3 or DF3 valve, or between the
The control range of this valve depends on the
pilot and main valves in a DG5 or DF5 valve
volume of flow and on the cam rise. At nearly
(Fig. 7-33). In other valves the choke may be
maximum volume; that is, with an initial) pres-
built into the end caps.
sure drop through the valve, there is gontrol
throughout the plunger stroke. At low flows rates,
PILOT PISTONS only part of the travel is available for control--
from the point where a pressure drop is created.
Pilot pistons (Fig. 7-34) are sometimes used
when large valve spools are shifted hydraulically. This drawback has been overcome in the adjust-
Since it is only necessary to fill the volume able orifice design valve which permits tailoring
displaced by the small piston, less pilot oil is of the valve to any given flow.
required and faster shift times can be attained.
ADJUSTABLE ORIFICE DESIGN
A differential piston is simply the incorporation
of a single piston on one end to provide differen- The adjustable-orifice design valve, model
tial areas. Constant pressure applied to the series DT15S2, is illustrated in Figure 7-36. In
smaller area of the differential piston may be this valve, a closely-fitted plunger and sleeve
used to bias the spool to one side in place of a with rectangular ports or windows are used to
spring. control flow.
7-23
TO ACTUATOR
PRESSURE LINE METHOD
2. PRESSURE
AVAILABLE TO 1, 50 psi CHECK VALVE
VALVE -a*- CREATES PRESSURE
WHENEVER PUMP IS
RUNNING. MAY BE
LOCATED IN DIRECTIONAL
VALVE BODY
TO ACTUATOR
RETURN LINE METHOD
RETURN
Wei
0000.
2. PRESSURE LINE 1. 50 psi CHECK
TO PILOT VALVE VALVE MAINTAINS
CAN BE INSIDE CONSTANT BACK
VALVE BODY PRESSURE
FROM PUMP
7-24
2. PILOT PRESSURE
FROM "P" PORT
SPRING
WN
7-25
PILOT STAGE SPOOL
JX17H114M
I L" L-L-j T
ADJUSTABLE ORIFICE
RESTRICTS PILOT EXHAUST FREE FLOW THROUGH
FLOW TO SLOW MAIN THIS CHECK VALVE WHEN
STAGE SPOOL SHIFT PILOT PRESSURE IS
DIRECTED IN
ADJUSTMENTS TO
RESTRICT PILOT
EXHAUST FLOW
STROKE ADJUSTMENTS
LIMIT MAXIMUM SPOOL
TRAVEL
7-26
it iI i I I f I I
LARGE VOLUME FILLS
SMALL VOLUME FILLS
SLOWLY SO VALVE
RAPIDLY SO VALVE
SHIFTS SLOWER TO
SHIFTS QUICKLY TO
RIGHT
LEFT
The plunger moves inside the sleeve, and the chamfered end and "vee" notch which !can, be set
ports in each coincide in the open position. Oil to by-pass the spool-sleeve closure.
entering the inlet flows through the small upper
ports in the sleeve and plunger, down through The window orifice valve is built in oth pipe-
the center of the plunger and out the large ports threaded and back-mounted versir,G. Both
to the outlet (view A). When the plunger is valves require a drain to permit lewww.age oil to
depressed, the "window" area is gradually cut escape from beneath the plunger.
off to stop flow (view B). Reverse free flow is
allowed by the integral check valve. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
7-27
MAXIMUM
CAM ANGLE
IS 350 OUT
1. FREE FLOW
PAST PLUNGER
TO OUTLET
SPRING
2. WHEN PLUNGER
IS DEPRESSED
BY CAM
7-28
I
6. ADJUSTING SCREWS PERMIT
TURNING SLEEVE TO ADJUST 2. OIL FLOWS FREELY 5. CHECK VALVE ALLOWS
INITIAL WINDOW OPENING IN THIS WINDOW REVERSE FREE FLOW
1. BEFORE PLUNGER 4. WHEN PLUNGER IS
IS DEPRESSED DEPRESSED, FLOW
STOPS HERE
"WI ND OW"
OPENING
Fig. 7•-36. This Deceleration Valve Has a "Window" Orifice In Place of Plunger Taper
7-29
FLOW CONTROL
VALVE DEPRESSING SPOOL GRADUALLY
CUTS OFF FLOW
3. Explain the function of a check valve. 9. How may pilot pressure be created for an
open-center, pilot-operated valve?
4. What is the operational difference between
"2C" and "4C" pilot-operated check valves? 10. What is the function of a pilot choke?
5. What type of directional valve is used to 11. How is the adjustable-orifice deceleration
reverse an actuator? valve an improvement over the tapered-
plunger design?
6. Name three ways to shift a four-way valve.
CHAPTER
SERVO VALVES
A servo valve is a directional valve which may The control handle or other mechanical linkage
be infinitely positioned to provide the additional is connected to the valve spool. The valve body
feature of controlling the amount as well as the is connected to and moves with the load. When
direction of fluid flow. When coupled with the the spool is actuated, it ports fluid to a cylinder
proper feedback sensing devices very accurate or piston to move the load in the same direction
control of the position, velocity or acceleration as the spool is actuated. The valve body thus
of an actuator may be obtained. "follows" the spool. Flow continues until the
body is centered or neutral with the spool. The
The mechanical servo valve or follow valve has effect. is that the load always moves a distance
been in use for several decades. The electro- proportional to spool movement. Any tendency
hydraulic servo valve is a more recent arrival to move farther would reverse oil flow to move
on the industrial scene. it back into position.
1. WHEN SPOOL IS
FROM PUMP
SHIFTED TO LEFT ...
3. VALVE BODY
MOVES WITH
LOAD AND
"CATCHES UP"
2. FLOW IS
WITH SPOOL.
DIRECTED TO
FLOW TO CYLINDER
CYLINDER ROD
THEN STOPS.
END TO RETRACT
ROD
8-1
TORQUE MOTOR AND SERVO
VALVE ARE IN SINGLE UNIT
ACTUATOR
SERVO TORQUE SERVO MOVES AT
CONTROL ELECTRICAL AMPLIFIER ELECTRICAL MOTOR MECHANICAL VALVE
HYDRAULIC CONTROLLED MECHANICAL
SIGNAL LOAD
BOOSTS ACTUATES PORTS FLUID SPEED TO
SOURCE OR HYDRAULIC CONTROLLED
SIGNAL VALVE TO ACTUATOR
POSITION
MECHANICAL
OR HYDRAULIC
1
FEEDBACK
DEVICE TELLS
Y
f LE(INC AL SERVO VALVE
IF DESIRED
VELOCITY OR
POSITION ARE
REACHED
8-2
Perhaps the most significant application of the any resultant deviation is relayed to the torqu
mechanical servo is in power steering. Some of motor as an error signal causing a correction t
the first hydraulic steering units were developed be made. The various types of electro-hydrauli
by Harry Vickers, founder of the Vickers Divi- servos can provide very precise control c
sion of Sperry Rand Corporation. Power steering positioning or velocity. Most often, the serv,
today is almost universal on full-size passenger valve controls a cylinder or motor; but whe:
cars and widely used on trucks, busses and other volume requirements are large, it may be uses
large vehicles. There are now many design to operate the displacement control of a variabl,
variations of power steering systems but all delivery pump.
operate on this same principle.
Electro-hydraulic servo valves operate essen- Figure 8-3 shows the construction and operatioi
tially from an electrical signal to a torque motor of the single stage, spool type servo valve. Th(
or similar device which directly or indirectly sliding spool is actuated directly by the torqu(
positions a valve spool. The signal to the torque motor, and opens the valve ports in proportioi
motor (Fig. 8-2) may come from a simple po- to the electric signal. Flow capacity of suct
tentiometer, a magnetic or punched tape or other valves is usually small due to the low forces an(
source. This signal, fed to the servo valve limited travel of the torque motor armature.
through a servo amplifier, "commands" the load
to move to a specific position or assume a This type valve is back-mounted with O-rin€
specific velocity. The amplifier also receives seals. It can be bolted to a mounting plate of
an electrical signal fed back by a tachometer to a manifold attached to a hydraulic motor
generator, potentiometer or other transducer "Manifolding" the valve this way reduces the
connected to the load. This feedback is com- amount of oil under compression; a critical
pared with the original "command" input, and factor in servo circuits.
ELECTRICAL
2. CAUSES SPOOL TO SHIFT CONNECTOR TORQUE MOTOR
A DISTANCE PROPORTIONAL
TO ELECTRIC SIGNAL.
I
1. DEFLECTION OF TORQUE
MOTOR ARMATURE ...
TANK
MECHANICAL CONNECTION
8-3
VO-STAGE SPOOL TYPE SERVO VALVES pressure is equal at both ends of the spool. A
controlled amount of oil continuously flows
vo-stage spool servo valves (Fig. 8-4) are'u'sed through orificed passages to nozzles that termin-
sere larger flow rates are desired. In this ate at the flapper, then to exhaust.
sign, the torque motor actuates a pilot valve
side a ported sleeve. The pilot valve, when When a signal to the torque motor moves the
ifted, directs fluid to shift the main valve armature, the flapper moves toward one or the
ool. The' main valve spool ports fluid to the other of the nozzles. The balance of flow is
tuator. changed through the orifices and nozzles, caus-
ing pressure to increase on one end of the spool
achanical Feedback and decre, ;e on the other. The spool then moves
until the pressure difference is balanced by the
ie mechanical feedback linkage in this valve tension of the spool springs. Internal feedback
is the pilot valve act as a "follow" valve. is provided by a mechanical linkage from the
)vement of the main spool is transmitted back spool to the flapper.
the pilot valve sleeve to effectively "center"
e pilot valve when the main spool has moved The distance the spool moves, and therefore the
e desired increment. The feedback linkage amount of oil it meters, depends on how far the
lcrum is (variable so that the ratio of main flapper is deflected. This in turn depends on the
pool movement to that of the pilot spool can be size of the electrical signal to the torque motor.
much as 5-1/2 to one. A high input signal results in a high volume of
flow, a low signal in a low volume.
)ntrol Pressure
In a velocity control, the valve will be initially
)ntrol pressure for this valve is usually taken actuated by a large signal during acceleration.
om a separate source. It can be taken from As load speed increases , an opposing signal
e supply pressure by incorporating a pressure from the load will reduce the effective signal to
educing valve and accumulator . The separate the torque motor to just what is required to
rurce s preferred because: maintain the desired velocity. A positioning
control will provide a feedback signal exactly
1. It provides more flexibility for trimming equal to the initial input but of opposite polarity
the system. at the desired position. Thus the valve spool is
shifted back to center to stop flow to the actuator
2. It permits separatef filtering of the con- when the desired position is reached.
trol fluid, which may be critical.
Because of very small orifice sizes and low
3. It prevents load pressure fluctuation from pressure differentials, this type valve is limited
affecting pilot spool response. to low volume applications.
the flapper type servo valve (Fig. 8-6), a Jet Pipe Operation
iding spool is actuated by a pressure differ-
ice on the two ends. Normally, a control The pilot section of the valve consists of the jet
8-4
2. IN NEUTRAL, LARGE
PILOT END IS BLOCKED
AT PILOT VALVE I N 3. CONTROL PRESSURE
THE STATIC CONDITION. IS PRESENT HERE AND
THIS PRESSURE = 1/2 CONTROL AT SMALL END OF
PRESSURE. (Pc) MAIN SPOOL
LINKAGE FULCRUM
(VARIABLE)
VIEW A
8-5
1. WHEN TORQUE MOTOR
MOVES PILOT VALVE TO LEFT...
2. LARGE END OF SPOOL 6. SLEEVE FOLLOWS
RECEIVES INCREASED CONTROL PILOT SPOOL AND
PRESSURE AND SPOOL MOVES CUTS OFF FLOW
TO RIGHT WHEN DESIRED MAIN
PILOT STAGE SPOOL POSITION IS
SLEEVE REACHED
3. SUPPLY PRESSURE IS
OPENED TO PORT "A" LINKAGE FULCRUM
(VARIABLE)
TORQUE MOTOR
ARMATURE
C -' 1 LS
2A SPOOL
END AREA 7. RATIO OF MAIN
SPOOL TO PILOT
SPOOL MOVEMENT
4. AND PORT "B" IS ADJUSTABLE.
IS OPENED TO
TANK
5. FEEDBACK LINKAGE
TRANSMITS SPOOL
MOVEMENTS TO SLEEVE
OF PILOT SPOOL.
VIEW B
8-6
1. WHEN TORQUE MOTOR
4. SPRI NG CAUSES SHIFTS PILOT SPOOL TO
PILOT SLEEVE TO RIGHT...
FOLLOW MAIN SPOOL
MOVEMENT
TORQUE MOTOR
ARMATURE
2. PRESSURE HERE
IS REDUCED ...
R.a
FEEDBACK LINKAGE
VIEW C
8-7
RELIEF
VALVE VARIABLE
ORIFICE
SERVO
VALVE
,'PISTON-TYPE
RELIEF MOTOR
VALVE'
8-8
2. ORIFICE SIZE CHANGES ...
FLAPPER
NOZZLE
1. AS CURRENT
IS CHANGED IN
COIL ...
000
000
SPRING ^^cOIL
0000
000
000 A NGING
3. CHA
000
s 0000 0 OUTPU T PRESSURE
000
000 VARIABLE
OUTPUT
PRESSURE
VIEW A
SE3 SCHEMATIC
EQ UAL
SIZE
FIXED
Ps 0 ORIFICES
VIEW B
SE3 CONNECTED 4-WAY
(f
:B *
L-E
2:1 AREA
RATIO
CYLINDER
VIEW C
SE3 CONNECTED 3-WAY
8-9
JET PIPE
NOZZLE FEEDBACK SPRING
CONTROL
PRESSURE
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTOR
CYLINDER CYLINDER
8-10
CHAPTER
PRESSURE CONTROLS
9
4ressure control valves perform functions such flow through the valve increases, the poppet is
as limiting maximum system pressure or regu- forced farther off its, seat causing increasec
lating reduced pressure in certain portions of a compression of the spring. Thus, when the
circuit , and other functions wherein their actua- valve is bypassing its full rated flow, the pres-
tion is a result of a change in operating pressure] sure can be considerably higher than the crack-
Their operation is based on a balance between ing pressure.
pressure and spring force . Most are infinite
positioning; that is , the valves can assume Pressure at the inlet when the valve is passing
various positions between fully closed and fully its maximum volume is called full-flow pres-
open , depending on flow rate and pressure dif- sure. The difference between full-flow pressure
ferential. and cracking pressure is sometimes called
pressure override.
Pressure controls are usually named for their
primary function, such as relief valve, sequence In some cases, pressure override may not be
valve, brake valve, etc. They are classified by objectionable. In others, it can result in con-
type of connections, size and pressure operating siderable wasted power due to the fluid lost
range. The valves covered in this chapter are through the valve before its maximum setting is
typical of the pressure controls in most indus- reached. It can permit maximum system pres-
trial systems. sure to exceed the ratings of other components.
Where it is desirable to minimize override, a
RELIEF VALVES compound relief valve should be used.
Pressure Override The restricted flow through the orifice into the
upper chamber results in an increase in pres-
vhe pressure at which the valve first begins to sure in the lower chamber. This unbalances thE
divert flow is called the cracking pressure. As hydraulic forces and tends to raise the piston of:
9-1
3. SPRING TENSION
DETERMINES SETTING...
SPRING HOLDS
PISTON SEATED
INLET
(FROM PUMP)
5. WHEN VALVE SETTING
IS REACHED, PUMP FLOW
2. WHEN PRESSURE HERE IS DIRECTED TO TANK
IS LESS T HAN VALVE
SETTING, 'VALVE REMAINS
CLOSED.
9-2
Fig. 9-2. Compound Relief Valve
its seat. When the difference in pressure be- control, the remote valve must be set for a
tween the upper and lower chambers is sufficient lower pressure than the integral pilot stage. An
to overcome the force of the light spring (ap- application of remote pressure control is illus-
proximately 20 psi), the large piston unseats trated in Chapter 13.
permitting flow directly to tank. Increased flow
through the valve causes the piston to lift further "R" TYPE VALVES
off its seat but since this compresses only the
light spring very little override is encountered. The "R" type valve ( Fig. 9 - 6) is a direct - acting
sliding spool type pressure control valve. The
Vent Connection spool operates within a valve body and is held in
the closed position by an adjustable spring.
Compound relief valves may be remotely con- Operating pressure sensed through a passage in
trolled by means of an outlet port from the the bottom cover opposes the spring load. The
chamber above the piston. When this chamber spool area is such that with the heaviest spring
is "vented" to tank, the only force holding the normally used , the valve would open at approxi-
piston on its seat is that of the light spring;and mately 125 psi. To extend their pressure range,
the valve will open fully at approximately 20 psi. most models include a small piston or plunger in
See figure 9-4. the bottom cover to reduce the pressure reaction
area to 1/8 (1/16 in the 2000 psi range) of the
Occasionally, this standard spring is replaced by area of the spool end. When operating pressure
a heavier one permitting "vent" pressures of exceeds the valve setting,the spool is raised and
50-70 psi when required for pilot pressure. A oil can flow from the primary to the secondary
second benefit of the high vent spring is that it port.
causes faster and more positive seating of the
piston. A drain passage is provided in the top cover to
drain the spring chamber. This drain also re-
It also is possible to connect a simple relief moves leakage oil from the space between the
valve to the venting port to control pressure spool and piston by means of a passage drilled
from a remote location (Fig. 9-5). To exercise lengthwise through the spool.
9-3
4. WHEN THE VALVE
SETTING IS REACHED,
THE POPPET "OPENS" 7. VENT CONNECTION
LIMITING PRESSURE PERMITS UNLOADING
3. SPRING HOLDS
IN UPPER CHAMBER. PUMP THROUGH
PISTON CLOSED.
RELIEF VALVE.
1. INLET PRESSURE
HERE...
VIEW A VI EW B VIEW C
CLOSED CRACKED RELIEVING
9-5
i
i
SEC.
pRI.
ADJUSTING SCREW
SECONDARY SPRING
PORT
CHECK VALVE
SPOOL
PISTON
9-6
Depending on the assembly of the top and bottom "R" TYPE SEQUENCE VALVE
covers, this valve can be used as a relief valve,
sequence valve or unloading valve. It is also \,A "'sequence valve is used to cause actions to take
built with an integral check valve ("RC" type) to place in a system in a definite order, and to
permit reverse flow when used as a sequence, maintain a pre-determined minimum pressure in
counterbalance or brake valve. the primary line while the secondary operation
occurs. Figure 9-9 shows the "R" valve assem-
"R" TYPE RELIEF VALVES bled for sequencing. Fluid flows freely through
the primary passage to operate the first phase
until the pressure setting of the valve is reached.
Figure 9-7 illustrates the "R" valve assembled As the spool lifts (View B),flow is diverted to the
for relief valve operation. The pressure line is secondary port to operate a second phase. A
connected to the primary port and the secondary typical application is clamping from the primary
port is connected to tank. This application per- port and feeding a drill head from the secondary
mits the valve to be internally drained and the after the work piece is firmly clamped.
upper cover is assembled with the drain passage
aligned with the secondary port. The lower To maintain pressure in the primary system, the
cover is assembled so that operating pressure is valve is internally operated. However, the drain
sampled internally from the primary port making connection must be external, since the secondary
it necessary to maintain maximum system pres- port is under pressure when the valve "se-
sure to keep the valve open. quences. " If this pressure were allowed in the
drain passage, it would add to the spring force
In view A, the system pressure against the piston and raise the pressure required to open the
is too low to overcome the spring and the valve valve.
remains closed. In view B, pressure has shifted
the spool to allow flow to the secondary port and
to tank at the pressure determined by the spring
"RC" TYPE SEQUENCE VALVE
setting.
The "R" type sequence valve is suitable for
With the small' piston, this valve is capable of systems where it can be installed upstream from
operation at higher pressures. However, be- the directional valve. If it is installed down-
cause of its relatively high override character- stream (in a cylinder line), some provision must
istics, it is not recommended for use as a relief be made for return free flow when the eylinder
valve above 500 psi. is reversed. A bypass check valve can be used,
or the "R" valve can be replaced with the "RC"
valve (Fig. 9-10), which has an integral check
"R" TYPE UNLOADING VALVE valve for return flow. The operation otherwise
is identical.
To use the same valve as an unloading valve
(Fig. 9-8), the lower cover is assembled to
REMOTELY OPERATED SEQUENCE VALVE
block the internal operating pressure passages.
An external pressure source is used to move the
spool and divert pump delivery to the secondary In some systems, it is desirable to provide an
port. The drain connection remains internal, interlock so that sequencing does not occur until
since the secondary port is still connected to the the primary actuator reaches a definite position.
tank. In these applications, the bottom cover on the
sequence valve is assembled for demote opera-
Note the operating difference between the un- tion. A cam-operated directional valve blocks
loAhng and re ie v ves (`Fig. 9-7, view B) The the control pressure from the piston in the bot-
relie" ve operates in balance, being held open tom cover until the clamp cylinder reaches the
at one of an infinite number of positions by the prescribed position. Only then is the sequence
flow of oil through it. Maximum pressure main- valve permitted to shift and direct flow to the
tained at the primary port is determined by the second operation.
spring adjustment. With the unloading valve,
however, the primary port pressure is independ-
"RC" TYPE COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
ent of the spring force because the xemote pres-
sure source operates the spool. As long as the
control pressure is at least 150 psi above the A counterbalance valve is used to maintain con-
spring setting, free flow is permitted from the trol over a vertical cylinder so that it will not
primary to the secondary port. fall freely because of gravity. The primary port
SPRING ADJUSTMENT
END CAP FLOW TO TANK
DRAIN IS CONNECTED
INTERNALLY TO
TANK PORT
BODY
CONTROL PRESSURE
OPERATES ON PISTON
PRIMARY PORT PRESSURE HAS
DIRECTLY FROM
IS CONNECTED RISEN TO . SPRING
INTERNAL CONNECTION
TO PRESSURE LINE SETTING
A-CLOSED B-RELIEVING
INTERNAL DRAIN
FLOW IS
UNRESTRICTED
SECONDARY
PORT TO
TANK
PRIMARY PORT
FROM PUMP
VIEW A VIEW B
CLOSED UNLOADING
9-9
PRIMARY TO
SYSTEM SECONDARY
PRESSURE SYSTEM
LI NE
EXTERNAL DRAIN
RETURN FLOW
TO DIRECTIONAL
VALVE AND TANK
Fig. 9-10. "RC" Type Sequence Valve Permits Reverse Free Flow
9-10
Fig. 9-11. "RC" Type Counterbalance Valve
of the "RC" valve is connected to the lower "RC" TYPE BRAKE VALVE
cylinder port and the secondary port to the
directional valve (Fig. 9-11). The pressure
setting is slightly higher than is required to hold A brake valve is used in the exhaust line; of a
the load from falling. hydraulic motor to (1) prevent overspeeding
when an overrunning load is applied to the motor
When the pump delivery is directed to the top of shaft and (2) prevent excessive pressure build up
the cylinder, the cylinder piston is forced down when decelerating or stopping a load.
causing pressure at the primary port to increase
and raise the spool, opening a flow path for dis- When the "RC" valve is used as a broke valve,
charge through the secondary port to the direc- it has a solid spool (no drain hole through center);
tional valve and subsequently to tank. In cases and there is a remote operating pressure con-
where it is desired to remove back pressure at nection in the bottom cover directly under the
the cylinder and increase the force potential at spool (Fig. 9-12). This connection is steed into
the bottom of the stroke, this valve too can be the supply line to the motor. The integnal con-
operated remotoly. trol connection also is used under tie small
piston and senses pressure from thee, primary
When the cylinder is being raised (view B), the port of the "RC" valve which is connected to the
integral check valve opens to permit free flow motor exhaust port.
for returning the cylinder.
Accelerating the Load
The counterbalance, valve can be . internally
drained. In the lowering position (view A), when
the valve must open, its secondary port is con- When the load is being accelerated, p,',.' ssure is
nected to tank. In the reverse condition, it does maximum at the motor inlet and under the large
not matter that load pressure is effective in the area of the brake valve spool holding it in the
drain passage, because the check valve by- full open position permitting free flow from the
passes the spool. exhaust port of the motor.
9-11
SPOOL IS HELD WIDE LOW PRESSURE HERE
OPEN (NO RESTRICTION WHEN DIRECTIONAL
TO MOTOR EXHAUST) VALVE IS CENTERED
PRESSURE CREATED
HERE EQUALS THAT
REQUIRED TO LIFT
SPOOL ALLOWING
EXHAUST FLOW.
REMOTE CONTROL (BRAKING FORCE)
PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY
UNDER SPOOL
(LARGE AREA)
-----------•----, DRAIN
w w
OPEN
PASSAGE
TO DRAIN HOLE I N
SECONDARY 69 "Y" TYPE STEM ELIMINATED "X" TYPE
SYSTEM
VIEW A VIEW B
9-12
At Operating Speed A, Fig. 9-13), the stem of the balanced piston
is hollow. Secondary system pressure below the
When the motor gets up to speed, load pressure piston is sensed at the top of the stem, and
still holds the brake valve open unless the load balances the pressure under the stem. Second-
tries to run away. If this happens, the pressure ary system. pressure then has no affect on the
falls off at the motor inlet and in the remote piston movement. The piston thus remains
control pressure passage (view B). The spring infinite positioning and maintains the preset
force tends to close the valve thus increasing the pressure in the primary system. As the piston
back pressure. This in turn raises the drive opens at the preset pressure, flow is routed to
line pressure to the motor and, under the small the secondary system. Reverse flow is not
piston holding the valve at the proper metering possible. If required, a check valve is used to
position to maintain constant motor speed. permit flow from secondary to primary.
9-13
LEAKAGE FLOW
KEEPS VALVE
SLIGHTLY OPEN
SPRING HOLDS
VALVE OPEN
OUTLET INLET
l
TO'REDUCED PRESSURE \MAI
FROM
SYSTEM N
SYSTEM
A. BELOW VALVE SETTING B. AT VALVE SETTING
ADJUSTING SCREW
DRAIN
I NLET-r
REDUCED REDUCED
PRESSURE PRESSURE
OUTLET OUTLET
CONTROL PRESSURE
A. SYSTEM PRESSURE IS B. REGULATING SECONDARY
BELOW VALVE SETTING SYSTEM PRESSURE
9-14
PILOT- OPERATED PRESSURE REDUCING Again, the outlet port is never entirely closed.
VALVES When no flow is called for in the branch system,
there is still a continuous flow of some 60-90
The pilot-operated pressure reducing valve. (Fig. cubic., inches per minute--through the spool ori-
9-15) has a wider range of adjustment and gen- fice and the pilot valve to drain.
erally provides more accurate control. The
operating pressure is set by an adjustable spring REVERSE FREE FLOW
in the pilot stage in the upper body. The valve
spool in the lower body functions in essentially The valve illustrated in Figure 9-15 will handle
the same manner as the direct acting valve reverse flow only if the system pressure is less
discussed previously. than the valve setting. If reverse flow pressure
is higher, a bypass check valve is required.
This is an integral part of the valve shown in
Figure 9-15, view A, shows the condition when
Figure 9-16.
supply pressure is less than the valve setting.
The spool is hydraulically balanced through an
orifice in its center, and the light spring holds it
UNLOADING RELIEF VALVE
in the wide-open position.
An unloading relief valve (Fig. 9-17) is used in
accumulator charging circuits to (1) limit maxi-
In view B, pressure has reached the valve set- mum pressure and (2) unload the pump when the
ting and the pilot valve is diverting flow to the desired accumulator pressure is reached.
drain passage limiting pressure above the 'spool.
Flow through the orifice in the spool creates a In construction, it contains a compound, bal-
i pressure difference that moves the spool up anced piston relief valve, a check valve to
against the spring force. The spool partially prevent reverse flow from the accumulator and a
closes the outlet port to create a pressure drop pressure operated plunger which vents the relief
from the supply to the branch system. valve at the selected pressure.
CHECK VALVE
ALLOWS REVERSE
FREE FLOW.
9-15
Fig. 9-17. Unloading Relief Valve
Figure 9-18, view A, illustrates the flow condi- 1. Name three functions of pressure control
tion when the accumulator is charging. The valves.
relief valve piston is in balance and is held
seated by its light spring. Flow is through the 2. Where are the ports of a relief valve con-
check valve to the accumulator. nected?
Because of the difference in area between the 8. What is the purpose of high venting?
plunger and poppet seat (approximately 15%),
when pressure drops to about 85 percent of the 9. Name three applications of the "R" valve.
valve setting,the poppet and piston reseat and the
cycle is repeated. 10.. Name three applications. of the "RC" valve.
9-16
PLUNGER
CHECK
VALVE
TO
SYSTEM
POPPET
PISTON
AREA
DIFFERENCE
A
CHARGING
TO
SYSTEM
9-17
11. What does a sequence valve do? 15. Which type of sequence valve is finite posi-
tioning?
12. Is a sequence valve internally or externally
drained? 16. What is the purpose of a pressure reducing
valve ?
13. What is the purpose of a counterbalance
valve ? 17. Which type of pressure control is normally
open?
14. What is the purpose of the second pressure
control connection in the brake valve? 18. What are the functions of the unloading relief
valve ?
CHAPTER
VOLUME CONTROLS
la
lume or flow control valves are used to regu- placed between the pump and actuator(Fig. 10-1
late speed. As was developed in earlier chap- In this way, it controls the amount of fluid goir
ters, the speed of an actuator depends on how into the actuator. Pump delivery in excess c
much oil is pumped into it per unit of time. It is the metered amount is diverted to tank over th
possible to regulate flow with a variable dis- relief valve.
placement pump , but in many circuits it is more
practical to use a fixed displacement pump and With the flow control valve installed in th
regulate flow with a volume control valve. cylinder line as shottWn, flow is controlled in on
direction. A check valve must be included in th
FLOW CONTROL METHODS flow control or placed in parallel with it to
return flow. If it is desired to control speed i
There are three basic methods of applying vol- both directions, the flow control can be installer
ume control valves to control actuator speeds. in the pump outlet line prior to the directiona
They are meter-in, meter-out and bleed-off. valve.
FROM
DIRECTIONAL
VALVE
10-1
a vertical cylinder under load or pushing a Its disadvantage is some loss of accuracy be-
d at a controlled speed. cause the measured flow is to tank rather than
into the cylinder, making the latter subject to
ter-Out Circuit variations in the pump delivery due to changing
work loads.
-ter-out control (Fig. 10-2) is used where the
id might tend to "run away." The flow control Bleed-off circuits should not be used in applica-
located where it will restrict exhaust flow tions where there is a possibility of the load
>m the actuator. running away.
F LOW
CONTROL
VALVE
0 RETURN
F--"\
FROM 0 010
DIRECTIONAL
VALVE
on
CONTROLLED
F LOW
10-2
RETURN
6J FLOW
CONTROL
VALVE
RESERVOIR
VOLUME CONTROLLF
WHEN FLOW IS THIS WH f
CHECK
VALVE
FREE FLOW I N
THIS DIRECTION
10-3
essure compensated flow controls are further tion as a compound relief valve whenever work
rssified as restrictor and by-pass types. Both load requirements exceed its setting. The by-
lize a compensator or hydrostat to maintain a pass flow control can only be used in a meter-in
nstant pressure drop across an adjustable circuit. If used for metering out, exhaust oil
°ottle. which could not get through the throttle would be
diverted to tank permitting the load to run away.
ke By-Pass Type - combines overload protec-
)n with pressure compensated control of flow The Restrictor Type Flow Control - also main-
ig. 10-5). It has a normally closed hydrostat tains a constant 20 psi differential across its
rich opens to divert fluid, in excess of the throttle by means of a hydrostat (Fig. 10-6). In
rottle setting, to the tank. Pressure required this valve, the hydrostat is normally open and
the work load is sensed in the chamber above tends to close off blocking all flow in excess of
e hydrostat and together with a light spring the throttle setting. In these units, the work load
nds to hold it closed. Pressure in the chamber pressure acts with a light spring above the hy-
low the hydrostat increases due to the restric- drostat to hold it open. Pressure at the throttle
)n of the throttle and cauq s it to raise divert- inlet and under the hydrostat tends to close it,
g any excess flow to = when the difference permitting only that oil to enter the valve that 20
pressure is sufficient to gvercome the spring. psi can force through the throttle.
his difference, usually 20' psi , is maintained
;ross the throttle providing a constant flow Because of their tendency to close off when flow
Sgardless of the work load. Some horsepower tries to exceed the throttle setting, restrictor
wing is accomplished in that the pump need type valves may be used in meter-in, meter-out
)erate at only 20 psi above work load pressure. and bleed-off circuits. Unlike the by-pass type,
two or more restrictor valves may be used with
verload protection. is provided by an adjustable the same pump since the excess pump delivery
gyring loaded poppet which limits the maximum returns to tank through the relief valve.
ressure above the hydrostat,causing it to func-
FROM PUMP
ADJUSTABLE
THROTTLE
NOTCH
CONTROLLED FLOW
TO LOAD
RELIEF VALVE
PLOT POPPET
10-4
.SPRING LOAD SETS
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
ACROSS THROTTLE
TO LOAD THIS AREA EQUALS
COMBINED AREAS OF
ANNULUS AND STEM
HYDROSTAT PISTON IS
BALANCED BETWEEN
INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
BELOW AND LOAD PRESSURE
ABOVE
ANNULUS
FROM PUMP
LAND BLOCKS
THROTTLE EXCESS FLOW AND
CONTROLS STEM FORCES IT OVER
FLOW RELIEF VALVE
10-5
ADJUSTABLE
THROTTLE TF : 2MOMETER INDICATES
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
PERPENDICULAR ARROW
I NDICATES PRESSURE COMPENSATOR
COMPENSATION
THROTTLE
ADJUSTMENT
FREE FLOW
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATING
CHECK VALVE
ROD EXPANDS WITH HEAT
TO REDUCE THROTTLE SIZE
COMPENSATOR
TORQUE
MOTOR
10-6
When placed in cylinder lines an integral check to signals to the torque motor. Operation
valve is optional to provide free flow for a rapid otherwise the same as a pressure compensat
return stroke (Fig. 10-7). One would not be flow control valve.
required for valves placed in the main supply
line, the tank line of a directional valve or when
they are used in bleed-off circuits. QUESTIONS
Temperature Compensated Flow Control Valve 1. Name two ways of regulating flow to an
actuator.
Flow through a pressure compensated flow con-
trol valve is subject to change with variations in 2. What are the three methods of applying flow
oil temperature. Later design Vickers valves control valves ?
incorporate a temperature compensating feature.
Although oil flows more freely when it is hot, 3. Under what conditions would you use each?
constant flow can be maintained by decreasing
the size of the throttle opening as the tempera- 4. How can the same valve r ontrol flow in both
ture rises. directions of actuator movement?
This is accomplished through a compensating 5. What is the difference between a by - pass and
rod which lengthens with heat and contracts when restrictor type flow control?
cold (Fig. 10-8). The throttle is a simple plun-
ger that is moved in and out of the control port. 6. What is pressure compensation?
The compensating rod is installed between the
throttle and its adjuster. 7. How is temperature compensation indicated
in a valve symbol?
This design also is available with a reverse
free-flow check valve. 8. When might temperature compensation be
needed?
Remote Flow Control Valves
9. What is the advantage of the flow control and
Remote flow control valves (Fig. 10-9) permit relief valve over a conventional flow control?
adjustment of the throttle size by an electrical
signal. The throttle spool is linked to the arma- 10. How is the throttle positioned in a remote
ture of a torque motor and moves in response flow control valve ?
CHAPTER
11
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
The pump is probably the most important and by the weight of the fluid itself and friction.
least understood component in the hydraulic
system. Its function is to convert mechanical Most non-positive displacement pumps (Fig. 11-1)'
energy to hydraulic energy by pushing the hy- operate by centrifugal force whereby fluids en-
draulic fluid into the system. Pumps are made tering the center of thj pump housing are thrown
in many sizes and shapes--mechanical and man- to the outside by means of a rapidly driven
ual--with many different pumping mechanisms impeller. There is no positive seal between the
and for many different purposes. All pumps, inlet and outlet ports and pressure capabilities
however, fall into one of two basic categories, are a function of drive speed.
hydrodynamic or hydrostatic.
While they provide smooth continuous flow their
HYDRODYNAMIC output is reduced as resistance is increased. It
is, in fact, possible to completely block off the
Hydrodynamic, or non-positive displacement outlet while the pump is running. For this and
pumps such as centrifugal or turbine designs are other reasons non-positive displacement pumps
used primarily in the transfer of fluids where, are seldom used in hydraulic systems as we
the only resistance encountered is that created know them today.
EYE
INLET
OUTLET
IMPELLER IMPARTS
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
TO CAUSE PUMPING
ACTION
OUTLET
11-1
IYDROSTATIC Most pumps have a fixed displacement which
cannot be changed except by replacing certain
lydrostatic or positive displacement pumps as components. It is possible in some, however,
.heir name implies provide a given amount of to vary the size of the pumping chamber and
'luid for every stroke, revolution, or cycle. thereby the displacement by means of external
Their output except for leakage losses is inde- controls.
?endent of outlet pressure making them well
suited for use in the transmission of power. Certain unbalanced vane pumps and many piston
units can be varied from maximum to zero
Pump Ratings delivery, with some being capable of reversing
their flow as the control crosses a center or
Pumps are generally rated by their maximum neutral position.
operating pressure capability and their output in
gpm at a given drive speed. Delivery in gpm
Pressure Ratings A pump may be nominally rated as a 10 gpm unit.
Actually it may pump more than that under no-
The pressure rating of a pump is determined by
load conditions and less than that at its rated
the manufacturer based upon reasonable service
operating pressure. Its delivery too will be
life expectancy under specified operating condi-
proportional to drive shaft speed. Most manu-
tions. It is important to note that there is no
facturers provide a table or graph (Fig. 11-2)
standard industry wide safety factor in this rat-
showing pump deliveries and horsepower re-
ing. Operating at higher pressure may result in
quirements under specific test conditions as to
reduced pump life or more serious damage.
drive speeds and pressures.
Displacement
Volumetric Efficiency
The flow capacity of a pump can be expressed as
its displacement per revolution or by its output In theory, a pump delivers an amount of fluid
in gpm. equal to its displacement each cycle or revolu-
tion. In reality, the actual output is reduced
Displacement is the volume of liquid transferred because of internal leakage or slippage. As
in one revolution. It is equal to the volume of pressure increases, the leakage from the outlet
one pumping chamber multiplied by the number back to the inlet or to the drain increases and
of chambers that pass the outlet per revolution. volumetric efficiency decreases.
Displacement is expressed in cubic inches per
revolution. Volumetric efficiency is equal to the actual out-
Performance data is based on input speed at 1200 rpm, pumping petroleum base fluid
at 120°F. Minimum recommended drive speed for all series is 600 rpm. Characteristics
at other drive speeds are approximately proportional to rpm. For performance data when
using other than petroleum base fluids, see applicable installation drawing.
Recom-
mended Delivery, gpm Horsepower Input
Model Numbers
Head Bolt Drive at 1200 rpm at 1200 rpm
Torque in Speed-
Inch Pounds
Foot Flange maximum 0 500 1000 0 500 1000
Mounting Mounting rpm psi psi psi psi psi psi
11-2
i
put divided by the theoretical output. It is High pressure at the pump outlet imposes an
expressed as a percentage. unbalanced load on the gears and the bearings
supporting them.
.Actual output
:fficiency
Thc(irotic;fl wfput Figure 11-4 illustrates a typical internal gear
pump; in this design, the pumping chambers also
For example, if a pump theoretically should are formed between gear teeth. A crescent seal
deliver 10 gpm but delivers only 9 gpm at 1000 is machined into the valve body between the inlet
psi its volumetric efficiency at that pressure is and outlet where clearance between the teeth is
90%. maximum.
Effieien < y t) 10 0 rtr 'a0" Also in the general family of gear pumps is the
lobe or rotor pump (Fig. 11-5). This pump
GEAR PUMPS operates on the same principle as the external
gear pump, but has a higher displacement.
A gear pump (Fig. 11-3) develops flow by carry-
ing fluid between the teeth of two meshed gears. The gerotor pump (Fig. 11- 6) operates much like
One gear is driven by the drive shalt and turns the internal gear pump. The inner rotor is
the other. The pumping chambers formed be- driven and carries the outer rotor around in
tween the gear teeth are enclosed by the pump mesh. Pumping chambers are formed between
housing and side plates (often called wear or the rotor lobes. The crescent seal is not used.
pressure plates). Rather, the tips of the inner rotor contact the
outer rotor to seal the chambers from each
A partial vacuum is created at the inlet as the other.
gear teeth unmesh. Fluid flows in to fill the
space and is carried around the outside of the Gear Pump Characteristics
gears. As the teeth mesh again at the outlet the
fluid is forced out. Most gear type pumps are fixed displacement.
DRIVE GEAR
11-3
6. THROUGH THIS
1. OIL ENTERI NG HERE ... PORT.
5. TO THIS POINT,
WHERE CONSTANT
MESHING OF TWO
2. BY THE CONSTANT GEARS FORCES OIL ...
WITHDRAWAL OF TEETH
ON THIS GEAR... CRESCENT SEAL
INNER GEAR
OUTLET
INLET
11-4
Fig. 11 - 6. Gerotor-Type Pump
11-5
hey range in output from very low to high chambers and then is pushed into the outlet as
plume. Because of the shaft side loading, they the space decreases. The displacement of the
re usually low pressure units although some pump depends on the width of the ring and rotor
iay be used up to 3000 psi. and on the "throw" of the ring (Fig. 11-8).
11-6
1. WHEN PRESSURE IS GREAT
ENOUGH TO OVERCOME
COMPENSATOR SPRING
FORCE, THE RING SHIFTS TO
DECREASE ECCENTRICITY.
MAXIMUM
VOLUME STOP
SCREW
2. ADJUSTMENT OF
COMPENSATOR SPRING
DETERMINES PRESSURE
AT WHICH RING SHIFTS.
ROTATION
INLET
ie displacement of the balanced design cannot A two-stage pump (Fig. 11-14) functions as a
adjusted Interchangeable rings (Fig. 11-8) single pump, but with double the pressure capa-
•e available with different cams making it pos- city. The round pump cartridge is designed for a
ble to modify a pump to increase or decrease maximum pressure of 1000 psi. In the two-stage
s delivery, version, two cartridges function in series (Fig.
11-15) and operating pressures up to 2000 psi
sound" Vane Type Pumps are split equally between them by means of a
dividing valve. Two pistons in the dividing valve,
n early design of Vickers balanced vane pumps sense pressure at the pump outlet and in the
illustrated in Figure 11-11. These are re- chamber between the two pumping units. The
^rred to as "round" pumps because of the shape piston exposed to outlet pressure has one-half
I the body and head. The pumping cartridge the area of the piston acted on by the intermedi-
ansists of a ring, rotor, vanes, locating pin ate pressure.
ad two side plates. The side plates in this
esign are usually called bushings because their Any difference in the displacements of the two
ubs are machined to support the rotor hubs. pumping cartridges tends to increase or decrease
1riveshaft support bearings are in the head and the intermediate pressure. This causes the
ody. pistons to move permitting flow into or out of the
FLANGE
RING MOUNTING
BRACKET
PACKING,, \ BEARING SHAFT SEAL
VANE
SHAFT
AV
SCREW
SLOT FOR FLUID
FLOW
BUSHING
BUSHING
FOOT
MOUNTING
BRACKET
11-8 ,
chamber as required to assure an equal pres- for rapid approach while a cylinder is at low
sure drop across each stage. pressure, and reduced volume at high pressure
for clamping, pressing or feeding. The outlet
COMBINATION PUMPS port for the high volume unit is plugged and the
deliveries of the two cartridges are intercon-
Combination pumps (Fig. 11-16) are double nected through the check valve (Fig. 11-18). A
pumps which contain integral valving for relief relief valve is connected to the pressure line of
and unloading functions. A typical unit (Fig. the low volume pump and an unloading valve to
11-17) consists of two pumping cartridges in a the high volume outlet.
housing with a single inlet port and separate
outlets. The relief valve built into the housing Low Pressure Advance -- When the load is
is the compound, balanced piston type and the initially advancing, pressure is below the set-
unloading valve is the "R" type. A check valve tings of both valves, and they remain closed.
is installed in the line between the two pump Flow from the high volume unit passes through
outlets in some combinations. In others, the the check valve and joins the output of the low
check valve is replaced by a plug. With the volume cartridge going to the actuator.
internal valving, the pump is, in effect, a circuit
in itself except for the tank, directional valve, High Pressure Low Volume
and actuator.
When pressure sensed at the pump outlet ex-
Following is a brief description of the most ceeds the setting of the unloading valve, flow
frequently used combinations. from the large cartridge is bypassed to tank at
little or no pressure and the check valve closes.
Combination 3 -- Single Outlet Unloading System The small volume cartridge continues to deliver
oil to the system up to relief valve setting at
To conserve horsepower , the type 3 combination which time the relief valve opens and returns the
pump may be used instead of a single pump in oil to the tank. Input horsepower (electric motor
applications which require a large volume of oil size) is determined by the greater of two condi-
11-9
RAPID ADVANCE
RAPID ADVANCE
S LOW
SLOW
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VENTING TYPE
VALVE
RELIEF VALVE
DOUBLE
VANE
PUMP
DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
REMOTE
CONTROLLED RELIEF DOUBLE VANE
VALVE PUMP
UNLOADING
VALVE
11-10
Fig. 11-14. Typical Two Stage Pump
tions: total volume of both cartridges at the loading phase, pressure in the spring chamber
unloading valve setting, or volume of the small at the back side of the relief valve poppet is
unit at the relief valve setting plus whatever is maintained at the setting of the unloading valve
required to drive the larger one unloaded. To poppet. Maximum outlet pressure, I. e. , the
assure proper operation the unloading valve relief valve setting, is determined by the pres-
setting should be adjusted to open at least 150 sure in the chamber and the non-adjustable
psi below the relief valve setting. spring behind the poppet. The valve of the latter
is such that the relief opens when operatingpres-
Combination 33 -- Single Adjustment Unloading sure exceeds the unloading valve setting by 125 psi.
System.
Combination 6 -- Two Outlets System
This combination is a variation of the combina-
tion 3 and simplifies adjustment by providing a In the combination 6 (Fig. 11-20) a plug is placed
single pressure control adjustment. Unloading in the interconnecting passage so that each unit
pressure is automatically set at 125 psi below operates as a separate pump having its own
the relief valve pressure setting. Operation is outlet. The R valve is modified to function as a
as follows (see Fig. 11-19): compound relief valve for the large volume pump
while the small pump is protected as in the other
As in the combination 3 both valves remain units.
closed when outlet pressure is below their set-
tings. Flow from both pumping units is supplied Other Combinations
to the system.
The design of these units is such that many other
When outlet pressure rises to the amount deter- combinations are possible, however, their usage
mined by the adjustment, the unloading valve is. too infrequent to cover them in detail.
poppet opens and subsequently the spool lifts to
unload the large volume pump unit to tank at low "Square" Vane Type Pumps
pressure. The check valve closes to prevent
loss of small cartridge output. During this un- The "square" vane type pumps (Fig. 11-21) were
11-.11
1. SMALL PISTON ACTED ON BY
OUTLET PRESSURE IS 1/2 AREA
OF LARGE PISTON ACTED ON
BY INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE.
PISTONS MOVE TO MAINTAIN
EXACT 2-TO-1 PRESSURE RATIO.
2 . I F INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
LESSENS, PISTONS MOVE TO
RIGHT AND BLEED EXCESS
FLOW TO INTERMEDIATE
PASSAGE TO MAKE UP FIRST
CARTRIDGE VOLUME DEFICIENCY.
OUTLET
3. I F INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
RISES PISTONS MOVE LEFT AND
BLEED EXCESS FIRST CARTRIDGE
INTERMEDIATE (FIRST VOLUME TO PUMP INLET.
STAGE OUT) PRESSURE
11-12
OUTLET 2
x
OUTLET 1
ALL COMPONENTS
WITHIN ENCLOSURE
ARE CONTAINED I N
A SINGLE HOUSING.
designed originally for mobile applications. slots. Return flow is restricted as the vanes
They are also hydraulically balanced, but their move back holding them firmly against the ring.
construction is much simpler than the round
pumps. The cartridge consists of a ring sand- If it is necessary to reverse the drive shaft
wiched between the pump body and cover, a rotation the ring must be removed and reassem-
rotor, twelve vanes and a spring loaded pressure bled with the opposite side facing the pump body.
plate. The inlet port is in the body and the outlet Directional arrows cast on the outer edge of the
in the cover which may be assembled in any of ring facilitate this procedure.
four positions for convenience in piping.
These pumps are manufactured in a variety of
sizes. Cartridges with different displacements
Operation
are available for each of them.
The spring (Fig. 11-22) holds the pressure plate Double pumps have a common inlet in a center
in position against the ring at all times. As housing. (See Fig. 11-23.) The outlet for one,
outlet pressure builds up it acts with the spring usually the larger unit is in the shaft end body
to offset pressures within the cartridge which and the other in the cover.
tend to separate it. Proper running clearance is
determined by the (relative) ring and rotor Cartridge construction is essentially the same
widths. as in single units making numerous combinations
of sizes and displacements possible.
Initial starting is accomplished by spinning the
rotor and shaft fast enough (approximately 600 "High Performance" Vane Pumps
rpm) for centrifugal force to throw the vanes out
against the ring generating the pumping action. The latest design of balanced vane pumps is the
An interrupted (annular) groove in the pressure high performance series which is capable of
plate permits free flow of pressurized fluid into higher pressure and speed. A typical single
chambers under the vanes as they move out pump of this design is shown in FIgdre 11-24 and
under the vanes as they move out of the rotor double pump in Figure 11-25. Operation is
11-13
OUTLET 1
OUTLET 2
(MAY BE PLUGGED
DEPENDING UPON
CIRCUIT)
UNLOADING VALVE
LARGE VOLUME
PUMPING CARTRIDGE
INLET 1
COMPOND TYPE
RELIEF VALVE
SMALL VOLUME
PUMPING CARTRIDGE
CHECK VALVE OR
PLUG BEHIND THIS
PLUG (DEPENDS ON
CIRCUIT)
11-14
Fig. 11- 18. Single Outlet Unloading System
11-15
W
11-16
0
11-17
J
II
OUTLET
INLET
COVER
PRESSURE PLATE
ROTOR
VANE
RING
DISCHARGE &.
SYSTEM
PRESSURE
EFFECTIVE
HERE
PRESSURE PLATE
11-19
OUTLET
INLET HOUSING FORMS BACKING
PLATE FOR BOTH CARTRIDGES
OUTLET
BODY
COVER
RING
HOUSING ROTOR
THESE
PARTS
ARE
INCLUDED
IN
CARTRIDGE-
ASSEMBLY
11-20
OUTLET HOUSING 'INLET HOUSING
too OUTLET BODY
1 BRING
PRESSURE PLATE
VANE
INSERT
ROTOR
I I
THESE PARTS ARE IN SECOND CARTRIDGE
ONE CARTRIDGE ASSEMBLY ASSEMBLY
Fig. 11-25. High Performance Double Pump Construction
INLET OR
OUTLET
PRESSURE
INLET
11-21
essentially the same as the corresponding square contact with the ring in the inlet quadrants to
pumps. There are, however, important design assure proper "tracking. "
differences.
Preassembled Cartridge
[ntra-Vane Design
The cartridge used in the high performance
pump (Fig. 11-27) is preassembled from a ring,
Sigh performanc(e cartridges incorporate intra- rotor, vanes, vane inserts, pressure plate, wear
ranes or small inserts in the vanes to vary the plate, locating pins and attaching screws. Re-
)utward force from pressure in the high and low placement cartridges are available (pre-tested)
)ressure quadrants (Fig. 11-26). for fast replacement.
3oth the round and the square pumps previously They are assembled as right hand or as left hand
nentioned utilize outlet pressure on the under- rotating units but can be reassembled for oppo-
;ide of the vanes at all times. site rotation if required. Arrow and locating
pins serve as guides.
n the sizes and pressure ranges available in the
sigh performance units this feature could result When properly assembled flow direction remains
to high loading and wear between the vane tip and the same in both the right and left hand rotating
he inlet portion of the cam ring. units.
PRESSURE PLATE
(OUTLET)
RING
SCREW
LOCATING PIN
11-22
9
Dowel pins locate the cartridge within the cover available as fixed or variable displacement
and it, too, must be rotated, otherwise the inlet models. A radial pump has the pistons arranged
port may be restricted. radially in a cylinder block (Fig. 11-28) while in
the axial units the pistons are parallel to each
Vane Pump Operating Characteristics other and to the axis of the cylinder block (Fig.
11-32 ). The latter may be further divided intc
Vane pumps cover the low to medium high vol- in-line (awash plate or wobble plate) and bent
ume ranges with operating pressures up to 3000 axis types.
psi. They are reliable, efficient, and easy to
maintain. The ring surface and vane tips are the Radial Piston Pumps
points of greatest wear , which is compensated
for by the vanes moving farther out of their In a radial pump the cylinder block rotates on a
slots. stationary pintle and inside a circular reaction
ring or rotor. As the block rotates centrifugal
Cleanliness and the proper fluid are essential to force, charging pressure or some form of me-
long life. Petroleum oil having adequate anti- chanical action causes the pistons to follow the
wear qualities is recommended. However, many inner surface of the ring which is offset from the
vane pumps are operating successfully with centerline of the cylinder block. As the pistons
synthetic fluid. reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintlE
permits them to take in fluid as they move out-
PISTON PUMPS ward and discharge it as they move in.
All piston pumps operate on the principle that a The size and number of pistons (there may be
piston reciprocating in a bore will draw in fluid more than one bank in a single cylinder block;
as it is retracted and expel it on the forward and, of course the length of their stroke deter-
stroke. mines pump displacement . In some models the
displacement can be varied by moving the reac-
Two basic designs are radial and axial, both are tion ring to increase or decrease piston travel
CYLINDER BLOCK
CENTERLINE
INLET
REACTION RING
11-23
PINS TRANSMIT
SPRING FORCE
TO SPHERICAL
WASHER WHICH
I N TURN HOLDS
PISTON SHOE PLATE
(RETRACTOR RING)
SHOE PLATE
OUT.
VALVE PLATE
ROTATING GROUP
:11-24
External controls of several types are available as their stroke length, the latter being a function
for this purpose. of the swash plate angle.
Swash Plate Design Inline Piston Pumps In variable displacement models of the Inline
pump, the swash plate is installed inja movable
In axial piston pumps, the cylinder block and yoke. (Fig. 11-31). "Pivoting" the yokel on pintles
drive shaft are on the same centerline and the changes the swash plate angle to increase or
pistons reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft. decrease the piston stroke (Fig. 11-32). The
The simplest type of axial piston pump is the yoke can be positioned manually, with a servo
swash plate inline design (Fig. 11-29). control, with a compensator control, or by any
of several other means . Figure 11-31 shows a
The cylinder block in this pump is turnedby the compensator control. Maximum angle on the
drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores in the cylin- units shown is limited to 172 degrees by con-
der are connected through piston shoes and a struction.
retracting ring, so that the shoes bear against
an angled swash plate. Compensator Operation
As the block turns (Fig. 11-30), the piston shoes Operation of the Inline pump compensator control
follow the swash plate, causing the pistons to is shown schematically in Figure 11-33. The
reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the control consists of a compensator valve balanced
valve plate so that the pistons pass the inlet as between load pressure and the force of a spring,
they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as a piston controlled by the valve to move the yoke,
they are being forced back in. and a yoke return spring.
OUTLET
PORT
INLET
PORT. DRIVE SHAFT
SWASH PLATE
SHOE PLATE
CYLINDER BLOCK BORE (RETRACTOR RING)
1. PISTONS WITHDRAW
FROM BORE AT INLET
11-25
YOKE PIVOTS TO CHANGE
SWASH PLATE ANGLE
COMPENSATOR
SHAFT SEAL
BEARING
PI NTLE
SWASH
HOUSING PLATE
NO
STROKE
1
Fig. 11 - 32. Variation in Pump Displacement
11-26
2. COMPENSATOR SPOOL
PORTS OIL TO PISTON WHEN
PRESSURE SETTING IS REACHED.
4. ADJUSTMENT SPRING
SETS COMPENSATING
YOKE PRESSURE .
LOAD PRESSURE
11-27
to overcome the valve spring, the spool is dis- Bent-Axis Piston Pumps
placed and oil enters the yoke piston. The piston
is forced by the oil under pressure to decrease In a bent axis piston pump (Fig. 11-34), the
the pump displacement. If the pressure falls cylinder block turns with the drive shaft, but at
off, the spool moves back, oil is discharged an offset angle. The piston rods are attached to
from the piston to the inside of the pump case, the drive shaft flange by ball joints , and are
and the spring returns to the yoke to a greater forced in and out of their bores as the distance
angle. between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block
changes (Fig. 11-35). A universal link keys the
The compensator thus adjusts the pump output to cylinder block to the drive shaft to maintain
whatever is required to develop and maintain the alignment and assure that they turn together.
preset pressure. This prevents excess power The link does not transmit force except to accel-
loss by avoiding relief valve operation at full erate and decelerate the cylinder block and to
pump volume during holding or clamping. overcome resistance of the block revolving in
the oil filled housing.
Wobble Plate Inline Pump
Changing Displacement
A variation of the inline piston design is the
wobble plate pump. In a wobble plate pump, the The displacement of this pump varies with the
cylinder is stationary and the canted plate is offset angle (Fig. 11-36 ), the maximum angle
turned by the drive shaft. As the plate turns, it being 30 degrees, the minimum zero.
"wobbles" and pushes against spring-loaded
pistons to force them to reciprocate. Fixed displacement models (Fig. 11-34) are
usually available with 23-degree or 30-degree
Separate inlet and outlet check valves are re- angles. In the variable displacement construc-
quired as in a reciprocating pump, because the tion (Fig. 11-37) a yoke with an external control
cylinders do not move past the ports. is used to change the angle. With some controls,
VALVE
PLATE
SEAL
CYLINDER
BLOC K
UNIVERSAL DRIVESHAFT
PISTON LINK KEYS FLANGE
BLOCK TO
DRIVES HAFT
11-28
UNIVERSAL LINK
PISTON ROD
CYLINDER BLOCK
ROTATING SHAFT CAUSES
PISTONS TO RECIPROCATE
OIL FORCED TO
OUTLET AS PISTON
IS PUSHED BACK
INTO CYLINDER
TO OUTLET
PISTON IS WITHDRAWING
FROM BORE AT INLET
FROM INLET
11-29
MAXIMUM PISTON STROKE
MAXIMUM ANGLE
REDUCED STROKE
LESS ANGLE
NO STROKE
NO ANGLE
the yoke can be moved over center to reverse quired to overcome the compensator spring
the direction of flow from the pump. force.
11-30
CYLINDER
BLOCK
PISTON
DRIVE SHAFT
FLANGE
YOKE CAN BE
POSITIONED TO
VARY DISPLACEMENT
DRIVE SHAFT
YOKE STROKING
CYLINDER
UNIVERSAL LINK
11-31
....................................
11-32
I
w
Y
0
Q:f ()
c') U- -
0 W
W =
UJz3
= N
W
= CO % Ln
X L, p Z Z
11 Zw
<U=
ZY=QD ZW L/n
W
O =N> -j
>
_j
aD O
-1 LL
Lu
LL'u, O O
3 J
F- N
19
14
11^1^^1111'1^1
G
O
U
11-33
UNIT HOUSING
SYSTEM
PRESSURE
YOKE
DID
HOLDING
CYLINDER
T
ADJUSTING
SCREW
5. How much oil does a vane pump rated for 5 13. How can displacement be varied in an axial
gpm at 1200 rpm deliver at 1800 rpm? piston pump?
11 -34
CHAPTER
This chapter deals with various accessories gas, or it raises a weight. Any tendency for
used to perform special functions in hydraulic pressure to drop at the inlet causes the element
systems. The subjects covered are accumula- to react and force the fluid back out.
tors, intensifiers, pressure switches and in-
struments. WEIGHT -LOADED ACCUMULATOR
ACCUMULATORS The earliest type of accumulator built was the
weight-loaded design (Fig. 12-1). A vertical
Unlike gases the fluids used in hydraulic sys- ram or piston has provision for adding or re-
tems cannot be compressed and stored for usage moving weights to vary the pressure. Pressure
at a different time or place. Where it can be is always equal to the' weight imposed divided by
used to advantage an accumulator provides a the piston or ram area exposed to the hydraulic
means of storing these incompressible fluids fluid. This is the only type of accumulator where
under pressure. It does so because of the fact pressure is constant, whether the chamber is
that as the hydraulic fluid under pressure enters full or nearly empty. Weight-loaded accumula-
the accumulator chamber it does one of three tors, however, are heavy and bulky and their
things: it compresses a spring, it compresses a use is limited. They may be found on some
\NEI GHTS
3-
ne
t?
a
PRESSURE EQUALS
WEIGHT DIVIDED
B'r"PISTON AREA
12-1
SPRING
GAS
HYDRAULIC
FLUID
12-2
heavy presses where constant pressure is re- Diaphragm or Bladder Type
quired or in applications where unusually large
volumes are necessary. Many accumulators incorporate a syntheti
rubber diaphragm or bladder (Fig. 12-4), t
SPRING -LOADED ACCUMULATORS contain the gas precharge and separate itfror.
the hydraulic fluid. Since certain fire resistar,
In a spring loaded accumulator (Fig. 12-2), fluids may not be compatible with conventiona
pressure is applied to the fluid by compression diaphragm or bladder materials it is importan
of a coil spring behind the accumulator piston. that proper selection be made.
The pressure is equal to the instantaneous spring
force divided by the piston area. Available oil can vary between 1/4 and 3/4 o
total capacity depending upon operating condi
51^rin;. h^ure tions. Operation outside these limits can caul,
11ressurc
A rr,t the separator to stretch or wrinkle and shorter
its life.
Vorrc^ Sprin,, C.,nst.rnl (Com-
pr(.ssion Di.- tancc) Piston Type Accumulator
The pressure therefore is not constant since the Another method of separating the gas charge
spring force increases as fluid enters the cham- from the hydraulic fluid is by means of a free
ber and decreases as it is discharged. piston (Fig. 12-5). Similar in construction to ,
ti hydraulic cylinder the piston under pressure o
Spring loaded accumulators can be mounted in the gas on one side constantly tries to force the
any position. The spring force, i. e. , the pres- oil out of the opposite side of the chamber. Her
sure range is not easily adjusted, however, and too pressure is a function of the compressio;
where large quantities of fluid are required the and varies with the volume of oil in the chamber
forces involved would make spring sizes im-
practical. APPLICATIONS
Fig. 12 -4. Diaphragm Accumulator Uses Rubber Separator Between Gas and Liquid
GAS CHAMBER
PISTON
12-4
11
12-5
is a word of caution the accumulator must. be PRESSURE SWITCHES
clocked out of the circuit or completely dis-
harged before attempting to disconnect any Pressure switches (Fig. 12-7) are used to make
Hydraulic lines. Never try to disassemble an or break (open or close) electrical circuits at
.ccumulator without releasing the pre-charge selected pressures to actuate solenoid operated
ihether it be gas, weights, or springs. valves or other devices used in the system.
ELECTRICAL
SWITCHES
PRESSURE ON THESE
PLUNGERS ACT AGAINST
SPRING FORCES.
PRESSURE
DRAI N PORT
PORT
SPRING TENSION
SPRINGS PUSH AGAINST PUSH
(PRESSURE)
RODS TO HOLD SWITCHES
ADJUSTING
NORMALLY ACTUATED
SCREWS
12-6
WITH NO PRESSURE AT PORT,
SPRINGS ARE FULLY EXPANDED AT LOW PRESSURE SETTING
AND PUSH RODS ACTUATE PLUNGER WILL COMPRESS
SWITCH, CLOSING CONTACTS SPRING ALLOWING PUSH
SHOWN BY DASHED LINES. ROD TO MOVE DOWN AND
FRONT SWITCH OPENS
COMPLETING CIRCUIT
SHOWN BY DASHED LINES.
12-7
v using both switches in conjunction with an opening, the tube tends to straighten. This
lectrical relay, system pressures may be main- actuates linkage to the pointer gear and moves
tined within widely variable high and low ranges. the pointer to indicate the pressure on a dial.
wo principal types of pressure gauges are the It is desirable to incorporate one or more gauge
ourdon tube and Schrader types.. In the Bourdon connections in a hydraulic system' for conven-
the gauge (Fig. 12-9), a sealed tube is formed ience in set -up and testing, although gauge ports
i an arc. When pressure is applied at the port are included in most relief valves and in some
TUBE TENDS TO
STRAIGHTEN UNDER
PRESSURE CAUSING
50 POINTER TO ROTATE.
60
Io
PRESSURE INLET
12-8
INLET
CONNECTING LINK
is
SLEEVE
MOVES
LINKAGE
WHEN
PRESSURE
PISTON IS
APPLIED
12-9
Fig. 12 -12. Gauge Installed with Shutoff Valve and Snubber
LONG, NARROW,
RESTRICTED OPENING SPIRAL PASSAGE
FOR FLOW
12-10
other hydraulic components. When a gauge is the weight to a height proportional to the flow.
installed permanently on a machine, a shutoff For more accurate measuremi nt, a fluid motor
valve and snubber (Fig. 12-12) are usually in- of known displacement can be used to drive a
stalled along with it. The shutoff valve prolongs tachometer. The gpm flow is:
gauge life by isolating it from the system except
when it is desired to make a reading. The L i1
grill
snubber ( Fig. 12 - 13) prevents the gauge from
oscillating and protects it from pressure surges.
A small coil ( approx. 2" diam. ) of 1/8 inch tubing Of course , the tachometer can be calibrated
makes an excellent gauge damping device when directly in gpm as well as rpm.
commercially made units are not available.
Another type of flow meter (Fig. 12 - 16) incorpo-
Flow Meters rates what is called a disk piston which when
driven by the fluid passing through the measuring
Flow meters are usually found on test stands, chamber develops a rotary motion which can be
but portable units are available . Some include transmitted through gearing to indicator hands
the flow meter , a pressure gauge and thermome- on a dial.
ter in a single unit ( Fig. 12 - 14). They are
seldom; if ever , connected permanently on a More sophisticated measuring devices are tur-
machine. However, coupled into the hydraulic bine type flow meters which generate an electri-
piping they are useful in checking the volumetric . cal impulse as they rotate and pressure sensing
efficiency of a pump and determining leakage transducers which may be located at strategic
paths within the circuit. points within the system where they send out
electrical signals proportional to the pressures
A typical flow meter (Fig. 12-15) consists of a encountered . These signals can be calibrated
weight in a calibrated vertical tube. Oil is and observed on an oscilloscope or other readout
pumped into the bottom and out the top and raises devices. See figure 12-17.
Fig. 12-14. Flow Meter with Pressure Gauge and Thermometer in One Unit
12-11
FLOW THROUGH TUBE FLOW RATE IN gpm IS
CAUSES INDICATOR TO READ DIRECTLY ON
RISE IN TUBE. SCALE AT THIS EDGE
OF INDICATOR
3. FLOW OUT IS
THROUGH PART
ON THIS SIDE OF
CHAMBER PARTITION
12-12
3. AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE WILL
BE CONNECTED TO THE SENSOR
TO CONVERT THE PULSES TO FLOW
RATE INFORMATION OUT
Such units are found more often in the labora- 4. What type of gas is preferred for gas-
tory, although they, too, are becoming a part of charged accumulators?
the equipment used by fluid power technicians in
setting up and maintaining equipment. 5. What prevents the bladder from extruding in
a bladder type accpnulator?
QUESTIONS
6. What is the purpose of an intensifier?
1. Name two functions of an accumulator.
7. How is a pressure switch operated?
2. Which type of accumulator operates at a
constant pressure? How can the pressure 8. Give three situations where a pressure
be changed? gauge might be required.
3. How is pressure created in the free-piston 9. How are vacuum gauges calibrated?
accumulator?
CHAPTER
INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
13-1
Y
System pressure is less than the adjusted settings of pressure control valves (C) and (E). Therefore,
both (C) and (E) are in their normally closed positions. Delivery of pump (B) is directed into the system
through (E). Delivery of pump (A) is directed through (C) and check valve (D) and combines with delivery
of (B) to also be directed into the system.
13-2
4
System pressure is less than the adjusted setting of relief valve (E) and higher than setting of
unloading valve (C). Valve (E) is in its normally closed position and -valve (C) is held open by system
pressure. Delivery of pump (B) is directed into the system through (E). Check valve (D) is closed and
delivery of pump (A) returns freely to tank through (C).
13-3
VENTING
Both solenoids of directional valve ( D) are de - energized . Spool of ( D) is spring centered and
connects all ports of ( D) to tank. Therefore , vent connection of relief valve ( C) is open to tank through (D)
and delivery of pump ( B) unloads to tank through (C).
Fig. 13-2. View A. - Two Maximum Pressures plus Venting - Venting Operation
13-4
VENT
^ j7ANNw"sjIIIIIIIIIII
O
TO SYSTEM
RETURN
r'R1RIf M1
INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE
Solenoid "a" of directional valve (D) is held energized. Spool of (D) is shifted to connect the vent of
relief valve (C) to pressure port of remote control relief valve (E). System pressure is limited by (E) which
remotely controls (C).
Fig. 13-2, View B. - Two Maximum Pressures plus Venting - Intermediate Pressure
13-5
7
Solenoid "b" of directional valve (D) is held energized. Spool of (D) is shifted to connect vent of
relief valve (C) to a plugged port in (D). System pressure is limited by (C).
Fig. 13-2, View,C. - Two Maximum Pressures plus Venting - High Pressure
13-6
valve is energized. The spool has shifted to unloaded when a preset pressure is reached and
connect the relief valve vent port to a "dead end" cuts back in to recharge the accumulator when
against a plugged port in the directional valve. the pressure drops to a predetermined minimum.
The relief valve now functions at the setting of
its integral pilot stage. A spring offset solenoid operated directional
valve (Fig. 13-4) actuated by a pressure switch
AUTOMATIC VENTING AT END OF CYCLE is used to vent and devent the relief valve as
required.
In systems where it is not necessary to hold
pressure at the end of a cycle, it is possible to Charging (View A)
unload the pump by automatically venting the
relief valve. Figure 13-3 shows such a system The two micro switches of the pressure switch
using a cam operated pilot valve to vent the ar.e inter-connected to an electric relay in such
relief valve. a manner that at the low pressure setting the
solenoid is energized and the relief valve vent
Mid-Stroke Extending (View A) connection is blocked. The pump output flows
through the relief valve and • heck valve into the
The machine cycle begins when the solenoid of system where it charges the accumulator.
the spring offset directional valve is energized.
Pump output is to the cap end of the cylinder. Unloading (View B)
The vent line from the directional valve is
blocked at the cam-operated pilot valve. (Note When pressure reaches the maximum setting of
that pilot valve has only two flow paths instead of the pressure switch the solenoid is de-energized
the usual four. ) and the relief valve is vented to unload the pump
to tank. The check valve closes to prevent back
Mid-Stroke Retracting (View B) flow from the accumulaator and maintain pressure
in the system.
At the end of the extension stroke, the limit
switch was contacted by the cam on the cylinder Accumulator - Pump Unloading - Hydraulic
rod to break the solenoid circuit. The direc- Control
tional valve has shifted to retract the cylinder.
The relief valve vent connection is still blocked. Another means of pump unloading in accumulator
circuits is through the use of a direct acting
Automatic Stop (View C) unloading valve , illustrated in Figure 13-5.
13-7
s
ti
Solenoid " B" of valve ( F) is held energized during the extending stroke . Vent line from valve.(D) is
blocked at valve ( G). Delivery of pump ( B) is directed through (1) into head end of cylinder ( H). Discharge
from rod end of ( H) flows to tank through valves. ( F) and (C).
13-8
MID STROKE - RETRACTING
At end of extension stroke, cam on cylinder ( H) contacts limit switch LS. This causes solenoid "B"
of valve ( F) to be de - energized . ( F) shifts to the spring offset position and directs delivery of pump (B)
into rod end of (H). Discharge from head end of ( H) flows to tank through valves (F) and (C).
13-9
AUTOMATIC STOP
At end of retraction stroke , cam on cylinder ( H) depresses valve ( G). Valve ( D) is now vented
through valves ( E), (G), (F), and ( C). Delivery of pump ( B) returns to tank over valve ( D) at low pressure.
Pressure drop through (C) assures pilot pressure for operation of (F).
13-10
IL
AS
Depressing a push button causes solenoid "B" of valve (F) to be held energized. (F) shifts to
connect head end of cylinder (H) to pump (B), and rod end of (H) to tank. Pilot flow from vent of (D) stops
and check valve (E) closes. Pressures equalize through balance hole in hydrostat of (D) causing it to
start to close. Acceleration of (H) takes place during the closing of the hydrostat of (D).
Fig. 13-3, View D. - Automatic Venting at Cycle End - Push Button Start
13-11
An accumulator may be used to augment pump delivery or to perform a holding operation. This
circuit shows a method of unloading the pump when the accumulator is fully charged. It consists of
relief valve (A), check valve (B), accumulator (C), dual pressure switch (D) and directional valve (E).
Pressure setting of (A) is higher than the high setting of (D).
The electric control circuit performs the following operations: 1) energizes solenoid (Ea) when
pump motor is started; 2) de-energizes (Ea) when system pressure reaches the high setting of switch
(D); 3) energizes (Ea) when system pressure reduces to the low setting of switch (D); 4) de-energizes
(Ea) when pump motor is stopped.
View A shows circuit condition when system pressure is below the low setting of switch (D).
Solenoid (Ea) is energized to shift valve (E) and block the vent connection of valve (A). Valve (A) is de-
vented and pump delivery is directed through valve (B) into the.system. Accumulator (C) is charged with
fluid if system volumetric demand is less than delivery rate of the pump.
View B shows circuit condition when accumulator ( C) is charged and system pressure has reached
the high setting of switch ( D). Solenoid (Ea) is de -energized to vent valve (A). The pump is unloaded, its
delivery being returned freely to tank through valve (A). Check valve ( B) closes to permit accumulator (C)
to hold pressure and maintain a volume supply in the system.
Charging and unloading continue automatically until pump motor is stopped . The dual pressure
switch provides means to adjust the pressure difference between pump " cut-in " and pump "cut-out".
The high setting of switch ( D) is the maximum pressure control for the system with overload protection
provided by valve (A).
13-13
I
TO SYSTEM
VIEW A
TO SYSTEM
TO SYSTEM
0
VIEW B
13-14
I
ACCUMULATOR SAFETY CIRCUITS RECIPROCATING CIRCUITS
The accumulator must have a separator, i. e. , If the ratio of cap end area to rod end annular
diaphragm, bladder or piston to prevent loss of area in the cylinder is 2:1, the cylinder will
gas preload each time the machine is shut down. advance and retract at the same speed. How-
ever, the pressure during advance will be double
the pressure required for a conventional hook-
Blocked Accumulator Safety Circuit
up. This is because the same pressure in the
rod end, effective over half the cap end area,
It is also possible to block a charged accumulator opposes the cylinder's advance. With a higher
to permit service on the balance of the system ratio of areas extending speed will increase
thus not losing the stored energy. This method proportionally.
(Fig. 13-7) uses a spring offset directional valve
to control a pilot-operated check valve. Again, Regenerative Advance with Pressure
the directional valve solenoid is tied into the Changeover to Conventional Advance
prime mover control.
When the pump starts (view A), the solenoid is The regenerative principle also can be used tc
energized and the directional valve sends pilot increase advance speed with 'a changeover tc
pressure to open the check valve, permitting conventional advance to double the final farce
flow into and out of the accumulator. (Fig. 13-9). In thisi system, a normally closet
"R" type pressure control valve in effect plug,
Stopping the pump (view B) de-energizes the the "B" port of the directional during regenera-
solenoid. The directional valve vents the pilot tive advance. When the pressure setting of the
line of the check valve. The check valve closes "R" valve is reached, it opens to route oil from
to block the accumulator from the system and the rod end conventionally to tank through the
allows it to maintain its oil under pressure. directional valve.
The, small needle valve is used only to drain oil The 5 psi check valve permits oil from the roc
from the accumulator prior to replenishing the end of the cylinder to join pump delivery durint
gas preload. The large manual valve and auxil- regenerative advance, but prevents pump deliv-
iary relief valve perform the same functions as ery from taking this route to tank during conven
in the bleed-off system. tional advance.
13-15
ZK
lip
FROM TO
VIEW A PUMP SYSTEM
The charge in accumulator (B) is automatically bled-off to permit safe servicing of the system when
pump motor is stopped. The circuit consists of needle valve (A), accumulator (B), relief valve (C) and
directional valve (D). An electrical control circuit holds solenoid (Da) energized when the pump motor is
running and de-energizes it when the motor is stopped.
View A shows circuit condition during normal operation of the system when the pump motor is
running. Solenoid (Da) is energized to shift valve (D) and block flow to tank from accumulator (B).
Accumulator is charged or discharged through valve (A) as dictated by requirements of the system.
Needle valve (A) is often used to control rate of accumulator discharge to the system.
13-16
T AP B
FROM
PUM P
TO SYSTEM
FIXED RESTRICTION
W --- W
FROM PUMP TO SYSTEM
VIEW B
View B shows circuit condition when the pump motor is stopped. Solenoid (Da) is de-energized and
the charge in accumulator (B) is bled-off to tank through valve (D). Rate of bleed-off is controlled by a
fixed restriction at valve (C).
Valve (C) is set slightly higher than the maximum pressure control and provides protection against
excessive pressures due to thermal expansion.
13-17
VIEW A
The accumulator is automatically isolated from the hydraulic system when pump motor is stopped
to permit safe servicing of remaining hydraulic components. The circuit consists of pilot operated check
valve (A), needle valve (B), needle valve (C), relief valve (D), directional valve (E) and accumulator (F). An
electrical control circuit holds solenoid (Ea) energized when the pump motor is running and de-
energizes it when the motor is stopped.
View A shows circuit condition during normal operation of the system. Solenoid ( Ea) is energized
to shift valve ( E). System pressure acts on remote control connection of valve ( A) holding it open.
Accumulator ( C) is charged or discharged thru valves ( A) and ( B) as dictated by system requirements.
Valve ( B) is often used to control rate of accumulator discharge to the system . Valve ( D) is slightly
higher than the maximum pressure control and provides protection against excessive pressures due to
thermal expansion.
13-18
2C TYPE
TO PUMP TO SYSTEM
VIEW B
View R shows circuit condition when pump motor is stopped , Solenoid ( Ea) is de-energized qnd
remote control connection of valve ( A) is connected to tank . Accumulator pressure acts on "!H"
connection of valve (A) holding it closed. Flow from accumulator (F) to the system is blocked. The
charge in accumulator ( F) may be bled-off to tank thru valve (C).
13-19
VIEW A
KNOWN VALUES
A regenerative circuit combines pump delivery and rod end discharge of a differential cylinder to
obtain rapid speed when extending. Pressure is equal at both the head and rod ends during d
regenerative movement.
View A shows flow condition during regenerative advance. Pump delivery and rod end discharge
are directed to the cylinder head end thru the directional valve. Equal pressure acting on the difference
in areas creates a larger force at the head end to extend the cylinder.
Formulas shown are used to calculate speeds, forces and flow rates. They also show that, during
regenerative advance, speed increases and force decreases proportionately as the ratio of areas
increase.
13-20
FLOW= K
(PLUGGED) FLOW V
TANK FLOW V
TANK
VIEW B
r A
EZ-Flt 11 kid
P T b
View B shows conventional flow to and from the cylinder during return movement. Pump deli ery
is to rod end only with head end open to tank thru the directional valve. Pressure acts only on the rod
end.
13-21
r
b
PP
Rapid approach is obtained when, with solenoid "A" energized and operating pressure lower than
setting of valve (G), pump flow is directed into head end of (H) with discharge from (H) directed through
valves (G) and (F) to combine with pump flow. Piston speed is determined by pump flow and
crossectional area of rod of (H).
When work resistance is encountered, pressure increase causes (G) to open permitting discharge
from rod end of (H) to flow freely to tank through (G) and (E). Piston of (H) slows to half speed, but
potential thrust is now a function of full piston area and maximum operating pressure.
Rapid return is obtained when, with solenoid "B" energized, pump flow is directed through (E) and
integral check valve in (G) into rod end of (H). Discharge from head end of (H) is freely to tank through
(E). Piston speed is determined by pump flow and annular area of (H) and is same as advance speed.
Valve (C) limits maximum pressure and provides overload protection. Valve ( D) assures pilot
pressure for operation of (E).
13-22
When the directional valve shifts to retract the COUNTERBALANCE CIRCUIT
cylinder, pump output is through the check valve
in the "R" valve to the rod end. A typical "RC" type counterbalance circuit (Fig-
ure 13-12) is used to operate a vertical cylinder
CLAMPING AND SEQUENCE CIRCUITS with the rate of descent controlled by delivery
from the pump. The counterbalance valve pre-
vents the load from falling freely on the down-
In many applications, such as clamping a work- ward stroke.
piece and then machining it, it is necessary to
have operations occur in a definite order, and to In view A , the cylinder is being raised. Flow
hold pressure at the first operation while the from the pump to the head end passes freely
second occurs. Following are two of several over the integral check valve.
such circuits.
View B shows the hold position where pressure
Sequencing Circuit generated by the load alone is not sufficient to
overcome setting of counterbalance valve spring.
Figure 13-10 shows a method of having machine
motions occur in a definite sequence, using one View C shows the load being lowered with pres-
directional valve and two sequence valves. (The sure on the head of the piston providing the
counterbalance valve shown is used to control additional force required to cause the counter-
the descent of the vertical cylinder. ) balance valve to open.
This system can be used for clamping only if, it View. A shows the motor acceleratinc with the
is not necessary to hold the work piece (Cylinder brake valve held wide open by load pressure in
H) while the work cylinder retracts. If the work the auxiliary remote control connection. View B
must be held until the work cylinder retracts, a shows the operation when the motor tries to
second directional valve is used as in the follow- overrun the pump creating a lower pressure in
ing circuit. the 'drive line. Neutral braking through back-
pressure is shown in view C.
Controlled Pressure Clamping Circuit
FEED CIRCUITS
The circuit shown in Figure 13-11 provides
sequencing plus a controlled clamping pressure, Meter-In Flow Control
which can be held while the work cylinder is
feeding and retracting. The sequence of opera- Figure 13-14 shows the operation of a pressure
tions is: compensated flow control to control speed of the
extending stroke. In view A, the directional
Pressing start button shifts directional valve, valve is shifted to extend the cylinder, in view 13
and clamp cylinder extends. to retract it. Since the flow control valve is
placed in the line to the cap end of the cylinder
Upon contact with work piece a limit switch the control is meter-in. The flow control is
actuates solenoid of directional valve 2 to initiate bypassed by a check valve to provide a rapid
work stroke. Sequence valve assures clamp return stroke. Any tendency of the load to move
pressure is maintained at predetermined mini- in the forward direction could cause it to run
mum during work stroke. Pressure reducing away. Pump delivery in excess of flow control
valve limits clamp pressure to safe maximum setting is diverted to tank over the relief valve.
when higher pressure is required for work
stroke. Additional electric controls can reverse Meter-Out Flow Control
work cylinder directional valve while pressure
is maintained on clamp. A meter-out circuit is illustrated in Figure
13-15. The difference is that the flow control is
Clamp opens after work cylinder is fully re- placed downstream from the cylinder. Since
tracted. exhaust oil is regulated by the flow control,
13-23
Delivery of (B) is directed through valves (D), (E), (Fl), and integral check valve of (G) into the head
end of (H). Discharge from rod end of (H) flows freely to tank through integral check valve of (F2), and
valves (E) and (C).
13-24
Phase #2 - Solenoid ( Ea) Energized
Pressure increase, on completion of phase #1, causes flow to sequence through (Fl) into head end
of (J). Discharge from rod end of (J) flows freely to tank through valves-(F2), (E), and (C). Valve (Fl)
assures minimum pressure equal to its setting in (H) during extension stroke of (J). When (J) is fully
extended, pressure increases to setting of valve (D) which provides overload protection for (B).
13-25
3.
iii
Delivery of (B) is directed through valves (D), (E), and (F) into rod end of (J). Discharge
from cap end of (J) flows freely to tank through integral check valve of (F), and valves (E)
and (C).
13-26
L1
Pressure increase, on completion of phase #3, causes flow to sequence through (F2) into rod end
of (H). Discharge from head end of (H) flows through (G) at its pressure setting and then freely to tank
through valves (F1), (E), and (C). Valve (F2) assures minimum pressure equal to its setting in rod end of
(J) during retraction of (H). Valve (G) provides back pressure to prevent (H) from falling out of control in
lowering.
13-27
CLAMP CYLINDER WORK CYLINDER
Energizing solenoids "b" of valves (G) and (H) causes delivery of pump (C) to be directed through
valves (D), (E), (F), and (G) to extend clamp cylinder (J). When work piece is clamped and pressure builds
up to setting of sequence valve (E), flow will sequence over (E) and through (H) to extend work cylinder
(K) Valve (E) assures minimum pressure, equal to its setting, during operation of (K). Reducing valve (F)
limits the maximum pressure in (J).
De-energizing solenoid "b" of (H) and energizing "a" of (H) causes delivery of (C) to be sequenced
over (E) and through (H) to retract (K). When (K) is fully retracted, solenoid "b" of (G) is de-energized
and "a" energized. Delivery of (C) is directed through valves (E), (F), and (G) to retract (J).
13-28
Fig. 13 - 12. - Counterbalance Circuit,
13-29 '
A brake circuit is used to stop a load with minimum shock when its driving force ceases. It may also
be used to maintain control when the force imposed by the load acts in the same direction as motor
rotation (negative load).
The desired braking force is adjusted by means of a "P" type counterbalance valve (D) which is
pilot operated remotely and/or internally.
Remote control pressure is sampled from the input motor line and acts under the full area of the
valve spool. Motor outlet pressure acts under the small piston of (D) through an internal passage.
Valve (D) is normally closed. It is opened by either or both of these pilot forces acting against an
adjustable spring load.
RUN
The load opposes the direction of rotation of motor (E) during "run". Working pressure required to
drive this load acts under the large spool area of (D) to hold it fully open. Discharge from (E) returns
freely to tank through (D) and (C). Delivery rate of pump (A) determines speed of (E).
13-30
NEGATIVE LOAD
The load may act in the same direction as rotation of motor (E) in certain applications. This
"negative load" assumes a portion of the driving force on motor (E) which reduces pressure at the
motor inlet.
Reduced pressure at motor inlet, effective under the valve spool of (D), permits the spool to move
toward its dosed position, thus restricting the discharge from (E).
Restricted flow through ( D) creates back pressure in the outlet of (E). This back pressure acts under
the small piston of (D).
The sum of the pressures acting under the valve spool and small piston of (D) holds the valve sp of
at the restricting position required for sufficient back pressure to maintain control of the load on (E).
The extent of negative loading determines the amount of back pressure on (E).
13-31
i
BRAKING
Valve (C) is shifted to the "neutral" position to brake the load on motor (E). Pump (A) delivery is
open to tank through valve (C).
Load inertia continues to drive (E) causing it to act as a pump. Inlet fluid to (E) is supplied through
With the inlet of (E) open to tank, pilot pressure under the valve spool of (D) becomes zero
permitting it to move toward the closed position . This restricts discharge from ( E) creating back
pressure at its outlet.
Back pressure at outlet of ( E) acts under the small piston of (D) opposing the spring force. These
two opposing forces hold the valve spool at the restricting position. Adjusted setting of (D) therefore
determines braking pressure and rate of decerlation.
13-32
jl
L,
VIEW A
Flow path is from reservoir (A) through pump ( B), relief valve (C), directional valve (E), and flow
control (F), to cylinder (D). Flow path from (D) is through (E) to (A).
Valve (F) meters less flow than ( B) delivers . Excess must return through (C) to (A). Valve (C)
determines pressure imposed on (B). Input power is a function of delivery of (B) and pressure se ing of
(C) regardless of work load or piston speed. Valve (C) should be set only high enough to assue the
recommended minimum pressure drop across (F) when maximum work load is encountered.
Piston speed is a function of piston area and flow metered-in by (F). Since piston area is constant,
piston speed can be affected only by a fluctuation of flow through (F). Speed is independent of variation
in pump discharge.
View A shows piston extending control of cylinder is maintained only when work load opposes
direction of piston movement because discharge from (D) returns freely to (A).
13-33
0
0
Cm ^
PI LOT PR
Y
i
VIEW B
View B shows rapid return stroke with check valve used to bypass flow control.
13-34 1
D
PI T
VIEW A
Flow path is from reservoir (A) through pump (B), relief valve (C), and direction valve (E) to.cylinder
(D). Flow path from (D) is through flow control (F) and (E) to (A).
Valve (F) meters less flow than that which would be discharged from rod end of (D) if all of the
delivery of (B) were directed into (D). Pump flow in excess of that to (D) must return through (C) to (A).
Valve (C) determines pressure imposed on (B). Input power is a function of the delivery of (B) and
pressure setting of (C) regardless of work load or piston speed. Valve (C) should be set only high enough
to assure the recommended minimum pressure drop across (F) when maximum work load is
encountered.
Piston speed is a function of piston area and flow metered-out of (D) by (F). Since piston area is
constant, piston speed can be affected only by a fluctuation of flow through (F). Speed is independent of
variation in pump discharge.
13-35
•
ll
P T
JHD
4©
LJ
W
14
)RAIN X., A $
ILO
B .
VIEW B
View B shows rapid return stroke with check valve used to bypass flow control.
13-36
speed is constant regardless of the direction of control. The check valve opens for free flow to
forces imposed by the work load. In this circuit, retract the cylinder. It should be remembered,
too, the pump must operate at the relief valve too, that leakage past the cylinder piston is also
setting during the feed stroke. a factor which must be considered in such cases.'
In Figure 13-16, the flow control valve meters Where meter in control can be used, the flow
oil from the pressure line to tank rather than to control and relief valve (Fig. 13-18) will control
the system, providing speed control in both feed speed. An additional directional valve is
directions. While less precise than the two incorporated to by-pass the flow control for
previous methods, the bleed-off circuit permits rapid advance and rapid return.
some savings in horsepower since operating
pressure is only that required to move the cyl- The circuit is shown in the "feed" part of the
inder. Excess pump flow returns to tank through cycle. The three-position, spring-centered di-
the flow control. rectional valve is directing flow to the cylinder.
The offset directional valve is blocking the
RAPID ADVANCE TO FEED CIRCUITS parallel path around the flow control. Its sole-
noid can be energized (during rapid advance and
Three methods of making a transition from rapid return) to divert pump delivery around the flow
advance to a slower feed speed in a meter-out control valve. The relief valve incorporated in
circuit are shown in Figure 13-17. the flow control provides overload protection in
all operating conditions. The 50 psi check valve
In view A, a deceleration valve is piped in in the tank line assures that pilot pressure is
parallel with the meter-out flow control. During always available to shift the directional valves.
rapid advance, exhaust flow from the cylinder
rod end passes freely through the deceleration ROTARY HYDROSTATIC DRIVES
valve. When the cam closes the deceleration
valve, the oil must take the other path through The purpose of any transmission or "drive" is to
the flow control. To retract the cylinder, oil match the torque and speed of the prime mover
into the rod end flows freely over the check to the torque and speed requirements of the load.
valve in the deceleration valve. Hydraulic or hydrostatic drives utilize positive
displacement pumps, motors and various con-
In view B, the parallel flow path around the flow trols for this purpose.
control valve is through a spring offset , solenoid
operated directional valve. This valve allows The advantages of a hy4rostatic drive include:
free return flow so long as its solenoid is ener-
gized. When the feed position is reached, a * Infinitely variable regulation of output speed
limit switch is tripped and breaks the solenoid and torque.
circuit. The directional valve shifts to block * Ease and accuracy of control.
exhaust flow, which must then go through the * Smooth , stepless acceleration and speed
flow control. A separate check valve is pro- changes.
vided for free flow in to the cylinder for a rapid * Low inertia.
return stroke. * Low weight-to-power ratio.
* Increased reliability.
Leakage past the sliding spools of the decelera- * Flexibility of component location.
tion valve shown in view A and the directional * Elimination of drive shafts and complicated
valve in view B would affect the feed rate. gearing.
* Dynamic braking
View C shows the transition made with a pilot- * Built in overload protection.
operated check valve which because of its low
leakage characteristics is used where extremely Open Circuit Drives
accurate feed rates are required. Pilot pressure
to this check valve is supplied through an offset In an open circuit the pump draws its supply
directional valve.. With the directional valve from. the reservoir. Its output is directed to a
solenoid energized, the check valve is opened to hydraulic motor and discharged from the motor
allow free flow from the cylinder rod end. Trip- back into the reservoir.
ping the limit switch at the feed position breaks
the solenoid circuit and vents the chec•' valve Figure 13-19 illustrates an open circuit contain-
pilot line allowing the poppet to seat. Exhaust ing the basic units required for a reversible
flow is then forced to pass through the flow hydrostatic drive.
13-37
i
FT7
1
VIEW A
Flow path is from reservoir (A) through pump ( B) and relief valve ( C) to "tee " into a flow path to
cylinder ( D) through directional valve (E) and a flow path to (A) through flow control (F). Flow path from
( D) is through ( E) to (A).
13-38
speed is constant regardless of the direction of control. The check valve opens for free flow to
forces imposed by the work load. In this circuit, retract the cylinder. It should be remembered,
too, the pump must operate at the relief valve too, that leakage past the cylinder piston is also
setting during the feed stroke. a factor which must be considered in such cases.
In Figure 13-16, the flow control valve meters Where meter in control can be used, the flow
oil from the pressure line to tank rather than to control and relief valve (Fig. 13-18) will control
the system, providing speed control in both feed speed. An additional directional valve is
directions. While less precise than the two incorporated to by-pass the flow control for
previous methods, the bleed-off circuit permits rapid advance and rapid return.
some savings in horsepower since operating
pressure is only that required to move the cyl- The circuit is shown in the "feed" part of the
inder. Excess pump flow returns to tank through cycle. The three-position, spring-centered di-
the flow control. rectional valve is directing flow to the cylinder.
The offset directional valve is blocking the
RAPID ADVANCE TO FEED CIRCUITS parallel path around the flow control. Its sole-
noid can be energized (during rapid advance and
Three methods of making a transition from rapid return) to divert pump delivery around the flow
advance to a slower feed speed in a meter-out control valve. The relief valve incorporated in
circuit are shown in Figure 13-17. the flow control provides overload protection in
all operating conditions. The 50 psi check valve
In view A, a deceleration valve is piped in in the tank line assures that pilot pressure is
parallel with the meter-out flow control. During always available to shift the directional valves.
rapid advance, exhaust flow from the ,Minder
rod end passes freely through the deceleration ROTARY HYDROSTATIC DRIVES
valve. When the cam closes the deceleration
valve, the oil must take the other path through The purpose of any transmission or "drie" is to
the flow control. To retract the cylinder, oil match 'the torque and speed of the prime mover
into the rod end flows freely over the check to the torque and speed requirements of the load.
valve in the deceleration valve. Hydraulic or hydrostatic drives utilize positive
displacement pumps, motors and various con-
In view B, the parallel flow path around the flow trols for.this purpose.
control valve is through a spring offset, solenoid
operated directional valve. This valve allows The advantages of a hydrostatic drive include:
free return flow so long as its solenoid is ener-
gized. When the feed position is reached, a * Infinitely variable regulation of output speed
limit switch is tripped and breaks the solenoid and torque.
circuit. The directional valve shifts to block * Ease and accuracy of control.
exhaust flow, which must then go through the * Smooth, stepless acceleration and speed
flow control. A separate check valve is pro- changes.
vided for free now in to the cylinder for a rapid * Low inertia.
return stroke. * Low weight-to-power ratio.
* Increased reliability.
Leakage past the sliding spools of the decelera- * Flexibility of component location.
tion valve shown in view A and the directional * Elimination of drive shafts and complicated
valve in view B would affect the feed rate. gearing.
* Dynamic braking
View C shows the transition made with a pilot- * Built in overload protection.
operated check valve which because of its low
leakage characteristics is used where extremely Open Circuit Drives
accurate feed rates are required. Pilot pressure
to this check valve is supplied through an offset In an open circuit the pump draws its supply
directional valve. With the directional valve from the reservoir. Its output is directed to a
solenoid energized, the check valve is opened to hydraulic motor and discharged from the motor
allow free flow from the cylinder rod end. Trip- back into the reservoir.
ping the limit switch at the feed position breaks
the solenoid circuit and vents the check valve Figure 13-19 illustrates an open circuit contain-
pilot line allowing the poppet to seat. Exhaust ing the basic units required for a reversible
flow is then forced to pass through the flow hydrostatic drive.
19=97
VIEW A
Flow path is from reservoir (A) through pump ( B) and relief valve (C) to "tee" into a flow path to
cylinder (D) through directional valve (E) and a flow path to (A) through flow control (F). Flow path from
(D) is through (E) to (A).
13-38
EX
PI LOT PR
Y
VIEW B
Pressure imposed on ( B) is created by the work load. Input power is a function of delivery of (B) and
working pressure and varies directly with the work load. Valve (C) limits maximum operating pressure
and protects the hydraulic system against pressure overload.
Piston speed is a function of piston area and delivery of (B) less flow met4jed to tank through (F).
Since area of piston is constant , piston speed is affected only by flow variation . Variations may be
caused by fluctuations of either flow through ( F), or delivery or (B), or both.
With (F) teed -off the pressure line, piston speed is controlled in both directions . View A shows
piston extending and View B shows piston retracting . In either case, control of ( D) is maintained only
when the work load opposes direction of piston movement because discharge from ( D) returns freely to
tank.
13-39
w VIEW A
Directional valve (A) is shifted to direct flow into head end of cylinder (D). Discharge from rod end
of (D) flows through normally open deceleration valve (B) and freely to tank through (A) for rapid
advance. At end of rapid advance, cam on (D) depresses spool of (B) to the closed position. Discharge
from rod end of (D) is then metered by flow control (C) for the feed stroke. Valve (A) is reversed to direct
flow through integral check valve of (B) freely into rod end of (D) for rapid return.
13-40
IT
W VIEW B
Directional valve (A) is shifted to direct flow into head end of cylinder (D). Directional valve (B) is
shifted from its normal spring offset position to permit discharge from rod end of (D) to flow freely to
tank through ( B) and (A) for rapid advance. At end of rapid advance, cam on (D) contacts a limit switch
to allow (B) to spring return to its normal position. Discharge from rod end of (D) is then metered
through flow control (C) for the feed stroke. Valve (A) is reversed to direct flow through check valve (E)
freely into rod end of (D) for rapid return.
13-41
IF
RR
41
Directional valve (A) is shifted to direct flow into head end of cylinder (D). Directional valve (B) is
shifted to direct pilot flow to remotely open pilot operated check valve (E). Discharge from rod end of (D)
flows freely to tank through (E) and (A). At end of rapid advance, cam on (D) contacts a limit switch to
allow (B) to spring return to its normal position. Valve (E) closes and discharge from rod end of (D) is
then metered by flow control (C) for the feed stroke. Valve (A) is reversed to direct flow freely through
(E) into rod end of (D) for rapid return.
Fig. 13-17, View C. - Rapid Advance to Feed - Using Pilot Operated Check Valve
13-42
Throttle adjustment of valve (C) determines feed speed and pressure adjustment of (C) determines
maximum operating pressure and provides overload protection.
Solenoids of valves (D) and (E) are de-energized for "idle" permitting (D) to spring-offset and (E) to
spring-center. Volume passed through throttle of (C) is returned to tank through the open center of (E)
and through valve (F) which assures minimum pilot pressure for operation of (D) and (E). Excess pump
delivery is returned to tank through (C) at a pressure equivalent to the low spring values in valve (F) and
on spool of (C). Pump is considered to be "unloaded".
Valve (E) is the main directional control determining direction of motion of piston of cylinder (G).
Solenoid "A" is held energized for advance, solenoid "B" for return. Valve (D) is a bypass valve which,
with its solenoid "B" energized, permits pump flow to bypass the throttle of (C) for rapid motion of (G).
Its solenoid is de-energised to block the bypass for "feed".
Operating pressure of pump (B) during rapid motion of (G) is equal to the back-pressure imposed by
(F) plus the equivalent in work resistance. During "feed", operating pressure of pump is equal to back-
pressure of (F), work resistance, plus spring load on spool of (C). Pump pressure is at all times
proportional to and only slightly higher than equivalent in work load. During "feed" excess pump
delivery not permitted to pass through throttle of (C) is returned to tank through (C).
REVERSING
DIRECTIONAL
VALVE
If the pump and motor both have the same dis- loop" flows into the low pressure side of the
placement , theoretical output speed and torque circuit through a line from the reservoir.
will be equal to input speed and torque. The
drive thus functions simply as a liquid drive Reversible Closed Circuit Drives
shaft. Should the motor be twice the pump dis-
placement, output speed would be half input, but Many closed circuit drives include a variable
output torque would be double input. Other com- displacement , reversible pump with one outlet
binations of displacement would produce output connected to a motor port and the other motor
speed proportional to pump motor displacement port connected to the opposite pump outlet (Fig.
ratio and torque proportional to motor-pump 13-21).
displacement ratio.
This permits the motor to be driven in either
This type of drive, using a fixed displacement direction at infinitely variable speeds each de-
pump, can incorporate a speed control in the termined by the position of the pump displace-
form of a flow control valve. ment control. In the circuit shown, losses from
.internal leakage are replaced by a replenishing
Maximum torque, of course, is limited by the pump which maintains a positive pressure on the
setting of the relief valve. low pressure side of the system. Overload pro-
tection is provided by cross-line relief valves.
Closed Circuit Drives
Characteristics of Closed Circuit Drives
In a closed circuit drive, exhaust oil. from the
motor is returned directly to the pump inlet. Closes circuit drives may be designed with fixed
Figure 13-20 shows a single direction drive of or variable pumps and motors in any combina-
this type. Motor speed is adjustable by varying tion. Following are their characteristics.
the pump displacement . Torque is a function of
motor displacement and the relief valve setting. Fixed Displacement Pump and Motor - Output
Makeup oil to replenish leakage from the "closed speed and torque equal input speed and torque if
13-44
1
I^
J1!
Variable delivery of pump ( B) is directed through valve ( C) and filter ( D) to drive motor ( E). Discharge
from (E ) returns to inlet of ( B) along with make - up oil from reservoir (A). Valve ( C) limits maximum
torque of motor ( E) and provides overload protection for system.
I}'
il EP LENISHING
RELIEF VALVE
OVERLOAD
RELIEF VALVE
13-46
displacements are equal. If not, torque and valving in a single, compact housing. Typical
speed change in proportion. units are shown in Figure 13-22 and Figure 13-23.
They are built with the motor integral with the
Variable Displacement Pump, Fixed Displace- drive, or in "split" versions with the motor
ment Motor - This combination is called a con- mounted remotely.
stant torque variable horsepower drive. Torque
and pressure are always proportional, regard-
less of speed. The speed depends on the output QUESTIONS
of the pump, which is variable. An over-center
control on the pump permits reversing the output 1. Why is a high volume pump often unloaded in
rotation. high pressure operation?
Fixed Displacement Pump. Variable Displace- 2. When a remote ^Cplief valve is used to pro-
ment Motor - When the motor displacement can vide a second maximum pressure, which
be changed, but the pump's cannot, the power is valve must be set higher?
always proportional to pressure. This combina-
tion is called a constant horsepower, variable 3. What are two ways of unloading the pump
torque drive. If the motor is pressure compen- when an accumulator becomes -charged?
sated, any increase in load (torque) results in a
proportional decrease in speed. 4. Name two methods of transition from rapid
advance to feed.
Variable Displacement Pump and Motor - Some
drive applications require various combination 5. How can pressure be held on a clamp while
of torque and power vs. speed. A variable disl the work cylinder is withdrawn?
placement pump and motor then permit a very
wide speed range, plus the operating character- 6. To what degree does the brake valve re-
istics of either the constant torque or constant strict flow when a motor is accelerating?
horsepower drive.
7. Explain the difference between an open-
"Packaged" Drives circuit and a closed-circuit drive.
Closed circuit drives for many applications are 8. What combination of pump and motor will
available as integral units with all controls and produce a constant torque drive ?
t
j
OPTIONAL HANDWHEEL-ELECTRIC-
LEVER-SERVO CONTROLLED
HOUSING SERVES
HYDRAULIC MOTOR AS RESERVOIR
FAN FOR
COOLING
13-48
CYLINDER BLOCK
INTEGRAL DRIVE
SPLIT DRIVE
13-49
APPENDIX
NOTE
Definitions listed relate to the context in which these terms are used in
this manual. A mot- ,eneral definition of terms is given in the "Glos-
sary of Terms for l iuid Power NFPA Recommended Standard T2.70.1".
ABSOLUTE - A measure having as its zero point level pressure is approximately 14. 7'i pounds per
or base the complete absence of the entity' being square inch absolute.)
measured.
BACK CONNECTED - A condition where pipe
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE - The pressure above connections are on normally unexposed surfaces
zero absolute, i. e. , the sum of atmospheric and of hydraulic equipment. (Gasket mounted units
gage pressure. In vacuum related work it is are back connected.)
usually expressed in millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg).
BACK PRESSURE - A pressure in series. Usu-
ally refers to pressure existing on the dischargE
ACCUMULATOR - A container in which fluid is
side of a load. It adds to the pressure requirec
stored under pressure as a source of fluid power. to move the load.
ACTUATOR - A device for converting hydraulic
BAFFLE - A device, usually a plate, installer
energy into mechanical energy. A motor or
in a reservoir to separate the pump inlet from
cylinder.
return lines.
AERATION - Air in the hydraulic fluid. Exces-
sive aeration causes the fluid to appear milky BLEED-OFF - To divert a specific controllablc
and components to operate erratically because of portion of pump delivery directly to reservoir,
the compressibility of the air trapped in the
fluid. BREATHER - A device which permits air tc
move in and out of a container or component tc
AMPLIFIER - A device for amplifying the error maintain atmospheric pressure.
signal sufficiently to cause actuation of the
stroke control. Several types of servo ampli- BY-PASS - A secondary passage for fluid flow.
fiers are used at the present time: electronic
(DC, AC, phase sensitive, and magnetic) and CARTRIDGE
mechanical.
1. The replaceable elr•nnent of a fluid filter,
AMPLITUDE OF SOUND - The loudness of a
sound. 2. The pumping unit from a vane pump
composed of the rotor, ring, vanes anc
ANNULAR AREA - A ring shaped area -- often one or both side plates.
refers to the net effective area of the rod side of
a cylinder piston , i. e. , the piston area minus CAVITATION - A localized gaseous condition
the cross - sectional area of the rod. within a liquid stream which occurs where the
pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure.
ATMOSPHERE (ONE) - A pressure measure
equal to 14. 7 psi. CHAMBER - A compartment within a hydraulic
unit. May contain elements to"Aid in operation
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE - Pressure exerted or control of a unit. Examples: spring chamber
by the atmosphere at any specific location. (Sea drain chamber, etc.
1
_-HANNEL - A fluid passage, the length of which COOLER - A heat exchanger used to remove
is large with respect to its cross - sectional heat from the hydraulic fluid.
dimension.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE - A pressure con-
CHARGE (supercharge) trol valve which maintains back pressure to
prevent a load from falling.
1. To replenish a hydraulic system above
CRACKING PRESSURE - The pressure at which
atmospheric pressure.
a pressure actuated valve begins to pass fluid.
2. To fill an accumulator with fluid under CUSHION - A device sometimes built into the
pressure ( see pre charge pressure). ends of a hydraulic cylinder which restricts the
flow of fluid at the outlet port, thereby arresting
CHARGE PRESSURE - The pressure at which the motion of the piston rod.
replenishing fluid is forced into the hydraulic
system (above atmospheric pressure). CYLINDER - A device which converts fluid
power into linear mechanical force and motion.
CHECK VALVE - A valve which permits flow of It usually consists of a movable element such as
fluid in one direction only. a piston and piston rod, plunger rod, plunger or
ram, operating within a cylindrical bore.
CHOKE - A restriction, the length of which is
large with respect to its cross - sectional dimen- DEADBAND - The region or band of no response
sion. where an error signal will not cause a corre-
sponding actuation of the controlled variable.
CIRCUIT - An arrangement of components in- DECOMPRESSION - The slow release of con-
terconnected to perform a specific function fined fluid to gradually reduce pressure on the
within a system.
fluid.
CLOSED CENTER VALVE - One in which all DELIVERY - The volume of fluid discharged by
ports are blocked in the center or neutral a pump in a given time, usually expressed in
position. gallons per minute (gpm).
CLOSED CENTER CIRCUIT - One in which flow DE-VENT - To close the vent connection of a
through the system is blocked in neutral and pressure control valve permitting the valve to
pressure is maintained at the maximum pres- function at its adjusted pressure setting.
sure control setting.
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT - The algebraic
CLOSED LOOP - A system in which the output of summation of the current in the torque motor;
one or mere elements is compared to some other measured in MA (milliamperes).
signal to provide an actuating signal to control
the output of the 1001). DIFFERENTIAL CYLINDER - Any cylinder in
which the two opposed piston areas are not equal.
COMMAND SIGNAL ( or input signal ) - An exter-
nal signal to which the servo must respond. DIRECTIONAL VALVE - A valve which selec-
tively directs or pr-events fluid flow to desired
COMPENSATOR CONTROL - A displacement channels.
control for variable pumps and motors which
alters displacement in response to pressure DISPLACEMENT - The quantity of fluid which
changes in the system as related to its adjusted can pass through a pump, motor or cylinder in a
pressure setting. single revolution or stroke.
2
0
DRAIN - A passage in, or a line from, a hydrau- FORCE - Any push or pull measured in units of
lic component which returns leakage fluid inde- weight. In hydraulics, total force is expressed
pendently to reservoir or to a vented manifold. by the product P (force per unit area) and the
area of the surface on which the pressure acts.
EFFICIENCY - The ratio of output to input. F=PxA.
Volumetric efficiency of a pump is the actual
output in gpm divided by the theoretical or design FOUR-WAY VALVE - A directional valve having
output. The overall efficiency of a hydraulic four flow paths.
system is the output power divided by the input
power. Efficiency is usually expressed as a FREQUENCY - The number of times an action
percent. occurs in a unit of time. Frequency is the basis
of all sound. A pump or motor's basic frequency
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SERVO VALVE - A di- is equal to its speed in revolutions per second
rectional type valve which receives a variable or multiplied by the number of pumping chambers.
controlled electrical signal and which controls
or meters hydraulic flow. FRONT CONNECTED - A condition wherein pip-
ing connections are on normally exposed sur-
ENERGY - The ability or capacity to do work. faces of hydraulic components.
Measured in units of work.
FULL FLOW - In a filter, the condition where
ENCLOSURE - A rectangle drawn around a all the fluid must pass through the filter element
graphical component or components to indicate or medium.
the limits of an assembly.
GAUGE PRESSURE - A pressure scale which
ignores atmospheric pressure. Its zero point is
ERROR (signal) - The signal which is the alge- 14. 7 psi absolute.
braic summation of an input signal and a feed-
back signal. HEAD - The height of a column or body of fluid
above a given point expressed in linear units.
FEEDBACK (or feedback signal) - The output Head is often used to indicate gage pressure.
signal from a feedback element. Pressure is equal to the height times the density
of, the fluid.
FEEDBACK LOOP - Any closed circc.: consist-
ing of one or more forward elements and one or HEAT - The form of energy that has th' capacity
more feedback elements. to create warmth or to increase the to perature
of a substance. Any energy that is asked or
FILTER - A. device whose primary function' is used to overcome friction is converted to heat.
the retention by a porous media of insoluble Heat is measured in calories or British Thermal
contaminants from a fluid. Units (BTU's). One BTU is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one pound
FLOODED - A condition where the pump inlet.is of water one degree Fahrenheit.
charged by placing the reservoir oil level above
the pump inlet port. HEAT EXCHANGER - A device which transfers
heat through a conducting wall from one fluid to
FLOW CONTROL VALVE - A valve which con- another.
trols the rate of oil flow.
HORSEPOWER - (HP) - The power required to
FLOW RATE - The volume, mass, or weight of lift 550 pounds one foot in one second or 33, 000
a fluid passing through any conductor per unit of, pounds one foot in one minute. A horsepower is
time. equal to 746 watts or to 42. 4 British Thermal
Units per minute.
FLUID
HYDRAULIC BALANCE - A condition of equal
1. A liquid or gas.
opposed hydraulic forces acting on a part in a
2. A liquid that is specially compounded for hydraulic component.
use as a power-transmitting medium in a
hydraulic system. HYDRAULIC CONTROL - A control which is
actuated by hydraulically induced forces.
FOLLOW VALVE - A control valve which ports
oil to an actuator so the resulting output motion HYDRAULICS - Engineering science pertaining
is proportional to the input motion to the valve. to liquid pressure and flow.
3
HYDRODYNAMICS - Engineering science per- MOTOR - A device which converts hydraulic
taining to the energy of liquid flow and pressure. fluid power into mechanical force and motion.
It usually provides rotary mechanical motion.
HYDROSTATICS - Engineering science pertain-
ing to the energy of liquids at rest. OPEN CENTER CIRCUIT - One in which pump
delivery flows freely through the system and
KINETIC ENERGY - Energy that a substance or back to the reservoir in neutral.
body has by virtue of its mass (weight) and
vel?city. OPEN CENTER VALVF - One in which all Botts
are interconnected and open to each other in the
LAMINAR (FLOW) - A condition where the fluid center or neutral position.
particles move in continuous parallel paths.
Streamline flow. ORIFICE - A restriction, the length of which is
small in respect to its cross - sectional dimen-
LEVERAGE - A gain in output force over input sions.
force by sacrificing the distance moved. Me-
chanical advantage or force multiplication.
PASSAGE -A machined or cored fluid conducting
path which lies within or passes through it com-
LIFT - The height a body or column of fluid is
ponent.
raised: for instance, from the reservoir to the
pump inlet. Lift is sometimes used to express a
negative pressure or vacuum. The opposite of PILOT PRESSURE - Auxiliary pressure used to
head. actuate or control hydraulic components.
LINE - A tube, pipe or hose which acts as a PILOT VALVE An auxiliary valve used to con-
conductor of hydraulic fluid. trol the operation of another valve. The con-
trolling stage of it 2-stage valve.
LINEAR ACTUATOR - A device for converting
hydraulic energy into linear motion--a cylinder PISTON - A cylindrically shaped part which fits
or rain. within it cylinder and transmits or receives
motion by means of a connecting rod.
MANIFOLD - A fluid conductor which provides
multiple connection ports. PLUNGER - A cylindrically shaped part which
has-only one diameter and is used to transmit
MANUAL CONTROL - A control actuated by the thrust. A ram.
operator, regardless of the means of actuation.
Example: Lever or foot pedal control for direc- POPPET - That part of certain valves which
tional valves. prevents flow when it closes against a seat.
4
4
PRESSURE - Force per unit area; usually ex- REVERSING VALVE - A four-way directions
pressed in pounds per square inch (psi). valve used to reverse a double-acting' cylinde
or reversible motor.
PRESSURE DROP - The difference in pressure
between any two points of a system or a compo- ROTARY ACTUATOR -' A device for copvertin
nent. hydraulic energy into rotary motion--a hydrauli
motor.
PRESSURE LINE - The line carrying the fluid
from the pump outlet to the pressurized port of SEQUENCE
the actuator.
1. The order of a series of operations o.
PRESSURE OVERRIDE - The difference between movements.
the cracking pressure of a valve and the pres-
sure reached when the valve is passing full flow. 2. To divert flow to accomplish asubsequen
operation or movement.
PRESSURE PLATE - A side plate in a vane
pump or motor cartridge on the pressure port SEQUENCE VALVE - A pressure operated valvt
side. which , at its setting , diverts flow to a secondari
line while holding a predetermined minimun
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE - A valve which
pressure in the primary line.
limits the maximum pressure at its outlet . re-
gardless of the inlet pressure.
SERVO MECHANISM ( servo) - A mechanism
subjected to the action of a controlling device
PRESSURE SWITCH - An electric switch oper-
which will operate as if it were directly actuatec
ated by fluid pressure.
by the controlling device, but capable of supply-
PROPORTIONAL FLOW - In a filter, the condi- ing power output many times that of the control-
tion where part of the flow passes through the ling device , this power being derived from ar
filter element in proportion to pressure drop. external and independent source.
RELIEF VALVE - A pressure operated valve SLIP - Internal leakage of hydraulic Jluid.
which by-passes pump delivery to the reservoir,
limiting system pressure to a predetermined SPOOL - A term loosely applied to` almost an}
maximum value. moving cylindrically shaped part of a hydraulic
component which moves to direct fibw througt
REPLENISH - To add fluid to maintain a full the component.
hydraulic system.
STRAINER - A coarse filter.
RESERVOIR - A container for storage of liquid
in a fluid power system. STREAMLINE FLOW - ( See lar,fllow. )
RETURN LINE - A line used to carry exhaust 2. To change the displacellttlt ofd a variable
fluid fro actuator.- t, D xnp. , t }%d2R 'dn1p-0r, tOr,... it '
SUB-PLATE - An auxiliary mounting for a hy- UNLOAD - To release flow (usually directly to
draulic component providing a means of connect- the reservoir), to prevent pressure bei,ig im-
ing piping to the component. posed on the system or portion of the system.
SUCTION LINE - The hydraulic line connecting UNLOADING VALVE - A valve which by-passes
the pump inlet port to the reservoir or sump. flow to tank when a set pressure is maintained
on its pilot port.
SUMP - A reservoir
VACUUM - Pressure less than atmospheric
SUPERCHARGE - (See charge.) pressure. It is usually expressed in inches of
mercury ( in. Hg) as referred to the existing
SURGE - A transient rise of pressure or flow. atmospheric pressure.
SWASH PLATE - A stationary canted plate in an VALVE - A device which controls fluid flow
axial type piston pump which causes the pistons direction , pressure , or flow rate.
to reciprocate as the cylinder barrel rotates.
VELOCITY
SYNCHRO - A rotary electromagnetic device
generally used as an A^ feedback signal genera- 1. The speed of flow through a hydraulic
tor which indicates position . It can also be used line. Expressed in feet per second (fps)
as a reference signal generator. or inches per second (ips).
TACHOMETER-- (AC) (DC) - A device which 2. The speed of a rotating component meas-
generates an AC or DC signal proportional to the ured in revolutions per minute (rpm).
speed at which it is rotated and the polarity of
which is dependent on the direction of rotation of VENT
the rotor.
1. To permit opening of a pressure control
TANK - The reservoir or sump. valve by opening its pilot port (vent con-
nection ) to atmospheric pressure.
THROTTLE - To permit passing of a restricted
flow. May control flow rate or create a deliber- 2. An air breathing device on a fluid reser-
ate pressure drop. voir.
TORQUE - A rotary thrust. The turning effort of VISCOSITY - A measure of the internal friction
a fluid motor usually expressed in inch pounds. or the resistance of a fluid to flow.
6
to
APPENDIX
n.
STANDARD GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS
c
A
g THE SYMBOLS SHOWN CONFORM TO THE AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE (ANSI)
SPECIFICIATIONS, BASIC SYMB''LS CAN BE COMBINED IN ANY COMBINATION. NO ATTEMPT
IS MADE TO SHOW ALL COMBINATIONS.
w
LINES AND LINE FUN CTIONS PUMPS
LINE , WORKING
PUMP, SINGLE
C FIXED DISPLACEMENT
LINE, PILOT ( L>20W)
LINE, PASSING
MOTOR, ROTARY
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT
DIRECTION OF FLOW, .
HYDRAULIC
PNEUMATIC --MOTOR, OSCILLATING
LINE TO RESERVOIR
ABOVE FLUID LEVEL CYLINDER, SINGLE ACTING
-EE
BELOW FLUID LEVEL
CYLINDER, DIFFERENTIAL
PLUG OR . PLUGGED
ROD
CONNECTION
/CYLINDER, DOUBLE
RESTRICTION , FIXED
END ROD
I
/ CYLINDER , CUSHIONS
RESTRICITION , VARIABLE
BOTH ENDS
7
MISCELLANEOUS UNITS BASIC VALVE SYMBOLS (CONT.)
VALVE, MAXIMUM
COMPONENT ENCLOSURE PRESSURE ( RELIEF) JJ
VALVE EXAMPLES
TEMPERATURE GAGE
O
UNLOADING VALVE,
FLOW METER (FLOW RATE) INTERNAL DRAIN,
REMOTELY OPERATED
ELECTRIC MOTOR
C> DECELERATION VALVE,
NORMALLY OPEN
ACCUMULATOR , SPRING L£
LOADED
SEQUENCE VALVE,
DIRECTLY OPERATED,
ACCUMULATOR, GAS EXTERNALLY DRAINED
CHARGED
PRESSURE REDUCING
VALVE
FILTER OR STRAINER
TEMPERATURE AND
TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER PRESSURE COMPENSATED
FLOW CONTROL WITH
INTENSIFIER INTEGRAL CHECK
CHECK VALVE
DIRECTIONAL VALVE,
THREE POSITION, FOUR
MANUAL SHUT OFF
CONNECTION
VALVE
BASIC VALVE
ENVELOPE VALVE, INFINITE
POSITIONING (INDICATED
VALVE, SINGLE FLOW
BY HORIZONTAL BARS)
PATH, NORMALLY CLOSED
8
METHODS OF OPERATION METHODS OF OPERATI ON
MANUAL SOLENOID
MECHANICAL
SOLENOID CONTROLLED,
PILOT PRESSURE OPERATED
9
INDEX
I.
A E
Absolute pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21, 2-5 Efficiency, volumetric ....... ....... 11-2 Jet pip
. 8-3 thru 8-10
AccumulatorH . . . . .. ...... . . 12-1 thru 12-6 Electro-hydraulic servo valves
Actuators . . . . . . . . . . .. ...... .. .. . 6-1 Energy,
Aeration . . . . .. . .. . . . ..... . . ... .. 1-8 conservation of ....... .. .. . . . . 1-3, 2-9
Amplifier, servo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 kinetic and potential .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. 2-9 Kinetid
Atn;c.ospherce . . . . . ...... .. . . .... .. 2-3
F
B
Feedback . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . .. . . 8-1-8-2 Lamirt:
Baffle plate . . . ... . .. ... .. .. .... .. 5-1 Filters . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. .. .. 5-3 Leakat
Balanced piston relief valve . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 Flapper type servo valve .. . . . . . . . . ... 8-4 Line
Barometer . .. ... . . . . .. .......... 2-3 Flow prep;
Bent-axis piston pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-29 laminar and turbulent ... .. . . . ... . .. 2-6 sizit
Bernoulli's principle ................ 2-9 principles . .. ......... . ...... .. 2-5 L inear'
Bleed-off circuit .. .... ...... .... .. 10-2 velocity in pipes ....... . .. ... . ... 1-19 Lubric,
Brake valves ......... ........... . 9-11 Flow controls ........ . .... 10-1 thru 10-7
Breatherr ... ...... ............ .. 5-1 Flow meters ......... ....... .. .. 12-11
Fluids .. .......... .......... ... 3-1
C Follow valve .... . .... ..... .... ... 8-1
Four - way valves ..... . ...... . ..... 7-7 echan
Cartridge, pump .. . ... ..... . 11-14. 11-23 esh .
C atalvsts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 G Meter
Cavitation . ... . . . . ....... . .. ... .. 1-8 Meter -
Charge (pre ch.crte) . . . . . . 12-3 Micron
Gauges, pressuree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
Check valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 tht•u 7-7 11-3 Motors,
Gear pump .... .......... .... . ..
Closed circuit . . . . . ... . . . . ...... . 13-45 applic
Graphical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 2-9
Combination pumps . . . . .. . . 11-10 thru 11-12 bent-
Compensator control ( pressure), gear
H inlinc
hydraulic motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
piston pump . . . . . .... . . .. ...... 11-26 Head (pressure) . . ........ .. . ...... 2-2 low s
Compound relief valve .... .. . . . .. . ... 9-1 Heat exchangers ........... . ...... 5-13 ress
Coolers . . . . . ..... . . .. . . . .... . .. 5-13 ``High Performance"' vane pump....... 11-14 ° tint
Counterbalance valves........ . ... 9-7 Horsepower .............. ........ 1-21 vane
Cylinders Hose, hydraulic
options . . . . . . . ...... .. . . . . . .... 6-6 fittings ........................ 4-8
ratings . . . . . .... . . . ..... . . . 6-4 installation ........ ..... . ...... 4 I i
types ..... . . . ................. 6-1 safety factor . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . 4-8 Nomogr
C racking pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 sizing . .................... 4-8, 4-9
Hydrodynamic device ........... 2-2, 11-1
D Hydrostatic device ............. 2-2, 11-2
Oil . .
Deceleration valves ................ 7-23 'Of Oxidatic
Demulsibility ..................... 3-8 I
Directional controls .......... 7-1 thru 7-30
Displacement ... ............. 6-6, 11-2 Instrumentation .................. 12-8
Dither ........... .............. 8-4 Intensifiers ............... ....... 12-6
Double pumps ............... 11-9, 11-14 Intra-vane design (pump) ....... .... 11-23
INDEX (Cont.)
It W
G, S. Yamacbendran.
A&st. Manager (MechJ
Siliooa Steel Mill.