ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Immune System

A second line of defense is housed
within the body: a finely tuned immune
system that recognizes and destroys
foreign substances and organisms that
enter the body. The immune system can
distinguish between the body's own
tissues and outside substances called
antigens. This allows cells of the
immune army to identify and destroy
only those enemy antigens. The ability
to identify an antigen also permits the
immune system to "remember" antigens
the body has been exposed to in the
past; so that the body can mount a
better and faster immune response the
next time any of these antigens appear.
The immune system also includes other
proteins and chemicals that assist
antibodies and T cells in their work.
Among them are chemicals that alert
phagocytes to the site of the infection.
The complement system, a group of
proteins that normally float freely in the blood, move toward infections, where they
combine to help destroy microorganisms and foreign particles. They do this by
changing the surface of bacteria or other microorganisms, causing them to die.
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enzyme (EN-zime) is a protein that helps speed up a chemical reaction In the body.
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antigens (AN-tih-jens) are substances that are recognized as a threat by the body's
immune system, which triggers the formation of specific antibodies against the
substance.
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bone marrow is the soft tissue inside bones where blood cells are made.
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lymphatic (lim-FAH-tik) system is a system that contains lymph nodes and a network
of channels that carry fluid and cells of the immune system through the body.
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immunity (ih-MYOON-uh-tee) is the condition of being protected against an infectious
disease. Immunity often develops after a germ is introduced to the body. One type of
immunity occurs when the body makes special protein molecules called antibodies to
fight the disease-causing germ. The next time that germ enters the body, the antibodies
quickly attack it, usually preventing the germ from causing disease.
Primarily, the immune system classifies a substance as:
a. Self-non-foreign – they are normally ignored and tolerance and is exhibited
towards these substances. They are not deemed harmful.
b. Non-self – termed as an “antigen”; a specific response is developed to a specific
antigen. The response is then stored in the immune system’s memory cells for
future reference.

Components of the Immune System:

1. Lymphoid Structures
• Spleen
- Composed of red and white pulp, acts somewhat like a filter.
- The red pulp is the site where old and injured red blood cells are
destroyed.
- The white pulp contains concentrations of lymphocytes.
• Lymph Nodes
- Are distributed throughout the body
- Are connected by lymph channels and capillaries, which remove
foreign material from the lymph before it enters the bloodstream.
 2. Immune Cells – Lymphocytes
a. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
b. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
c. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

3. Tissues – The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
• Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue – contain immune cells that defend the body’s
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.

Types of Immune Defense:

a. Innate or Nonspecific Immunity
- Also termed as the person’s natural resistance, and are the most basic
and primary of all defenses in the body. (skin, mucus membranes,
phagocytic activity)
4. Immune Cells – Lymphocytes
d. B lymphocytes (or B cells) - produce immunoglobulins.
e. T lymphocytes (or T cells) - help control the immune response and destroy
foreign antigens directly.
f. Plasma Cells - are white blood cells that produce large volumes of
antibodies.

5. Tissues – The remaining lymphoid tissues, such as the tonsils and adenoids and
other.
• Mucoid Lymphatic Tissue – contain immune cells that defend the body’s
mucosal surfaces against microorganisms.
2 Types of Immunity
• Active – acquired through previous exposure of the disease or through
immunization wherein the body “actively” participates in formation of
antibodies for future reference.

• Passive – refers to whole, “ready made” immunity acquired from another,

the body is just “passive” in the process of developing antibodies, as it is
already made and given readily.

4 Types of Active Immunity

a. Humoral Immunity
b. Mucosal Immunity
c. Cell-mediated Immunity
d. Delayed HypersensitivityReaction

Antibodies or Immunoglobulins – developed from B-cells through the stimulation

of cytokines produced by helper T-cells in the presence of an antigen. They attach to
specific determinant sites on antigens, and carries out phagocytosis and initiating
inflammation.

IgG 75% Crosses placental barrier; present in circulation and tissue

spaces; antiviral, antitoxic and anti-bacterial properties;
activates complement
IgA 15% Found in body secretions and breast milk; protects mucous
membranes from microorganisms
IgM 10% Forms natural ABO antibodies; present in early immune
responses; activates complement
IgE .2% Hypersensitivity reaction mediator; Involved in parasitic
infectious
IgD .004% Necessary for maturation of B lymphocytes

Hematologic System
Two types of blood vessels carry blood throughout our bodies:
 1. Arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood that has received oxygen from the lungs)
from the heart to the rest of the body.
2. Blood then travels through veins back to the heart and lungs, where it receives
more oxygen.

The blood that flows through this network of veins and arteries is whole blood,
which contains three types of blood cells:
1. Red blood cells (RBCs)
- (also called erythrocytes) are shaped like slightly
indented, flattened disks. RBCs contain the iron-rich
protein hemoglobin. Blood gets its bright red color when
hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs. As the blood
travels through the body, the hemoglobin releases
oxygen to the tissues.
- The body contains more RBCs than any other type of cell, and each has a life
span of about 4 months. Each day, the body produces new RBCs to replace
those that die or are lost from the body.

2. White blood cells (WBCs)

- (also called leukocytes) are a key part of the body's
system for defending itself against infection. They can
move in and out of the bloodstream to reach affected
tissues. Blood contains far fewer WBCs than red blood
cells, although the body can increase WBC production
to fight infection. There are several types of WBCs, and their life spans vary from
a few days to months. New cells are constantly being formed in the bone
marrow.
- Certain types of WBCs produce antibodies, special proteins that recognize
foreign materials and help the body destroy or neutralize them. The white cell
count (the number of cells in a given amount of blood) in someone with an
 infection often is higher than usual because more WBCs are being produced or
are entering the bloodstream to battle the infection.

3. Platelets
- (also called thrombocytes) are tiny oval-shaped cells
made in the bone marrow. They help in the
clotting process. When a blood vessel breaks,
platelets gather in the area and help seal off the leak.
Platelets survive only about 9 days in the
bloodstream and are constantly being replaced by
new cells.
- Platelets and clotting factors work together to form solid lumps to seal leaks,
wounds, cuts, and scratches and to prevent bleeding inside and on the surfaces
of our bodies. The process of clotting is like a puzzle with interlocking parts.
When the last part is in place, the clot happens — but if even one piece is
missing, the final pieces can't come together.

Cardiovascular System
 The heart is a muscular organ found in all vertebrates that is responsible for
pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions. The
term cardiac (as in cardiology) means "related to the heart" and comes from the Greek
καρδιά, kardia, for "heart."
The vertebrate heart is composed of cardiac muscle, which is an involuntary
striated muscle tissue found only within this organ. The average human heart, beating
at 72 beats per minute, will beat approximately 2.5 billion times during an average 66
year lifespan. It weighs on average 250 g to 300 g in females and 300 g to 350 g in
males.
The external structures of the heart include the ventricles, atria, arteries and
veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart while veins carry blood into the
heart.The vessels colored blue indicate the transport of blood with relatively low content
of oxygen and high content of carbon dioxide. The vessels colored red indicate the
transport of blood with relatively high content of oxygen and low content of carbon
dioxide.

Layers of the Heart

 a. Endocardium (innermost layer)
b. Myocardium (middle layer)
c. Epicardium (visceral pericardium or outermost layer)

Heart Chambers
 Atria
a. Right atrium – receives de-oxygenated blood from the superior and inferior
vena cava.
b. Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary
veins.
 Ventricles
a. Right ventricle – pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation for the lungs.
b. Left ventricle – pumps blood into the systemic circulation for the rest of the
body.

Heart Valves
 Atrioventricular (AV) Valves – are one way valves that ensure that blood flows
from the atria to the ventricles
a. Right AV valve b. Left AV valve
 Semilunar (SL) Valves – prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles
a. Pulmonary semilunar valve b. Aortic semilunar valve

The Heart’s Electrical Conduction System

 SA Node  AV Bundle
 AV Node  Purkinje Fibers

The Cardiac Cycle

 Systole – contracting part of the heart
 Diastole – period of time when the heart relaxes after contraction in preparation
for refilling with circulating blood.