Research: Its Nature, Types & Role in Development

What is research?
• A careful, systematic study in the field of knowledge that is undertaken to discover or establish facts or
principles (Webster, 1984).
• A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data to find an answer to a question or a solution to a
problem, to validate or test an existing theory (David, 2000).
• a systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems.
• Ultimate goal is to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge.
• Nursing Research?
• A systematic inquiry designed to develop knowledge about issues of importance to the nursing profession,
including nursing practice, education, administration, and informatics
• Clinical Nursing Research
- Research designed to generate knowledge to guide nursing practice and to improve the health and quality
of life of nurses’ clients.

Functions of Research:
• It helps us answer questions, solve problems and make decisions.
• It enables us to see and understand how and why a situation or a problem
exists.
• It helps us discover new things and ideas.
• Functions of Research:
• It allows us to validate existing theories or generate new ones.
• It helps us identify and understand the causes and effects of a situation or a
phenomenon.

Role of Research in Improving our Quality of Life

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Behavi d
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Resea n/
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New
New Tools/
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Uses of Research as a Scientific Process

• Determine/ describe an existing situation (situation analysis),
• Describe a population (people, objects, institutions, etc.)
• Compare two conditions or groups of population,
• Uses of Research as a Scientific Process
• Determine existence, degree, or nature of relationship between two or more factors,
• Evaluate add/or compare effectiveness of an intervention, treatment or exposure, and
• Predict the value of a certain characteristic

Role of Research in Development

• Analyzing existing social and economic problems or conditions
• For planning and designing a program/ proj./ activity intended to address the problem
• Data on the background and needs of target clients of a proposed program/ proj. are needed in the prep.
Of the intervention
• Program managers or project implementers should continue collecting, analyzing and using relevant data
to determine if, or to make sure that a project/ program is being implemented.
• Project implementation should be closely monitored to check progress and quality of implementation.

Paradigms & Methods: Quantitative & Qualitative Research

• Scientific Method
- Systematic: investigator presents logically trough a series of steps accdg. to a specified plan of
action
• Quantitative
- Gathers through empirical evidence; rooted in objective reality and are gathered directly or
indirectly
 - Numeric information: formal measurement analyzed with statistical procedures
• Qualitative
- Narrative and subjective

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research
• Seeks to quantify or reflect in numbers the observations on the characteristics of the population being studied.
• It measures the number of respondents or objects possessing a particular characteristic.
• It emphasizes precise measurement and oftentimes requires statistical analysis of data or the testing of
hypotheses based on a sample of observations.

Qualitative Research
• It emphasizes verbal explanations of human behavior and practices in an attempt to understand how the units
or members of the study population experience or explain their own world
• To gather information , the researcher makes use of one or a combination of the following techniques:
participant observation, key informant interview, focus group discussion, direct observation, and in-depth
analysis of a single case

Paradigms & Nursing Research:

• It sharpens the focus on a phenomenon of interest for ;
- Ultimate goals - Ethical constraints
- External evidence - Fallibility of discipline research
- Reliance on human cooperation

Purposes of NR:
• Basic & Applied
- Can be done through;
• Identification • Explanation
• Description • Prediction
• Exploration • Control

Steps in a Quantitative Research

Phase 1: The Conceptual Phase
1. Formulating and Delimiting a Problem
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork
4. Defining the Framework and Developing
Conceptual Definitions
5. Formulating Hypothesis
11. Developing Methods for Safeguarding HR
12. Finalizing & Reviewing the Research Plan
(pretesting & pilot testing)
Phase 3: The Empirical Phase
13. Collecting the Data
14. Preparing the Data for Analysis

Phase 2: The Design & Planning Phase Phase 4: The Analytic Phase
6. Selecting a Research Design (overall plan) 15. Analyzing the Data
7. Developing Protocols for the Intervention
8. Identifying the Population to be Studied Phase 5: The Dissemination Phase
9. Designing the Sample Plan (Subjects-sampling) 16. Communicating the Findings
10. Specifying Methods to Measure the Identification
Research and Definition of a Research
Variable Problem
Theoretical/Concept
Statement of The Research
ual Process Operational
Research Framework Definition
Problem Formulation of Variables
Hypothesis
Formulation

Choosing Appropriate Research

Design

Identification of Target Population and

Sampling

Data
Collection
Reliabilit Qualit
Q Admin.,
Preparation y y
Interview,
of Testing Contro
Testing
Research & l
&
Instrument Validatio Observation
n
Data Processing
(Editing, Coding, Encoding, Creation of Data Files
Tabulation

Data Analysis & Interpretation

Statistical Analysis, Interpretation,
Generalization)

Report Preparation and Information

Dissemination
General Types of Research
• Descriptive Research
• Correlation or Association
• Experimental or intervention
1. Descriptive Research
• Type of study finds answer to the questions who, what, when, where and how.
• Describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of specified aspects or factors
2. Explanatory or Correlation Research
• This type of research goes beyond description of the problem or situation.
• It attempts to explain the possible factors related to a problem which have been observed in a descriptive
study.
• This type of study answers the questions why and how?
• The research investigates relationships between factors or variables
3. Intervention or Experimental Research
• Evaluates the effect or outcome of a particular intervention or treatment
• It studies the cause and effect relationship between certain factors on a certain phenomenon under
controlled conditions.
• Subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental and to the control group and both groups
are exposed to similar conditions except for the intervention/ treatment.

Other Dichotomies of Research

1. Pure basic vs. Applied Research
2. Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Research Methods
1. Experimental Method
2. Survey Method
3. Historical Method
4. Content Analysis

1. Experimental Method
• This is used to determine the effectiveness of a treatment or an intervention or the “cause and effect”
relationship of a certain phenomena under controlled condition.
• Subjects of the study are randomly assigned to similar conditions except for the intervention/ treatment.
2. Survey Method
• It obtains data to determine specific characteristics of a group.
• The purpose of a survey is to get a general picture of the characteristics of a study population at a
particular time.
• The use of the survey approach is appropriate for most descriptive and correlation studies.
3. Historical Method
• Used to determine the growth and development of a group, organization or institution.
• The description is based on information about some past aspects of the group, organization or institution.
• Most of the data used in this method are collected from secondary sources, such as records, documents,
written materials, accounts, etc.
4. Content Analysis
• Used when the intention of the researcher is to ascertain the quality of message or information found in a
document or in mass media.
• It is used to test the level of readability of certain books
• Content analysis is also used in determining authenticity of documents and in literary research

The Research Process

What is a Research Problem?
 • For researchers, problems could be conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate,
questions for which they want answers, or information gaps they wish to fill, or theories they wish to validate.
• It may be a question about the unknown characteristics of a population or about factors that explain the
presence or occurrence of a phenomenon.

Defining the Research Problem

• It explains the existence and seriousness of the problem.
• It shows evidences that prove the problem really exists, that is serious, and/ or widespread.
• The definition of a problem identifies elements of a broader problem that are to be the focus of the
research activities.

Things to remember when defining a research problem:

1. First review relevant literature and previous studies on the problem.
2. Examine current available data/ statistics.
3. Seek educated opinions from persons concerned with the problem.
4. Determine the probable reasons for the existence of the problem from social, economic, or theories that may
explain the existence of a problem and the possible connection between the problem and other factors.

Characteristic of a Good Research Problem:

1. A research problem must be relevant.
2. A research problem must be feasible.
3. A research problem must be clear.
4. A research problem must be ethical.

Why Review Literature?

• A review of related literature is the process of collecting, selecting and reading books, journals, reports,
abstracts, and other reference materials, including electronic sources (CD-ROM) and world wide web
(www/http) to get relevant information about the problem under investigation.
• It can help a researcher identify and develop a research problem, formulate a research framework, and
identify and use appropriate research methodologies and tools.

Related literature helps;

1. the researcher identify and define a research problem
2. justify the need for studying a problem
3. prevent unnecessary duplication of a study
4. as a source of a theoretical basis for the study
5. enables the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a research problem and properly identify and
operationally define study variables
6. provide a basis for identifying and using appropriate research design.
7. provide lessons for data analysis and interpretation.

What to Review and Where to Get the Materials

• General References
- General references show where to locate other sources of information related to a certain topic.
• Primary Sources
- Results of many research studies are published in journals, or monographs.
• Secondary Sources
- Refers to publications where authors cite the work of others.

Formulation of Research Framework

Research Frameworks
• Theoretical Framework
- A connection between a theory and the problem.
• Conceptual Framework
- A presentation of the theoretical framework explained and illustrated in concrete terms

The Role of Theory in Research

• A theory is a set of concepts which explains the occurrence of a certain phenomenon.
• It is a statement of relationship between two variables, the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE, assumed to be the
“cause” of the problems, while the DEPENDENT VARIABLE, is the problem itself or the phenomenon being
studied.

Theoretical Framework
• Presents a theory that explains why a problem under study exists, and explains the connection between certain
factors and problems.
• The choice of a theory depends on the number and nature of variables and the relationships being examined.
Functions of a Theoretical Framework:
• It provides the general framework which can guide analysis.
• It identifies the variables to be measured.
• It explains why one variable can possibly affect another or why independent variable can possibly influence the
dependent variable.
• It limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variables.
• It stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting
the data.

Conceptual Framework
• It is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete items
• It is anchored on the theoretical framework
• It specifies the variables of the study and the expected flow of relationship among them.

Conceptual Framework explains in more detail the;

• Variables to be observed in the study and
• Assumed connection between the independent and the dependent variable

Choosing An Appropriate Study Design

What is a Research Design?
• A research design is a “blue print” of the study.
• It guides the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
• It is a plan or course of action which the research follows in order to answer the research question/s solve the
research problem.
• It is the basis for determining what data will be collected, and how they will be analyzed and interpreted.
• Before the research is implemented, the researcher must already be able to determine the research design
he/she intends to use.
• A wrong choice of design puts at risk the validity and the reliability of the study.

Reliability
• Refers to the consistency, stability and dependability of the data.
• A reliable measuring device is one which, if used for the second time, will yield the same results as it did the
first time.
• If the result are substantially different, the measurement is unreliable.

Validity
• It refers to the extent to which measurement does what it is supposed to do, which is to measure what it
intends to measure.
• Valid data are not only reliable, but also true and sound.
• A researcher must select a research design that will yield a true and accurate information and avoid factors
that can invalidate study results.

Validity Threats
• History
• Selection
• Testing
• Instrumentation
• Maturation
• Mortality

Commonly Used Research Designs

• Non/ Pre-Experimental Designs
- Are appropriate for collecting descriptive information about a population or subjects of a study.
- Usually used for descriptive studies, like profile studies, exploratory studies, and for doing small
case studies.
- Ideal for diagnostic studies or situation analysis.
• Posttest Only Design or After-only Design
Time

X O
(Observation/ Testing Survey)
This design is also called as one shot survey because the data are collected only once.
• Pretest-Posttest Design or Before-After Survey
X (Intervention)
O1 O2
 Observation/ Survey 1 Observation/ Survey 2
(Before X) (After X)
This design is used when the study wants to know the change in characteristics of the study population in a
given area.
• Static Group Comparison
- Experimental Group
Time
X O1
O2
- Control Group
Experimental group is exposed to intervention/ treatment (x)
• True Experimental Design
Pretest-posttest Control Group Design
Experimental Group O1 X O3
RA
Control Group O2 O4
Pretest Posttest
• Posttest Only Control Group Design
Experimental Group x O1
RA
Control Group O2
Posttest
• Quasi-experimental Designs
- Non-equivalent Control Group Design
Time
Experimental group O1 O3
X
Control Group O2 O4
Pretest Posttest
- Time Series Design
Time
O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6

Sampling
• The process of choosing a representative portion of a population or some elements in a population that will
represent the entire population.
• Sample
- Reflect the characteristics of the entire population

Basic Types of Sampling

• Non-probability Sampling
- arbitrary (non-random) and is subjective
• Probability Sampling
- based on the concept of random selection

Non-Probability Sampling
• Accidental Sampling – the investigator selects the sample units as they become available
• Purposive Sampling – the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting sample

Probability Sampling Techniques

• Simple Random Sampling
• Systematic Sampling with Random Start
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling

Data Collection
Types:
• Quantitative data
- Are information which can be counted or expressed in numerical values
• Qualitative data
- Are descriptive information which has no numerical value

Techniques of Collecting Quantitative Data:

• Questionnaire
- Self Administered
 - Mailed Questionnaires
• Interview
- Structured

Techniques in Collecting Qualitative Data

• In - depth Interview
• Focus Group discussion
• Observation
- Participant Observation
- Non-participant Observation
• Content Analysis

Research Proposal
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
• Review of Related Literature
• Theoretical Framework
• Conceptual Framework
• Statement of the Problem
• Hypothesis of the Study
• Significance of the Study

Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Research Design
• Setting
• Respondents
- Sampling Technique
• Data Collection
- Research Instruments
- Reliability and Validation Procedure
• Research Procedure
• Statistical Treatment

Chapter 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

• Discussion follows the presentation of the problems

Chapter 5: SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

• All results presented

Bibliography • All appendices should be properly labeled.

• Cite authors of books, references, etc. • Include computations; result of SPSS
computations, documentations, etc.
• Proper documentation should be followed
• APA format (depending on the school’s format)

Appendix