INTRODUCTION

C is a powerful general purpose and most popular computer programming

language. It was developed in the 1972’s by Dennis M. Ritche at Bell Telephone
laboratories (AT& T Bell Labs). C was extensively used in its development C is
an outgrowth of BCPL (Basic combined Programming Language) developed by
Martin Richards University.

C is often called a middle-level computer language, because it has the

features of both high-level languages, such as BASIC, PASCAL etc., and low-
level languages such as assembly language.

C is highly portable i.e., Software written for one computer can be run on
another computer. C language is well suited for structured programming. An
important feature of ‘C’ is its ability to extend itself. A C program is basically a
collection of functions. It encourages us to write out own functions and add to the
C library. Also C is modular, i.e., a unit of task can be performed by a single
function and this unit of task can be reutilized when needed. The large number of
functions makes programming task simple.

STRUTURE OF A ‘C’ PROGRAM:

C programs consist of one or more functions. Each function performs a

specific task. A function is a group of sequences of statements that are together.
And it is similar to subprograms (or subroutines) in other high-level languages
like Pascal.

Every C program starts with a function called main(). This is the place
where program execution begins. Hence, there should be main() function in
every program. The functions are building blocks of C program. Each function
has a name and a list of parameters ( or arguments).
Documentation section
Linkage section
Definition section optional
Global declaration section

main ()
{
Declaration part
Execution part / statement part
}
Sub program section
Or optional
User defined section

Documentation section:
This section group of comments that explains about program name,
purpose of the program, program logic, programmer name, date of written
program etc.
Comments can be included anywhere into the program. Comments are
enclosed between /* and */.
Linkage Section:
It is the pre processing directive operation section under this we can
include the header files with the # include <header file name. h>
Or
# include “header file name. h”
Whenever we are using standard functions into the main program those
are referred into the header files. When we included header file. Otherwise it
gives error message header file inclusion error
# include < stdio. h> or # include < graphic. h>
Definition section:
It is also the pre-processing directive operation. Under this we can define
the symbolic constant with the # define identifier data.
Example: #define
These symbolic constant calls as macros. These macros are global.

Global declaration section:

Under this section we can declared the global variables. These variables
can be used in main program or other user defined function without declaration.
main():
main is a standard function to every program. Without main function
program could not process. It is compulsory for every program.
{ (left brace):
It indicates the beginning of the main. It is also compulsory.
Declaration part:
Whatever the variables, constants, array etc. we are going to be used into
the statement part those thing should be declared along with their storage class
and type and identifier name.
The syntax follows:

Storage Class data type variables

(identifiers)
Separate by a comma.
Example: auto int a,b,c;
Extern int x,y,z;
} (right brace):
It indicates the ending of the program it is also compulsory.
Subprograms:
Here we can write the user define sub-programs when ever we are facing
repetitive task then we can write user defined function. We can write any number
of sub programs there is no limit.

The following is a simple C program that prints a message on the screen.

# include <stdio.h>
/* A simple program for printing a message */
main()
{
printf( “ hello , this is a C program.”);
}

The first line

# include <stdio.h>
tells the compiler to read the file stdio.h and include its contents in this file.
stdio.h, one of header files, contain the information about input output functions.
The next line is a comment line Comments in the C program are optional and
may appear anywhere in a C program. Comments are enclosed between /* and
*/.
main() is the start of the main program. The word main is followed by a
pair of ordinary parenthesis (), which indicates that main is also a function. The
left brace { represents the beginning of the function where as the right brace }
represents the end of the function. It means, the braces enclose the body of
function. In this program, the body consists of only one statement, the one
beginning with printf. The printf() function is causes its arguments to printed on
the computer screen. The closing (right) brace of the main function is the logical
end of the program.
The following are some of rules to write C programs.

1. All C statements must end with semicolon.

2. C is case-sensitive. That is upper case and lower case characters are
different. Generally the statements are typed in lower case.
3. A C statement can be written in one line or it can split into multiple lines.
4. Braces must always match upon pairs, i.e., every opening brace { must
have a matching closing brace }.
5. No restriction in using blank spaces or blank lines that separates different
words or different parts of program. Blank spaces improve the readability
of the statements. But blank spaces are not allowed within a variable,
constant or keyword.
6. Comments cannot be nested. For example,
/* A simple ‘C’ program, /* it prints a message */ */
is not valid.
7. A comment can be split into more than one line.
Execution of C program:
Steps to be followed in writing and running a C program.
(a) Creation of Source Program
(b) Compilation of the Program (Alt + F9).
(c) Program Execution (ctrl + F9).
(d) Output or Console Screen ( Alt +f5).
FUNDAMENTALS OF C PROGRAM:
C Tokens
A C program must be syntactically valid sequences of characters of the
language. In every C program, the most basic element recognized by the
compiler is single character or group of characters called C tokens.
Steps in learning C language are…
1. Character Set – Alphabets, Digits and Special Symbols
2. Datatypes, Constants, Variables and Keywords
3. Instructions
4. Functions, Program
The C character set
The C character set includes the upper case letters A to Z, the lower case
a to z, the decimal digits 0 to 9 and certain special characters/symbols. The
character set is given bellow.
Alphabets A, B, C, …….Z
a, b, c,. ……. Z
Digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Special characters/Symbols~, . : ; ? ‘ “ ! ( ) [ ] { } / \ < > = + - $ # & * % ^
Keywords:
Key words are predefined tokens in C. these are also called as reserved
words. Key words have special meaning to the C compiler. These key words can
be only for their intended action. They cannot be used for any other pupose.
The standard key words are:
auto break case char const continue
default do double else enum extern
float for goto if int long
register return short signed sizeof static
struct switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
Data types and Sizes:
A data type a set of values and the operations that can be performed on
them. Every data type item (constant, variable etc.) in a C program has a data
type associated with it.
The memory requirements for each data type will determine the
permissible range of values for that type. These requirements may vary from one
compiler to another.
Generally the following rule is true for any complier to specify the size of
data types:
char ≤ sizeof(short int)≤ sizeof(int) ≤ sizeof(long int) ≤ sizeof(float) ≤
sizeof(double)
Data type Format Specifier
Datatype Description Size Range
in Bytes
Signed Character 1 -128 to +127
char/char
Unsigned char Unsigned character 1 0 to 255

Short signed int Short signed integer 2 -32768 to +32767

Short unsigned Short unsigned 2 0 to 65535

integer
int
Long signed int Long signed integer 4 -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,648
Long unsigned Long signed integer 4 0 to 4,294,967,295
int
Float Floating point 4 -3.4 e38 to +3.4 e38

Double Double floating point 8 -1.7 e 308 to +1.7 e 308

Long double Long double floating 10 -1.7 e 4932 to + 1.7 e

point
4932

int %d
unsigned int %u
long int %ld
unsigned long int %lu
char %c
float %f
double %lf
long double %Lf

Signed :
 It indicates all the bits are positive. Means that it takes only positive values
as well as negative values.
Unsigned:
It indicates all the bits are positive only(all values are positive).

C Datatypes

Basic data types Derived data types

Char integer float double void array structure union pointer

Constants and variables:

A constant is a literal, which remain unchanged during the execution of a
program. A variable is a name that is used to store data value and is allowed to
vary the value during the program execution.
Constants:
A constant is a fixed value that cannot be altered during the execution of a
program.
C Constants can be classified into two categories.
1. Primary constants.
2. Secondary constants.
Constants

Primary constants Secondary constants

Numeric character logical Array structure union pointer…etc

Integer float
Single char string

Integer constants:
An integer constant is an integer-valued number consisting of a sequence
of digits. The following are the rules for constructing integer constants.
1) An integer constant must have at least one digit.
2) It should not contain either a decimal point or exponent.
3) If a constant is positive, it may not be preceded by a plus sign. If it is a
negative, it must be preceded by a minus sign.
4) Commas, blanks and non digit-characters are not allowed in integer
constants.
5) The valid range is –32768 to +32767.
These range my larger for 32 bit computers.

Real constants:
Real constants are often called floating-point constants. These are two
ways to represent a real constant decimal form and exponential form.
Real constants expressed in decimal form must have at least one digit and
one decimal point. As in the case of integers, the real constants can be either
positive or negative. Commas, blanks, and non-digit characters are not allowed
with in a real constant.
In exponential form, a real constant is expressed as an integer number or
a decimal number multiplied by an integral power of 10. This simplifies the writing
of very large and very small numbers. In this representation, letter e is written
instead of 10, the power is written just to the right of e. generally, the part
appearing before e is called mantissa, whereas the part following e is called
exponent.
Rules for constructing real constants are:
1) The mantissa part and the exponential part should be separated by a
letter e.
 2) The mantissa part may have a positive or negative sign. Default sign of
mantissa part is positive.
3) Commas, blanks and non-digit characters are not allowed with in a real
constant.
4) The exponent part must be an integer.
5) The mantissa part must have at least one digit.
6) Range of real constants expressed in exponential form is –3.4e38 to
+3.4e38
String constants:
A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote.
The characters may be letters, numbers, blank space or special characters.
Example: “welcome”
“this is a sting”
“a+b=8”
““
“a”
Note that ““ is a null string or empty string. And the single string constant “a” is
not equivalent to the single character constant ‘a’.
Each sting constant must end with a special character ‘\0’. This character
is called null character and used to terminate the string. The compiler
automatically places a null ‘\0’ character at the end of every string constant. This
constant is not visible when the string is displayed. The null character is very
much useful in finding the end of a string.

Variables:
A variable can be considered as a name given to the location in memory.
The term variable is used to denote any value that is referred to a name instead
of explicit value. A variable is able to hold different values during execution of a
program.
For example, in the equation 2x+3y=10; since x and y can change, they
are variables, whereas 2,3 and 10 cannot change, hence they are constants.
Rules for constructing variable names:
1) The name of a variable is composed of one to several characters; the first
of which must be a letter.
2) No special characters other than letters, digits, and underscore can be
used in variable name. some compilers permit underscore as the first
character.
3) Commas, or blanks are not allowed with in a variable name.
4) Upper case and lower case letters are significant (different).
5) The variable name should not be a C key word. Also it should not have the
same name as a function.
Examples: income, name, rate, marks, sno, etc.
Operators in C :
There are 9 types of operators in C. They are
1. Arithmetic operators
2. Relational operators
3. Logical operators
4. Assignment operators
5. Compound assignment operators
6. Increment and Decrement operators
7. Bit wise operators
8. Conditional operators (ternary operator)
9. Special operators
1). Arithmetic Operators:-
These are used for the mathematical operations.
Operator Meaning
+ addition
- subtraction
* multiplication
/ division
% modulus
 The division operator ( / ) gives the quotient of the division.
  The modulus operator ( % ) gives the remainder of the division.
Note:- All operators must works only with two operands. so these are also called
as the "Binary operators". Example:
main()
{
int a =10,b=20,c; /* variable declaration part */
c=a+b;
printf(“%d”, c); /* it displays addition of c value */
c= a-b;
printf(“%d”, c);
c= a*b;
printf(“%d”, c);
c= a/b;
printf(“%d”, c);
c= a%b;
printf(“%d”, c);
getch();
}
Note:
- Compilation of the Program (Alt + F9).
- Program Execution (ctrl + F9).
- Output or Console Screen ( Alt +f5).
Output:
30
-10
200
0
10
2). Relational operators:-
 These are the operators, which tell the relation between the values or
operands. In C language all relational and logical operators returns 1 or zero. If
the expression is true then it will gives 1 other wise 0.
Operator Meaning
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equals to
!= Not equals
Examples on relational operators:-
- a=3<4; 1
- a=3>2; 1
- a=2>=3; 0
- a= 5<=5; 1
- a= 5==5; 1
- a= 5!=8; 1
3). Logical operator:-
The logical operators are used to compare more than one condition
Operator Meaning
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
! Logical NOT
Truth table for AND (&&) operator:
Expression1 Expression2 Result
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Truth table for OR (||) operator:

Expression1 Expression2 Result
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Truth table for NOT (!) operator:

Expression1 Result
T F
F T

examples:-
1. a = 1&&1; 1
2. a = 7&&5; 1
3. a = 5>4 && 4>10; 0
4. a = 5>4 || 4>10; 1
5. a = 1 || 0 1
6. a = !1 0
7. a = 1 && 4>3 1
8. a = ! (5>5); 1
4). Assignment operator (=):
The assignment operator can be used to store the data into the identifier
(variable).
The nature of storage is that right side of the data stored into left side of
identifier. Ex: a=10;
5). Assignment operators (+=, - =, * =, / =, % =):
The compound assignment operator can be used to minimize the
arithmetic operations.
Example:
a+= 1; it is equal to a= a+1;
b+=a; it is equal to b= b + a;
c-=a; it is equal to c= c-a;
d*= a ; it is equal to d= d*a;
a/=b; it is equal to a=a/b;
 b%=a; it is equal to b=b%a;

6). Increment and Decrement operators:

Increment (++)
Always it increment only one value to the existing identifier. They are two
types.
++a pre-increment.
a++ post-increment

pre- increment:
When ever the pre-increment operators using into the arithmetic
expressions then it is increasing the one value to the adjusting identifier and
participating into the expressions. This can be written ++identifier.
Ex: ++a;
Post- increment:
When ever the post incrimination operators including into the arithmetic
operators then the identifier values directly participating into the arithmetic
expressions. After that the identifier value incrementing by one only.
Syntax:
identifier ++ ;
Ex: a++;
Decrement operator (- - ):
It is always decreased by one value and result stored into the same
identifier. We have two types of decrement operators.
Pre – decrement ex: --a;
Post – decrement ex: a--;

Pre – decrement:
 When ever pre – decrement operators using into the arithmetic
expressions then it is decreasing the one value to the adjusting identifier and
processing into the expressions. This can be written as -- identifier.
Ex: --a;

Post decrement:
When ever the post decrement operators including into the arithmetic
operations then the identifier values directly participating into the arithmetic
expressions. After that the identifier values decrement by one only.
Syntax:
Identifier --;

7). Bitwise operators:

Operator meaning
& Bitwise And
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise Exclusive OR (XOR)
<< Left Shift
>> Right shift
~ One’s Complement
The bit wise operators can be used to do the binary operation (binary
manipulations). Like addition sub multiplication etc. C allows the programmer to
interact directly with the hardware of a particular system through bitwise
operators and expression. These operators work only with int and char
datatypes and cannot be used with float or double type.
Bitwise Exclusive OR (XOR) Operator:
An exclusive OR set the 0 bit 1, if both bits that are compared are
different. The truth-values for XOR are.
0 ^ 0 = 0
0 ^ 1 = 1
1 ^ 0 = 1
 1 ^ 1 = 0
for example 127 ^ 120 is
01111111 127 in binary
01111000 120 in binary
XOR result= 00000111
Bitwise complement operator:
The bitwise complement (or one’s complement) operator ~ (called tilde)
changes each 1 bit in its operand to 0 and changes 0 bit to 1, ~0= 1, ~1= 0.
For example:
Consider that , the int variable has the value 5.
The binary number is 0000000000000101
The bitwise complement ~ is 1111111111111010
Shift Operators >> and <<
The shift operators move all the bits in a variable to the right or left as
specified. The general form of the shift right statement is
Variable >> number of bit positions.
The general form of the shift left statement is
Variable << number of bit positions,
As bit are shifted out to one end, the zeros are entered from the other end. The
bits which are shifted out are lost. The shifting of bit is not a rotation of bits.
Consider the following operations where the initial value of x is 9
X=9 00001001 9
X << 1 00010010 18
X << 1 00100100 36
X << 2 10010000 144
X >> 1 01001000 72
X >> 1 00100100 36
X >> 2 00001001 9
It can be noted from the above operations that the left shift by one place is
nothing but multiplications of a number with 2, and the right shift by one place is
nothing but division of a number by 2 .
8). Conditional operator (?:)
C provides a peculiar operator ?: which is useful in reducing the code. It is
ternary operator requiring three operands.
The general format is
Exp1 ? Exp2 : Exp3 ;
Where exp1, exp2 and exp3 are expressions. The constituents of conditional
operator are separated in conditional expressions and the order should not be
changed, that is should be in between the first two expressions and : should be
between the second and third expressions.
In the above conditional expression, exp1 is evaluated first. If the value of
exp1 is non zero (true), then the value returned will be exp2. if the value of exp1
is zero (false). Then the value returned will be exp3.
Example:
#include < stdio.h>
main()
{
int option;
printf(“Enter any number “);
scanf(“%d”, &option);
option ? printf(“Entered non-zero number”): printf(“entered zero”);
}
example 2: z= (x>10 ? 8: -3);

9). Special operators:

1. Comma operator:-
The comma operator allows two or more different expressions to
appear when only one expression is expected. The expressions are
separated by the comma operator.
The general form is
Exp1,exp2, exp3,…expn
 2. Size of operator
The sizeof operator in c will determine the size of variables storage
in bytes. The sizeof operator is a unary operator and can be used to know
the size of any variable, constant, etc. the sizeof operator is very useful in
writing machine- independent program.
INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS:
printf() function: Writing Output Data
The printf() function is used to write information to standard output
(normally monitor screen). The structure of this function is
printf(“ format specifiers “, var1,var2,var3,…….var n);
Example:
printf(“%d”, a);
scanf() function: getting user input
The real power of a technical C program is its ability to interact with the
program user. This means that the program gets input values for variables from
users.
The scanf() function is a built-in C function that allows a program to get
user input from the keyboard.
Syntax: scanf(“format specifiers”, &var1,&var2,……&var n);
CONTROL STRUCTURES
C supports the following three control structures:
1. Sequence structure
2. Selection structure
-if statement, if/else statement and switch statement. These statements
are known as conditional statements
3. Repetition (loop) structure
- for statement, while statement and do-while statement. These
statements are known as iterative statements
1. Sequence Structure:
Sequence means executing one statement after another, in the order in
which they occur in the program. This is the default action in C language.
2. Selection Structure:
Selection means executing different section of code depending on a
condition or the value of a variable. This allows a program to take different
actions depending on different circumstances. C provides three selection
structures:
I. The if selection structure
II. The iflese selection structure
III. The switch selection structure
3. Repetition Structures:
Repetition means executing the same section of code (a single statement
or a set of statements) more than once. Here, a section of code is either
executed while some condition is true or a fixed number of times. C provides
three repetition structures:
I. while
II. do- while
III. for
if statement:
The if selection structure allows the programmer to specify that a section
of code should only be executed if a certain condition is true. The syntax for this
statement is
Syntax: If (condition)
Statement;
Where condition is an expression that has a true or false value and statement is
the statement that should only be executed if the expression is true. For
example:
if (number1 > number 2)
printf(“number1 is greater than number2 \n”);
if more than one statement should be executed when the condition is true, then
these may be grouped together inside braces. For example:

if (number1 > number2)

 {
printf(“ %d is greater than %d\n”, number1, number2);
printf(“ %d is less than %d\n”, number2, number1);
}

/* Write a program to check the given value is positive or negative */

main()
{
int number; /* variable declaration part */
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number");
scanf("%d",&number); /*reading value from keyboard */
if(number>0) /* to check number is > 0 or not */
printf("number is positive ");
if(number<0)
printf("number is negative ");
getch();
}
Output:
Enter any number
6
Number is positive
/*write a program to check the given no is even or odd using if statement */
main()
{
int number, rem;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number");
scanf("%d",&number);
rem= number %2;
if(rem==0)
 printf("number is even");
if(rem!=0)
printf("number is odd");
getch();
}

Output:
Enter any number
5
number is odd

if else statement:
The if/else statement extends the idea of the if statement by specifying
another section of code that should be executed only if the condition is false.
Syntax:
If (condition)
Statement 1;
else
statement 2 ;
where condition is an expression which evaluates to true or false value,
statement 1 is the statement to be executed only if the condition is true, and
statement 2 is the statement to be executed only if the condition is false. For
example:
if ( number1 > number2 )
printf(“%d is greater than %d \n”, number1, number2);
else
printf(“%d is not greater than %d \n”, number1, number2);

start

Conditio
n False statements

True statements
 false

true

Nested IF- ELSE Statement:

When a series of conditions are involved, we can use more than one if-
else statement in nested form.

If(condition1)
{
statements
}
else
if(condition )
{
statements
}
else
{
statements
}

example: If( number 1> number 2)

printf(“%d is greater than %d\n”, number1, number2);
 else
if(number1>number2)
printf(“ %d is less than %d\n”, number1, number2);
else
printf(“ %d is equal to %d\n”, nubmer1, number2);
Assignments

Program1:
/* Write a program to check the given value is positive or negative using if-
else statement */

Program2:
/*Write a program to check the given no is even or odd using if-else
statement */

Program 3:
/* Write a program to read student roll number, name and 6 subjects marks
and find the student result, total, average and division. If student is pass
then you display total, average and division other wise no need. */
main()
{
int roll_no,total,s1,s2,s3,s4,s5,s6;
char name[30];
float avg;
clrscr();
printf("enter student roll no:");
scanf("%d",&roll_no);
printf("enter student name:");
scanf("%s",&name);
printf("enter 6 subjects marks");
scanf("%d%d%d%d%d%d",&s1,&s2,&s3,&s4,&s5,&s6);
 if( s1>35 && s2>35&&s3>35&& s4>35&&s5>35&&s6>35)
{
printf(" result =pass\n");
total=s1+s2+s3+s4+s5+s6;
avg=total/6;
printf("total=%d",total);
printf("avg=%f",avg);
if(avg>=60)
printf("First division");
else
if(avg>50)
printf("Second division");
else
printf("Third division");
}
else
printf("Result =Fail");
getch();
}
out put:
Enter student roll no 101
Enter student name: kumar
Enter 6 subjects marks: 55 65 85 75 95 44
Result : pass
Total =419 , avg=69.000000
First division.

Program 4:
/* Write a program to read 3 number and find the biggest number */

Program 5:
Write a program to check the given year is leap year or not?
The switch statement
The switch statement is an extension of the if-else statement. The switch
makes one selection when there are several choices to be made. The direction of
the branch taken by the switch statement is based on the value of any int(or int
compatible) variable or expression.
The general form of switch statement is shown bellow.

switch(integer expression)
{
case constant1 : statement1 ; break;
case constant2 : statement2 ; break;
case constant3 : statement3 ; break;
case constant4 : statement4 ; break;
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
case constant n : statement n ; break;
default : statement;
}
 The integer expression following the key word switch is any C expression
that will result an integer value. I.e. is, it could be an integer constant or an
expression that evaluates to an integer. The key word case is followed by an
integer or a character constant .the break statement used inside each case of
the switch, causes an intermediate exit from the switch statement: and continued
onto the next statement outside the switch statement.
When we execute this form of switch statement, first the integer
expression is evaluated. The value of expression is then compared one by one,
with constant1, constant2…constant n. when a match is found, the program
executes the statements following that case. The execution continues from that
point till either a break statement is found or the switch statement is completed.
The break causes an immediate exit from the switch construct. Normally, in every
case, all statements following the default are executed.

Note: if the break statement is not included, all of the statements below the
match will be executed.

Program 1:
Write a program to read any digit and print in words using switch
statement.
main()
{
int digit;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any digit");
scanf("%d",&digit);
switch(digit)
{
case 0 : printf("zero");break;
case 1: printf("one"); break;
case 2: printf("two"); break;
case 3: printf("three"); break;
 case 4: printf("four");break;
case 5 :printf("five");break;
case 6: printf("six");break;
case 7: printf("seven");break;
case 8:printf("eight");break;
case 9: printf("nine");break;
default: printf("not a digit");
}
getch();
}

Output:
Enter any digit 3
Three
Program 2:
Write a program to read 2 numbers and find the result based on the user
choice.

Choice operation
1---------------------addition
2--------------------subtraction
3--------------------multiplication
4--------------------division
5-------------------modulo division

LOOPS
A potion of program that is executed repeatedly is called a loop. The C
programming language contains three different program statements for program
looping. They are
while loop.
do-while loop
for loop
WHILE LOOP:
The while loop is best suited to repeat a statement or a set of statements
as long as some condition is satisfied.
The general form of while loop is

While (expression)
{
Statement;
}
Where the statement (body of the loop) may be a single statement or a
compound statement. The expression (text condition) must results zero or non-
zero.
First of all, the expression in the while loop is evaluated. If the result is true
(non-zero), then the statement is executed and the expression is evaluated
again. The statement continues to execute until the expression evaluates to false
(zero). Then the loop is finished and the program execution continues with the
statement that follows the body of while loop.
Flow chart:
Start

Initilization

False
Conditio
True n
true

Loop statements Stop

Loop counter update

Program 1:
Write a program to display 1 to 10 natural numbers
main()
{
int number=1;
clrscr();
while(number<=10)
{
printf("%d\t", number);
number++;
}
getch();
}

Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Program 2:
/* To print the even numbers between 1 to 100 using while loop */
main()
{
int num=1;
clrscr();
while(num<=100)
{
if(num%2==0)
{
printf("%d\t",num);
}
num++;
 }
getch();
}

Assignments:

Program 3: Write a program to read any number and find the factorial of the
given number.
Program 4:
Write a program to print the multiplication table of the given number

Program 5:
Write a program to read (accept) any number and print the reverse of the
given number.
main()
{
long int number, reverse=0,rem;
clrscr();
printf(“Enter any number”);
scanf(“%ld”,&number);
while(number>0)
{
rem=number%10;
reverse=reverse*10+rem;
number=number/10;
}
printf(“reverse of the given no=%ld”,reverse);
getch();
}
output:
Enter any number 123
Reverse of the given no =321

Program 6:
Write a program to read any number and check weather it is prime number
or not?
Program 7:
Write a program to read any number and check weather it is a polindrom
number or not?
Program 8: Print the prime numbers between 1 to 100
Do-WHILE LOOP
The structure of do-while loop is similar to while loop. The difference is that in
case of do-while loop the expression is evaluated after the body of loop is
executed. In case of while loop the expression is evaluated before executing
body of loop.
The general form of do-while statement is
do
{
Statements;
}
while(expression);
where statement is a single statement of compound statement. In contrast to
while loop statement (body of loop), do-while loop is executed one or more
times.
In do-while loop, first the statement is executed and then the expression
is tested. If the expression evaluates to false (zero), the loop terminates and the
execution control transfer to the next statement that fallows it. Otherwise, if
expression evaluates to true (non-zero), execution of the statement is repeated
and the iterative process continues.
Flow chart of do-while:
Start

Initilization

Loop statements

Loop counter update

True Conditio false

n

Stop
Program 1:
Write a program to display 1 to 10 natural numbers using do-while.
main()
{
int number=1;
clrscr();
do
{
printf("%d\t", number);
number++;
} while(number<=10); /* to check the condition is true or false
getch();
}

Output:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Program 2:
/* To print the even numbers between 1 to 100 using do-while*/

program 3:
Write a program to read (accept) any number and print the sum of the
digits. (123 = 1+2+3)

Program 4:
Wap to print multiplication tables from 1 to 10 using do-while loop

Program 5:
To check whether the given no is prime or not using do-while
FOR LOOP
The for loop is most common in major programming languages. The for
loop in C language is very flexible and very powerful. Generally, the for loop is
used to repeat the execution of a statement for some fixed number of times.
The general form of for loop is
for (initial-expression; conditional-expression; increment-expression)
Statement;
Where the statement is single or compound statement.
Initial-expression is the initialization expression, usually an assignment to the
loop-control variable. This is performed once before the loop actually begins
execution.
Conditional –expression is the test expression. Which is evaluated before
each iteration of the loop, which determines when the loop will exist.
Increment-expression is the modifier expression, which changes the value
of loop control variable. This expression is executed at the end of each loop.
These three sections are separated by semi colons. The for loop repeats
the execution of the statement as long as the conditional expression evaluates to
true (1). Once this test condition becomes false, the for loop will terminate and
control resumes to the statement that immediately following for loop.

Program 1:
Write a program to print the multiplication tables from 1 to 10 using for
loop.
main()
{
int tableno, c, i;
clrscr();
for(tn=1;tableno<=10;tableno++) /* incrementing table no number */
{
for(i=1;i<=10;i++) /* printing multiplication table */
 {
printf("%d * %d =%d\n",tableno,i,tableno*i);
}
getch();
}
}

Program 2:
/* wap to print ASCII values of characters */
main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<256; i++)
{
printf("%c-----------> %d\n",i,i);
getch();
}
getch();
}

Program 3:
/* wap to print following format */
1
12
123

main()
{
int i,j;
 clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=5;i++) /* outer loop */
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++) /* inner loop */
{
printf(" %d",j);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}

Program 4: wap to print following format

A
BB
CCC

main()
{
int i,j;
clrscr();
for(i=65;i<=68;i++) /* outer loop */
{
for(j=65;j<=i;j++) /* inner loop */
{
printf("%c\t",i);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Program 5: wap to print following format
333
22
1
Program 6: wap to print following format
CCC
BB
A
Program 7: wap to print the following format
*
**
***
Program 8:
/* To print the even numbers between 1 to 100 using for loop */
program 9:
Write a program to read (accept) any number and print the sum of the
digits. (123 = 1+2+3)
Program 10:
Wap to print multiplication tables from 1 to 10 using for loop
Program 11:
To check whether the given no is prime or not using for loop

break and continue statement

C provides the break and continue statements to stop a particular iteration of a
loop/block early, for instance if an abnormal condition occurs.
A break statement inside the body of a loop (or block) breaks completely
out of the loop (or break). No more instructions in the loop( or block) are
executed. And the next statement after the loop (or block) will be executed.
The continue statement just skips any instructions after it on that iteration
of the loop. The current iteration of the loop is terminated, and the loop statement
is executed again as if the last instruction of the loop body has been reached.
Example:
main()
{
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<=10;i++)
{
if(i==5) /* if i value is 5 immediately control increments the loop
counter with out executing loop */
{
continue;
}
printf("i=%d\t",i);
}
getch();
}
Output:
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
goto statement:
A goto statement is an unconditional jump statement. It jumps to a position
indicated by label.
Example:
/* goto statement */
main()
{
clrscr();
printf("line 1\n");
goto last;
printf("line 2\n");
printf("line 3\n");
printf("line 4\n");
 printf("line 5\n");
last:
printf("line 6\n");
printf("This is last statement");
getch();
}

Output:
Line 1
Line 6
This is last statement
In the above example, last is the label and when the goto statement is executed,
the execution control transfers to the statement indicated by last followed by
colon ( : )
ARRAYS:
An array is a collection of elements of same type. The elements of an
array referred by a common name and are differentiate from one another by their
position with in an array. The elements of an array can be of any data type but all
elements in an array must be of the same type. (or) An array is a group of
memory location of same type.
Arrays are two types they are
1. one dimensional array (single dimensional array)
2. two dimensional array
One dimensional array:
Elements arranged in the form of single row or column is called one-
dimensional array. The general form of declaring a one-dimensional array is

Datatype array-name[size];
Where datatype means basic datatypes (int ,float, char, double). Array-name is
the name of the array and size is the number of elements that array-name
contains.
The individual elements of an array can be referenced by means of its
subscript (or index). Suppose A is an array of 20 elements, we can reference
each element as
Array name Subscript (index)

A[0] 1st element

A[1] 2nd element
A[2] 3rd element
.
.
.
A[19] 20th element
Sub script enclosed within parenthesis
In C-lang supports starts from zero. That is, if we declare an array of size n, then
we can refer the elements from 0 to (n-1) th element.
Example:
int b[15], marks[20];
float rates[50];
char name[30];
Initialization of one-dimensional array
Int a[5]= { 10,3,45,65,-90};
Float b[3]= { 33.4,45.5,5.5};
Two-dimensional array:
Elements arranged in the form of rows and column. That means just like
table form where each element is identified by unique row and unique column
number. The general declaration of two-dimensional array is

Datatype array-name[row size][column size];

Where row size referred as the number of rows and column size referred as the
number of columns.

Initialization of two-dimensional array

Int a[3][3] = { 1,2 ,33,454,65,54,55,5,32};

Or
Int a[3][3] = { {1,2,33},{454,65,54},{55,5,32}};

Example 1: /* to initialize 5 array elements and display */

main()
{
int a[5]={10,5,-90,100,30},i; /* array initialization */
clrscr();
printf("The array elements are\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("a[%d]=%d\n" ,i,a[i]);
}
getch();
}
Output
A[0]=10
A[1]=5
A[2]=-90
A[3]=100
A[4]=30
Example 2: /* to read n array elements from the keyboard and display */
main()
{
int a[200],i,n; /* array declaration */
clrscr();
printf("Enter how many elements u want to store \n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Enter %d elements into array\n",n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("The array elements are\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
printf("a[%d]=%d\n",i,a[i]);
getch();
}

Output:
Enter how many elements u want to store 5
Enter 5 elements into array 10 4 88 9 3
The array elements are
A[0]=10
A[1]=4
A[2]=88
A[3]=9
A[4]=3
Example 3: /* to read 5 array elements and display */
main()
{
int a[5],i; /* int array, one variable declaration */
clrscr();
printf("Enter 5 integer elements");
 for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i]); /* takes single value from keyboard */
}
printf("The array elements are\n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
printf("a[%d]=%d\n",i,a[i]);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter 5 integer elements
10 4 88 9 3
The array elements are
A[0]=10
A[1]=4
A[2]=88
A[3]=9
A[4]=3

Example 4: To initialize 5 array elements and display, print the sum of

elements .
Example 5: To accept n elements from keyboard and find maximum,
minimum elements
Example 6:To read n elements and find searching element is found or not.
Example 1: /* to initialize 2 *2 matrix elements and display */
main()
{
int a[2][2] = { 2, 6, 5, 8 }, i,j;
clrscr();
printf("The given 2 * 2 matrix elements are \n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
 {
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
printf("%d\t", a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
getch();
}
Output:
The given 2 * 2 matrix elements are
2 6
5 8
Example 2: /* wap to read 2*2 matrix elements and display */
main()
{
int a[2][2],i,j;
clrscr();
printf("enter elements of 2*2 matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
printf("The given elements of 2*2 matrix\n");
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
{
printf("%d\t",a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
 getch();
}
Output:
enter elements of 2*2 matrix
22 45 3 6
The given elements of 2*2 matrix
22 45
3 6
Example 3 : /* To read m*n matrix elements and display */

Example 4: * Addition of two m*n matrix */

main()
{
int a[10][10],b[10][10],c[10][10],r1,c1,r2,c2,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the size of first matrix");
scanf("%d%d",&r1,&c1);
printf("Enter the size of second matrix");
scanf("%d%d",&r2,&c2);
if(r1==r2&&c1==c2)
{
printf(“ matrix addition possible\n”);
printf("Enter elements of first matrix %d * %d\n",r1,c1);
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
 printf("Enter elements of second matrix %d * %d\n",r2,c2);
for(i=0;i<r2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]); /* reading second matrix elements */
}
}
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j]; /* matrix addition here */
printf("After adding\n");

for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
printf("%d\t",c[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}
}
else printf("Matrix addition not possible");
getch();
}
Output:
Enter the size of first matrix 2 3
Enter the size of second matrix 2 3
matrix addition possible
Enter elements of first matrix 2 6 3 5 8 9
Enter elements of second matrix 6 8 3 9 1 0
After adding
8 14 6
14 9 9

Example 5 : /*Find the Multiplication of two m*n matrix */

STRINGS:
String is a special kind of an array. String can be represented as an array of
characters. A string is a one-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null
character (\0). The ASCII value of null character is 0. A string constant can be
represented in C by enclosing its characters inside double quotes without null
character.
For Example, the string “computer” is stored in memory as

‘c’ ‘o’ ‘m’ ‘p’ ‘u’ ‘t’ ‘e’ ‘r’ ‘\0’

String constant should be enclosed with in double quotes. C inserts null

character automatically at the end. A string can be read or print using format
specifier %s, in scanf and printf functions. The scanf function reads all the
characters up to blank, Hence %s is used only to read a single word at a time. To
over come this limitation the function gets() can be used.

INITIALIZATION OF STRING ARRAYS DURING DECLARATION

Char s1[20]=”welcome”;
Char s2[20]={‘w’,’e’,’l’,’c’,’o’,’m’,’e’};
Char s3[]=”welcome;
Char s4[]={‘w’,’e’,’l’,’c’,’o’,’m’,’e’,’\0’};
Example 1: /* initialization of strings during declaration */
main()
{
char str1[20]="welcome to";
char str2[20]={'w','e','l','c','o','m','e'};
char str3[]="welcome";
char str4[]={'w','e','l','c','o','m','e','\0'};
clrscr();
printf("str1=%s\n",str1);
printf("str2=%s\n",str2);
printf("str3=%s\n",str3);
printf("str4=%s\n",str4);
getch();
}
Output:
Welcome to
Welcome
Welcome
Welcome
Example 2: /* Accept one string from key board using gets function */
main()
{
char s[100];
clrscr();
printf("Enter one string");
gets(s);
printf("After reading\n");
puts(s);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter one string Welcome to strings topic
After reading
Welcome to strings topic
Example 3: To read any string from the keyboard using getchar function.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char str[100],c; /* char array, variable declaration */
int i=0;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any string:");
do
{
c=getchar(); /* it takes single charecter from keyboard */
str[i] =c;
i++;
}while(c!='\n');
str[i]='\0';
printf("The given string is=\n");
puts(str); /* display string */
getch();
}
Output:
Enter any string: welcome to strings topic
The given string is=
welcome to strings topic
String handling functions:
Every C compiler provides a large set of string handling library functions, which
are contained in the header file string.h
The following table shows some of the functions available string.h header file.
Function Meaning
strcat() String concatenate. Append one string to another. First character of
string2 overwrites null character of string1.
Strlen() Returns the length of the string not counting the null character.
Strlwr() Converts a string to lower case.
Strupr() Converts a string to upper case
Strncat() Appends first n characters of a string at the end of another.
Strcpy() Copies a string into another.
Strncpy() Copies first n characters of one string into another.
Strcmp() Compares two strings
Strncmp() Compares first n characters of two strings.
Strcmpi() Compares two strings without case sensitivity.
Strdup() Copies a string into a newly created location.
Strrev() Reverse a string.

Note: The statement, which are starting with ‘#’ are called preprocessor
commands. These commands are processed before compilation of the program.
Example 4: To add 2 given strings using strcat function.
main()
{
char str1[300],str2[300];
clrscr();
printf("Enter first string:);
gets(str1);
printf("Enter second string:);
gets(str2);

strcat(str1,str2); /* combine 2 strings and stored in str1 */

printf("After adding 2 strings:\n");

puts(str1); /* display str1 */
getch();
}
Output:
Enter first string: welcome to hyd
Enter second string: computer
After adding 2 strings:
Welcome to hydcomputer
Example 5: To find the length of the given string.

Example 6: To convert the given string to lowercase.

Example 7: To convert the given string to uppercase
Example 8: To concatenate (add) given 2 strings
Example 9: string copy from one array to another array.
Example 10: To compare 2 given strings
Example 11: To compare first n characters of the 2 strings
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char str1[30],str2[30];
int c,n;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first string");
gets(str1);
printf("Enter second string");
gets(str2);
printf("Enter how many characters u want to compare\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
c=strncmp(str1,str2,n);
if(c==0)
printf("first n characters r equal\n");
else
printf("first n characters r not equal");
getch();
}
Output:
Enter first string:
Welcome
Enter second string:
Computer
Enter how many characters u want to compare
5
first n characters r not equal
Example 11: To compare 2 given strings without case sensitive.
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char s1[100],s2[100];
int c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter first string:\n);
gets(s1);
printf("Enter second string:\n);
gets(s2);
c=strcmpi(s1,s2); /* it returns difference value */
if(c==0) /* c value is 0 or not */
printf("both are equal");
else
printf("both are not equal");
getch();
}
Output:
Enter first string:
Welcome
Enter second string:
WELCOME
both are equal
Example 12: Find the reverse of the given string.
Example 13: read any string and display given string, find null position.

getchar()
The getchar() function allows us to read a character from the standard
input. Using the getchar() only one character can be read at time but a string
cannot be read. To read strings using the getchar, we have to use getchar
function within a loop by reading a single character in each iteration. However,
the null character (‘\0’) at the end of the loop to recognize that the input value is
string.

Example 14: write a program to read 5 strings and display 5 strings.

#include<string.h>
main()
{
char str1[5][15];
int i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 5 strings");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
gets(str1[i]);
puts("The given 5 strings are");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
puts(str1[i]);
getch();
}

FUNCTIONS
 Functions are building blocks of C. functions are self-contained sub
programs of main program and function contains set of instructions. Each
function performs a specific task. Functions support the concept of top-down
modular programming design technique. Each function in C consists of a name,
a return type and a possible parameter list. Variables declared in functions are
called local variables, global variables can be accessed by any function.
Functions are two types. They are
1. Pre-defined functions or library functions
2. User-defined functions
Example for pre-defined functions are scanf(), printf(), clrscr(), getch(), etc.
Example for user-defined functions are sum(), display(), welcome(), address(),
etc.
The general form of C function is
Return-type function-name(parameter list)
Parameter declaration;
{

body of function;
}
If there are no parameters, the parameter declaration part is not needed. Note
that main function also having similar type of structure as shown above. The
body of the function contain local declarations (if any) and statements.
Every function calling from main function and every function returns a
value. But in C, the values returned by many functions are ignored. We can
declare functions of type void, which means that they don’t return any value.
In general, C can return any basic data type such as char, int, float, void
etc.,
Function calling four types they are
1. Function calling without parameters and without return statement.
2. Function calling with parameters and without return statement.
3. Function calling without parameters and with return statement.
 4. Function calling with parameters and with return statement.

1. Programs on function calling without parameters and without return

statement.
void hello(); /* function prototype or fun declaration */
main()
{
hello(); /* function calling */
printf(“this is main function\n”);
printf("\n end of the main function");
getch(); /* pre defined function calling */
}
void hello() /* fun definition or called function */
{
clrscr(); /* pre defined function calling */
printf("This is hello function");
printf("\n this is user-defined function ");
}
Output:
This is hello function
This is user-defined function
This is main function
End of the main function
Program 2: Find the given number is prime or not.
void prime(); /* function prototype */
main()
{
clrscr();
prime(); /* function calling */
getch();
}
void prime() /* calling function or called function */
{
int i, count=0,n; /* local variable */
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=2;i<n;i++)
{
if(n%i==0)
{
count++;
break;
}
}
if(count==0)
printf("\n The given no is prime no");
else
printf("\n the given no not a prime no");
}
Output:
Enter any number: 5
The given no is prime no
2. Programs on function calling with parameters and without return
statement.

Program 1: Find the given number is prime or not.

void prime(int); /* function prototype */

main()
{
int n; /* local variable */
 clrscr();
printf("Enter any number");
scanf("%d",&n);
prime(n); /* function calling with parameter or argument */
getch();

void prime(int n) /* called function */

{
int i,count=0; /* local variables */
for(i=2;i<n;i++)
{
if(n%i==0)
{
count++;
break;
}
}
if(count==0)
printf("The given no is prime no");
else
printf("the given no not a prime no");
}
Output:
Enter any number: 4
The given no is not a prime no
Program 2: Find the sum, sub and mul of two given numbers.
void sum(int,int);
void sub(int, int);
void mul(int, int);
main()
{
int a,b ; /* local variables */
clrscr();
printf("Enter any 2 values:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
sum(a,b); /* fun calling with a,b values */
sub(a,b); /* fun calling with a,b values */
mul(a,b); /* fun calling with a,b values */
getch();
}
void sum(int x, int y) /* called function and here x, y variables are local*/
{
printf("this is sum function\n");
printf("sum of 2 values=%d\n",x+y);
}
vod sub(int p, int q) /* called function and here p, q variables are local*/
{
printf("this is sub function\n");
printf("subtraction of 2 values=%d\n",p-q);
}
void mul(int m,int n) /* called function and here m, n variables are local*/
{
printf("this is mul function\n");
printf("multiplication of 2 values=%d\n",m*n);
}
Output:
Enter any 2 values: 10 6
this is sum function
sum of 2 values= 16
this is sub function
subtraction of 2 values= 4
this is mul function
multiplication of 2 values=60

Program 3: Find the reverse of the given number.

3. Programs on function calling without parameters and with return

statement.
Program 1: /* fun without parameters and with return statement */
int sum(); /* fun prototype */
void main()
{ int s; /* local variable */
clrscr();
s=sum(); /* fun calling without arg and take return statement */
printf("return value is %d\n",s);
getch();
}
int sum() /* called function */
{
int a,b; /* a,b are local variables */
printf("Enter a, b values:");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
return (a+b); /* value return to calling function */
}
Output:
Enter a, b values: 10 30
return value is 40

4. Programs on function calling with parameters and with return statement.

Program 1: To find the given no is even or odd.

int number(int); /*fun prototype */

void main()
{
int r,num; /* local variables */
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d",&num);
r=number(num); /* function calling with arg and take return val*/
if(r==0)
printf("the given no is even");
else
printf(" the given no is odd");
getch();
}
int number(int n) /* called function */
{
if(n%2==0)
return 0;
else
return 1;
}
Output:
Enter any number: 5
the given no is even

Program 2: To find the factorial of the given no.

RECURSION
 Recursion is a technique to be used to call itself. In C it is possible for the
functions to call themselves. A function is called recursive if a statement with in
the body of a function calls the same function itself.
Consider a simple example which finds the factorial of a number. A
factorial of a number is the product of all the integers between and that number.
For example 5 factorial is 5*4*3*2*1.
Program 1: write a program to find the factorial of the given number using
recursive function.

long int factorial(int); /* fun prototype */

void main()
{
int n;
long int f;
clrscr();
printf("Enter any number:");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=factorial(n); /* fun calling in main function */
printf("factorial of given no=%ld",f);
getch();
}
long int factorial(int n)
{
if(n==1)
return 1;
else
return n*factorial(n-1); /* fun calling itself */
}
Output:
Enter any number: 10
factorial of given no =3628800
Passing Arrays into functions:
Program 1: Write a program to read 5 array elements and display those
elements using function with passing arguments.
void display(int [],int);
main()
{
int a[5],i;
clrscr();
printf("Enter 5 elements \n");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
display(a,5); /* fun calling with passing array*/
getch();
}
void display(int a[],int size) /* fun definition */
{
int i;
printf(“the given 5 array elements are\n”);
for(i=0;i<size;i++)
printf("%d\t",a[i]);
}
Output:
Enter 5 elements
10 5 30 6 55
the given 5 array elements are
10 5 30 6 55
Program 2: write a program to display list of array elements using fun with
argument without return value.
void display(int []);
void main()
{
 int a[5]={10,3,4,55,-90};
clrscr();
display(a); /* fun calling */
getch();
}
void display(int b[])
{ int i;
printf("Array elements are\n");
for(i=0;i<=4;i++)
printf("%d\t", b[i]);
}

Program 3:
/* print the sum of array elements using fun with arg and with return state*/

POINTERS

Pointer is a derived data type and is used to store address of another variable. A
pointer variable in C is declared as follows:
Data-type *pointer-variable-name;
Examples:
Int *ptr; /* pointer- to- int */
float *fptr; /* pointer-to-float */

In the declaration, the asterisk (*) indicates that the pointer-variable and
data-type indicates the type the pointer is pointing to. Thus, when a pointer is
declared, the type of variable the pointer will address has to be specified. If a
pointer is declared address of a floating point number (or address of any type
other than integer).
 There are two important operators in C to work with pointers: asterisk (*)
and ampersand (&).
In case of array, once the size of the array is declared, it is not possible to
increase or decrease its size during program execution. But by using pointer, the
memory can be allocated or de-allocated dynamically. Pointers allow to pass
variables, arrays, functions, strings and structures as function arguments.

Program1: Demonstration on pointers.

main()
{
int a=20;
int *ptr1=&a; /* address of a is assigned to ptr1 */
int **ptr2=&ptr1; /* address of ptr1 is assigned to ptr2 */
clrscr();
printf("value of a=%d\n",a); /*display value in a */
printf("address of a=%u\n",&a); /*display address of a */
printf("address in ptr1=%u\n",ptr1); /* display content in ptr1 */
printf("value in that address =%d\n",*ptr1); /* value in that content */
printf("Address of ptr1=%u\n",&ptr1);
printf("address in ptr2=%u\n",ptr2 );
printf("element in **ptr2=%d",**ptr2);
getch();
}
Output:
Value of a = 20
address of a= 65494
address in ptr1= 65494
value in that address = 20
Address of ptr1= 65496
element in **ptr2= 20
Program 2: Addition of two given numbers.
main()
{
int a,b,c, *ptr1,*ptr2,*ptr3;
ptr1=&a,ptr2=&b,ptr3=&c;
clrscr();
printf("Enter values for a,b");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);
*ptr3 = (*ptr1) +(*ptr2);
printf("After sum\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
printf("b=%d\n",b);
printf("c=%d\n",c);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter values for a,b: 10 33
After sum
a= 10
b= 33
c= 43

Program 3: To find the factorial of the given number.

main()
{
int num,*p=&num;
long int fact=1;
clrscr();
printf("enter any number:");
scanf("%d",&num);
 for(; *p >0; (*p)--)
{
fact = fact * (*p);
}
printf("factorial of given no =%ld",fact);
getch();
}
Output:
enter any number: 6
factorial of given no = 720

Program 4: To assign 5 integer array elements and display.

Program 5: To read n array elements and display.

Program 6: To find the maximum element in the array.

Program 7: To read m * n matrix and display.

main()
{
int a[10][10],*ptr=&a[0][0],m,n,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("Enter the size of the matrix:");
scanf("%d%d",&m,&n);
printf("Enter elements of %d * %d\n",m,n);
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
printf("The given matrix elements are\n");
for(i=0;i<m;i++)
{
 for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
printf(" ele=%d\t",*(*(a+i)+j) );
}
printf("\n\n");
}
getch();
}

Output:
Enter the size of the matrix: 2 3
Enter elements of 2 * 3
10 3 6 8 2 0
The given matrix elements are
10 3 6
8 2 0

Program 8: To read 2*2 matrix elements and display.

Program 8: program on call by reference.

void arithmetic(int ,int *); /* prototype */
void main()
{
int a=9,b;
clrscr();
printf("Before function calling\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
arithmetic( a, &b); /* passing a value and b variable address */
printf(" After function calling\n");
printf("a=%d\n",a);
printf("b=%d\n",b);
 getch();
}
void arithmetic(int n,int *ptr )
{
printf("values in function body \n");
printf("n=%d\n",n);
*ptr = (n) * (n); /* result stored in *ptr i.e in b */
}
Output:
Before function calling
a= 9
values in function body
n= 9
After function calling
a= 9
b= 81

Call-by-value:
A copy of the argument’s value is made and passed to the called function.
Therefore, changes to the copy do not effect the original variable’s value in the
caller. The function works with a copy of the argument sent to it.

Call-by-reference:
This is also called as pass-by-address or call-by-address. In this instead of
passing the values of the variables as parameters, the addresses of the variables
are passed as arguments. This is achieved by using the pointer.
In this mechanism, the caller gives the called functions the ability to
directly access the caller’s data. The function receives reference to variable and
works directly with the original variable.

STRUCTURES AND UNIONS

C allows us to create new datatypes using structures and unions.
A structure is a collection of variables of different datatypes. That are logically
grouped together and referenced under one name. that is, a structure provides a
compound datatype. So, we can buid more complex datatypes using structures.
A uinon is also a collection of variables of different data types. Unlike
structures, the variables share the same memory data.
Declaration of a structure:
The general form of structure declaration is
struct structure-name
{
data type variable 1;
data type variable 2;
data type variable 3;
.
.
.
data type variable n;
};
The structure declaration starts with the keyword struct followed by the name of
structure. Sandwiched between open and closed braces, we provide the type
declaration for the members of the structure. After the closing brace, we must
specify semicolon (;). That means every structure must end with semicolon. The
members of a structure are often called structure elements.
Initialization of structure variables:
We can create structure variable at end of the structure declaration or
below the structure declaration or within the main function.
A member of particular structure can be referenced by using dot operator
(.) as follows.
Structure-variable-name.member-name;
For example
 struct employee
{
int empno;
char name[30];
char dept[30];
float salary;
} emprec1; /* structure variable declaration */
For example, to reference the empno of emprec1 structure, we can write as
emprec1.empno;
The ‘.’ Operator connects the structure-name and the member name. the
following simple program illustrate the structure declaration and referencing its
elements using ‘.’ (dot) operator.

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct employee
{
int empno;
char name[30];
char dept[30];
float salary;
}emprec;
emprec.empno=1;
strcpy(emprec.name,"ANIL KUMAR");
strcpy(emprec.dept, "IT");
emprec.salary=10000;
printf("Employee no : %d\n", emprec.empno);
printf("Employee name : %s\n",emprec.name);
printf("Employee designation :%s\n",emprec.dept);
printf(" salary : %f\n", emprec.salary);
}

Output:
Employee code : 1
Employee name : ANIL KUMAR
Employee designation : IT
salary : 10000.000000
Program 2: print the address of structure members(elements).
struct emp
{
int eno;
char *name;
float sal;
}e; /* structure variable declaration */
void main()
{
e.eno=10; /* Assigning structure elements */
e.name="kumar";
e.sal=1000;
clrscr();
printf("address of eno=%u\n",&e.eno);
printf("address of name =%u\n",&e.name);
printf("address of sal=%u\n",&e.sal);
printf("eno=%d\nname=%s\nsal=%f",e.eno,e.name,e.sal);
getch();
}
Output:
address of eno= 1868
address of name = 1870
address of sal= 1872
eno= 10
name = kumar
sal= 10000

Program 3: To read employee eno, name, sal of two records from

keyboard.

Program 4: multiple structures declared in main functions.

void main()
{
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[20];
float marks;
}s; /* structure variable declaration here */
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[10];
float sal;
}e; /* structure variable declaration of emp */
clrscr();
printf("Enter student sno,name,marks:");
scanf("%d%s%f",&s.sno,s.sname,&s.marks);
printf("Enter emp no ,name,basic:");
scanf("%d%s%f",&e.eno,e.ename,&e.sal);
printf("the given details are\n");
printf("sno=%d\n",s.sno);
printf("name=%s\n",s.sname);
printf("marks=%f\n",s.marks);
printf("-------------\n");
 printf("eno=%d\n",e.eno);
printf("ename=%s\n",e.ename);
printf("esal=%f",e.sal);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter student sno,name,marks: 11 anil 560
Enter emp no ,name,basic: 1203 janardan 15000
the given details are
sno= 11
name= anil
marks= 560
-------------
eno= 1203
ename= janardan
esal= 15000
Program 6: /* structure within the structure */
struct student /* main structure name */
{
int sno;
char name[30], add[30];
struct marks /* sub structure name */
{
int s1,s2,s3, total;
float avg;
}m; /* structure variable declaration of marks */

}s; /* structure variable declaration of student */

main()
{
 clrscr();
printf("Enter student sno,name,address:");
scanf("%d%s%s",&s.sno,s.name,s.add);
printf("Enter 3 subjects marks:");
scanf("%d%d%d",&s.m.s1,&s.m.s2,&s.m.s3);
s.m.total=s.m.s1+s.m.s2+s.m.s3;
s.m.avg=s.m.total/3;
printf("STUDENT DETAILS ARE\n");
printf("sno=%d\t name =%s\t address =%s\n",s.sno,s.name,s.add);
printf("s1=%d\t s2=%d\t s3= %d\n",s.m.s1,s.m.s2,s.m.s3);
printf("total=%d\t avg=%f\n",s.m.total,s.m.avg);
getch();
}
Output:
Enter student sno,name,address: 11 jamesbond jublihills
Enter 3 subjects marks: 56 55 35
STUDENT DETAILS ARE
sno=11 name = jamesbond address = jublihills
s1= 56 s2= 55 s3= 35
total= 146 avg= 48.666668

Program 7: the following program illustrates the use of array of structures.

struct student
{
int sno;
char name[30];
int marks;
}S[3];
main()
{
int i;
 clrscr();
printf("Enter 3 records\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("This is record no =%d\n",i+1);
printf("Enter student details of sno,name,marks\n");
scanf("%d",&S[i].sno);
scanf("%s",S[i].name);
scanf("%d",&S[i].marks);
}
printf("Student details are\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("sno =%d\t name=%s\t marks =%f\n",S[i].sno,S[i].name,S[i].marks);
}
getch();
}
Output:
Enter 3 records
This is record no = 1
Enter student details of sno,name,marks: 11 Anil 550
This is record no = 2
Enter student details of sno,name,marks: 22 kumar 570
This is record no = 3
Enter student details of sno,name,marks: 33 reddy 590
Student details are
sno =11 name= anil marks = 550
sno = 22 name= kumar marks = 570
sno =33 name= reddy marks = 590
Program 8: functions and structures - passing of structures as arguments.
struct add
{
int a,b;
};
void display(struct add); /* function prototype */
struct add A; /* struct variable declaration */
main()
{
clrscr();
printf("Enter a,b values");
scanf("%d%d",&A.a,&A.b);
display(A); /* calling fun and passing Struct variable */
getch();
}
void display(struct add A) /* definition fun */
{
printf("addition of a,b=%d",A.a+A.b);
}
Output:
Enter a,b values: 12 23
addition of a,b= 35

UNIONS
Union is similar to C structure, i.e., it contain members of different types. The
difference is that a C union is used to store different datatypes variables in the
same memory location. In general, the unions are used to save the memory area
occupied by the program.
The general form of union declaration is
union union-name
{
data type variable1;
data type variable2;
 data type variable3;
.
.
.
} union-variables;
Note that union declaration has the same form as the structure declaration
except the keyword union. The members of union can be of different types.
The important point in using a union type variable will have only one
member at any time. Hence, any reference to the wrong type of data will produce
meaningless results.

The following program illustrates the action of union.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
union intcharfloat
{
int i;
char ch;
float f;
}ichf;
printf("the size of union is %d bytes \n", sizeof(ichf));
ichf.i=10;
printf("the integer value stored in union is %d \n", ichf.i);
ichf.='A';
printf("the char value stored in union is %c\n",ichf.ch);
ichf.f=20.3;
printf("the float value stored in union is %f\n", ichf.f);
getch();
}
the union variable ichf occupies 4 bytes, since float variables occupies 4 bytes
which is greater than other elements in the union. The memory assigned to
integer I, char ch and float f by union variable ichf can be represented as
Byte1 Byte2 Byte3 Byte4
i
ch
f

Thus the amount of storage space occupied for a union variable is the
amount of storage required for the largest member of the union. It should be
noted while using unions is that all members are stored in the same memory
space, with the same starting address, but not at the same time.

TYPEDEF

The typedef (type definition ) allows defining a new name for an existing data
type. Once a new name is given to a data type. Then new variables, arrays,
structures can be declared in terms of this new name (user given name to data
type). The general syntax of typedef statement is give bellow:

typedef existing datatype newtype;

for example, the following statement defines a name number to the type int
typedef int number;
now, we can declare variables of the type number as
number I, j;
Note that the typedef declaration does not create new data types, but it simply
creates synonyms for existing types. Thus, this declaration is useful to give
meaningful name to the program.

FILE HANDLING
Storage of data in variables and arrays is temporary. Files are used for
permanent storage of large amount of data. Computer stores files on secondary
storage device. C works with files a new datatype called a file pointer.
C provides a data structure called FILE, declared in file stdio.h, to access
the stream of characters from the disk files. An I/O stream that is active, must
have this data type FILE associated with it. C also provides a number of
functions for I/O to perform the basic file operations such as opening a file,
reading data from/ writing data to a file, etc.
FILE POINTER:
The structure ‘FILE’ which is declared in stdio.h acts like a link between
OS and the program and it is used to define a file pointer for use in file
operations. Therefore, a pointer to a FILE type is rewired to work with files on
disk.
The syntax of declaring a file pointer is
FILE * file_ pointer;
Eg: FILE *fp;
Here fp is a file pointer of datatype FILE. The word FILE should be type in capital
letters.
OPENING A FILE
Syntax: fopen (“file_name”, “mode”);
Where the first parameter file_name is the name of the data file on the
disk. Which is to be opened. Mode specified the purpose of opening this file.
FILE *fp;
fp= fopen(“raju.dat”,”r”);
here raju.dat is the name of the data file to be opened and the second
argument r indicates that the file is opening for reading purpose.
Several modes are available in C. The following is the list of these modes
along with their descriptions.
mode Description
 open for reading .the precondition is file must exist. Otherwise
fun returns Null value.

open for writing. if file already exists ,its contents are

overwritten. Otherwise a file is created. The fun returns NULL if
it is unable to create the file.

open for appending .if file already exist ,the new contents are
appended. Otherwise, a file is created. The fun returns NULL if
it is unable to create the file.

open for both reading and writing. The file must exits.

“w+”
open for both reading and writing .contents written over.

“a+”
open for reading and appending .if file is not existing ,the file is
created.
CLOSING A FILE:
The syntax of fclose function is
fclose(file_pointer);
Input/output operations on files:
The fputc() and fgetc() functions:
These input/output functions are used to read/write a single character
from/ to stream(files). The general forms are
fputc(char,fp);
fgetc(fp);
The fputc() function outputs a character to a stream. The first argument is the
character to be output and the second argument represents the file pointer. The
fgetc() function reads one character from input stream referred to by fp and
returns it.
The fgets() and fputs() functions:
 The fgets() and fputs() functions are used to read and write strings
respectively. The general forms are
fputs(string, fp);
fgets(string,length,fp);
The fputs() function outputs a string to a stream pointed to by fp.
The fgets() function requires three arguments. First argument is address of the
string in which the read data is to be placed. Second argument is the length of
the string to be read and the last argument is the file pointer. The fgets() function
reads a string until either a new line character or the number of characters given
in the second argument have been read. If a new line is read, it will be part of the
string. However if gets() is terminated, the resultant string will be null.
The fscanf() and fprintf() functions:
These functions are used for formatted I/O. These can handle mixed data
at the same time and behave exactly like scanf() and printf() except that they
work on disk files rather than on standard input and output. The general syntax of
these functions are:
fscanf(fp, “format string”, argument list);
fprintf(fp, ”format string”, argument list);

Program 1: writing some text into a file.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>0
main()
{
FILE *fp;
fp=fopen("f:\\january.txt","w"); /* file open with writing */
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("file can't created");
exit(0);
}
 fprintf(fp,"this is first file in file handling"); /* it writes a single string */
fputc('r',fp); /* it writes single character */
fclose(fp); /* file closing */
getch();
}

Program 2: Write the addition of two numbers to file.

#include<process.h>
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int a,b;
FILE *fp; /* file pointer declaration */
clrscr();
fp= fopen("single.txt","w"); /* file opening in writing mode */
if(fp==NULL) /* checking file is open or not */
{
printf("unable to open");
exit(0);
}
printf("Enter a, b values");
scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); /* reading 2 values from keyboard */
fprintf(fp, "a=%d\t b=%d\n",a,b); /* writing a,b values to a file */
fprintf(fp,"sum=%d",a+b);
fclose(fp); /* closeing file */
printf("file created");
getch();
}

Program 3: Reading data from a file.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>
main()
{
char c;
int count=0;
FILE *fp;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("f:\\january.txt","r"); /* file opened with reading mode */
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("file does't exist");
exit(0);
}
while( (c=fgetc(fp))!=EOF ) /* reading data from a file */
{
printf("%c",c);
count++;
}
printf("\nNo charecters in a file=%d\n", count);
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program 4: Program on append mode.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>
main()
{
 FILE *fp;

int a=10;
clrscr();
fp=fopen("f:\\january.txt","a"); /* file opend with append mode */
if(fp==NULL)
{
printf("file not found");
exit(0);
}
fprintf(fp,"this is append mode"); /* writing to a file */
fprintf(fp,"\n%d",a);
fclose(fp);
getch();
}

Program 5: program to copy the data from existing file to new file.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<process.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fr,*fw;
char str[50];
clrscr();
fw=fopen("d:\\Abhiram.txt","w"); /* writting purpose */
fr =fopen("anil11.c","r"); /* reading purpose */
if(fr==NULL)
{
printf("file does't exsit ");
exit(0);
}
 while( (fgets(str,50,fr)) >0) /* reading data from anil11 file */
{
fputs(str,fw); /* writting to a copied file is Abhiram */
}
fclose(fr);
fclose(fw);
getch();
}

Program 6: Write student sno, name ,6 subjects marks, total and average to
a file on the disk.
Program 7: To copy the data from existing file to a new file in the reverse
order.