Chapter 1

Vegetable Breeding : A Perspective

1. Introduction
2. Importance of vegetable
2.1. Food security
2.1.1. High productivity per unit area
2.1.2. Economic security
2.1.3. Employment opportunities
2.2. Nutritional security
2.2.1. Nutritive value
2.2.2. Therapeutic Value
2.2.3. Role in fighting malnutrition
2.2.4. Anti-nutritional factors
2.3. Role in sustainable agriculture
3. Vegetable breeding
3.1. Nature of vegetable breeding
3.2. Disciplines related to vegetable breeding
3.3. Objectives in vegetable breeding
3.4. Scope of vegetable breeding
4. Basis of vegetable breeding
5. References

1. Introduction

Vegetarianism has been characteristic of Indian food system. Contribution of

vegetables to Indian diet remained low until recently and yet it stands at 175g per
caput per day. It is lower than one recommended by FAO ( 300g per caput per
day) for a balanced diet. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the
world, first being China. Production figures have been 59,120 and 456 million
tons in 1992 for India, China and world respectively (FAO yearbook) which rose
to 91.8, 367.9 and 798.2 million tones in 2003 (Rai, 2005). It indicates substantial
increase in production but human population rise continues to broaden the supply
demand gap. This looks for further enhancement in vegetable productivity.
Breeding high yielding open pollinated varieties and hybrids and
exploitation of location specific component of genotypic performance are the only
options left to reduce this increasing gap in view of decreasing land resources.But
the breeding efforts have been inadequate particularly in the Indian sub-continent
where emphasis mostly remained towards production aspect (Ram 1998)
Vegetables are herbaceous plants, which are consumed either raw
or cooked. The use of vegetable plant or parts thereof varies with kind of
vegetable ranging from root, stem, leaf, inflorescence, fruit, flower to grain (
immature or sprouted). Hence a precise definition for vegetables is difficult but
may be defined as “edible herbaceous plants or their parts used for culinary
purpose either fresh or dried.” The dietary importance of vegetables is now
recognized all over the world as evident from FAO/ WHO comments that fruits
and vegetables are potential source to tackle spreading menace of malnutrition
globally. At present more than 70 vegetables find cultivation on 42.6 million ha
area in the world. Major vegetable producing countries are China, India, U.S.,
Turkey, Italy, CIS, Spain, Egypt, Mexico and Nigeria.

2. Importance of vegetables

Diversion of financial and manpower resources is related to socio-economic

importance of a thing. Aryans appreciated very well the tempting succulence,
pleasing flavor, high nutritive and protective values of vegetables. Recently, the
world is tempted by invigorating values of vegetables. This indicates that
vegetables have appreciable role in sustainable development through food and
nutritional security (Sharma 2005, Bagchi and Hazra 2005). Therapeutic values of
vegetables are also now well recognized. Economic significance of vegetable in
light of latest researches is summed up below:-

2.1. Food security

Food security has two major dimensions namely availability of food, which is
related production and second one is access to food, which is related to economic
status or purchasing power of the people. With the rapid increase of population,
per caput agricultural production is declining and food security is gaining socio-
economic importance. Countries like India where 58.9% workers depend upon
agriculture for their livelihood, farming plays key role in sustaining socio-
economic status of human society. New technologies to raise food production and
generation of employment opportunities are fundamental to human food security
in India.

Vegetables by way of high productivity, more diversity, variety of

processed products and numerous ways of consumptions qualify to be the
competent candidate for ensuring food security for millions. Some of the facts are
briefly enumerated below:-

2.1.1. High productivity per unit area

With shrinking arable land resources and increasing human population, vegetable
crops can ensure food security because of their high productivity per unit area
(table1), Grain yield of cereals remain around 50±10 q/ha while in most of the
vegetables it is around 150±20 q/ha, leafy vegetables may yield as high as 600 to
700 q/ha, Much high yields are realized under protected cultivation conditions.
For example in Denmark under glasshouse conditions, tomato yield of 202 ton is
obtained (Kale et. al. 1986). Sharma (2002) has also reported tomato yield up to
85ton/ha from Ladakh region under protected conditions of polyhouse.
 Shifting over to vegetable from cereals means at least
doubling of production. Considering the potential yield of cereals and vegetables,
productivity of 4 times more in tomato over rice, 11 times more in green peas
over Chickpea and 8 times more in bottlegourd over maize is possible (Table 1).
Further boost in productivity of per unit area is possible
because of short duration nature of vegetables and availability of mechanisms for
exploitation of hybrid vigor. Most of the vegetables are ready for marketing in
80±10 days and 85 F1 hybrids have been released in different major vegetables for
general cultivation in India by 2005.

2.1.2 Economic security

Capability of a crop to ensure economic security stems from providing enough

food, good food, diverse food (dishes) and adequate availability round the year.
4000 species contribute to the world of vegetable crops and about 70 find
cultivation on wider scale in different regions of the world encompassing
temperate, tropical, sub-tropical and their intermediates. It reveals the importance
of vegetable in diversification of agriculture. Due to diverse agro-climates, fresh
vegetables are available round the year in India. More productivity as compared
to field crops that too, in lesser time imparts stability to the economic status of
farmers. Vegetables provide means of livelihood to many persons involved in
transportation, retail sale, storage and post harvest processing etc. there by
strengthening economic status of the society.

2.1.3 Employment opportunities

Vegetable farming is labor intensive and offers employment opportunities

during production, handling, storage, post harvest processing and export etc.
Vegetables have potential to feed billions. When unemployment has assumed
global significance, various facets of this field need to be critically investigated
Vegetables provide 20-30 times more foreign exchange per unit area
and demand on average 860 person-days per ha per annum as against 143 person-
days for cereals.
Quality seed production is technical but offers good scope for business
opportunity. Hybrid seed production has attracted private sectors. Thousands are
earning their livelihood by producing and selling seedlings of several vegetables.
Post harvest processing remains highly under-utilized in our country as
only 1.80% of the total fruit and vegetables is processed. Post harvest losses are
around 25% amounting to revenue loss of Rs 8000 crores per annum. Losses can
be reduced by proper packing, storage, drying, and preservation and canning. All
these aspects open avenue for employment.
India is export market of both fresh and processed vegetables. During
2003-04, there was export of fresh and processed vegetable to tune of 1.9 and
211.2 lakh ton valued Rs.252.3 and Rs.520.5 crores respectively. Competition in
international trade is growing and complicated by regulations of WTO. In
addition, steady supply through stable and quality production are the only
prerequisite conditions that can lend survival at the global level and leading to
enhanced business opportunities in vegetables export.
Organic vegetable production in the light of growing global
demand for organic food at the rate of 30% and consultancy are the other areas
where technical expertise can be used for self-employment.

2.2. Nutritional security

Food hunger touches a mark of 850 million while the figure for malnutrition
(over-nutrition and undernutrition) stands at 2.0 billion. Vegetables are staple
food of many people living in the different regions of the world and FAO
considers them a potential source to fight spread of micronutrient malnutrition
(hidden hunger). Protective role of vegetables is now well documented against
several diseases and nutritional deficiency disorders.

2.2.1. Nutritive role

Nutrient composition of many vegetables has been estimated and their nutritional
classification has been done (table 2). They enrich dishes with minerals, vitamins
(primarily vitamin A, and vitamin C) and dietary fibres. Dietary fibers of
vegetable once considered unimportant components, has been now found of high
therapeutic value. They prevent constipation by regulating bowl movement. Their
role in prevention of appendicitis, colon cancer, diabetes, diverticulosis,
gallstones and obesity is also advocated (Dreher 1987). Fibers are wide range of
polysaccharides like cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, gums, pectins and mucin. It
is better to take at least 50g of green vegetable such as spinach, amaranth,
fenugreek, drumstick, kale, cabbage or methi etc because they are rich in beta-
carotene vitamin C, riboflavin, folic acid, calcium and iron (See chapter on
quality improvement). However, Chauhan (1979) advocated that for a well
balanced diet about 300 gm of vegetables were needed per capita per day
comprising 90 g of root vegetables, 120gm green leafy vegetables and 90 gm
other vegetables.

2.2.2 Therapeutic value

Epidemiological studies have revealed that diets rich in vegetables are associated
with reduced incidence of lung cancer, beneficial effects on kidney function,
reduced coronary disorders, and diabetes, slow down age-related declines in brain
function. Intake of phytochemicals such as carotenoids, tocopherol, ascorbic acid,
flavoniods etc (table3) have been implicated in protection against human cancers
and cardiovascular diseases. Bagchi and Hazra (2005) have enlisted possible
protective mechanisms of phytochemicals against the chronic diseases through
such as:-
a) Quenching of singlet oxygen
b) Scavenging of peroxyl radicals
c) Modulations of carcinogen metabolism
 d) Inhibition of cell proliferation
e) Enhanced cell differentiation via retinoid
f) Stimulation of cell to cell communication
g) Enhancement of the immune response

Thus, the phytochemicals are strong anti-oxidants and act

as scavengers of free radicals which are involved in cell damage and tumor
proliferation. Whereas protective role of vitamin C, pro-vitamin A and dietary
fiber are well established. Epidemiological evidences also support the protective
importance of vegetable consumption in human health.

2.2.3. Role in fighting malnutrition

According to reports of the Commission on the Nutrient Challenges of the 21st

century, around 30 million infants are born each year in developing countries with
intra-uterine growth retardation. Worldwide there are more than 150 million
underweight pre-school children and more than 200 million with stunted growth.
If this pace continues then by 2020 about one billion children will be with
impaired mental development. Food based approaches like work for foods are the
possible solution to meet the challenge of nutritional security. Besides
productivity, it has dimensions of quality, diversity and food accessibility.

Human food requires iron calcium, zinc, copper,

arsenic, boron, chromium, fluorine, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
selenium, silicon and vanadium. Plant foods are adequately enriched with them,
particularly the green leafy vegetables. They are the cheap and widely available
sources. Awareness and popularization among rural masses is needed for their
regular consumption.

2.2.4 Anti-nutritional factors

Wide varieties of anti-nutritional biomolecules are found in vegetables. They

interfere with digestion and show toxicity at high concentrations.
Examples are lectins, isoflavonones, S-methyl cysteine sulfoxide, glycoalkaloids,
glycosinolates, nitrates, oxalates and furano-coumarins etc.
Potato tubers produce toxic compounds solanin and chacoline when stored
improperly. Leafy vegetables often show high concentration of oxalic acid,
cucurbits contain glycosides, tomato contains tomatine, and asparagus show
saponins which are toxic to human being. High nitrate level in vegetables may
lead to formation of N-nitroso compounds with secondary or tertiary amines
which are reported to be potent carcinogens. Nitrate and oxalate content are
related to genotype of a variety, nitrogen status of soil and rate of fertilizer
application, indicating that both breeding and management efforts are needed to
reduce anti-nutritional factors in vegetables.

2.3. Role in sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is a system, which advocates judicious use of natural
resources such as land, water and biological species. Vegetable crops can play
role in sustaining productivity in following ways:-

a) Crop diversification: World wide more than seventy vegetables find

cultivation on large scale. They are of comparatively short maturity duration and
fit into several crop rotations. Thus, vegetables are an effective and economical
source of diversification at the farm. Crop rotations not only increase productivity
per unit area but also protect soil from health deterioration, prevent proliferation
soil borne diseases and pests. Besides they add to the diversity of dishes which are
diverse in taste, nutrition and palatability.

b) Provide adequate amount of plant residues that can be used as fodder for
animals or can be used as raw material for making compost.

c) Make the farming systems economical viable for small and marginal farmers
because of higher productivity per unit area.

d) Vegetables are adapted to wide variety of climates and can be grown as mixed,
companion and intercropping crop.

e) Vegetables have aesthetic value.

3. Vegetable breeding

Vegetable crops have been excelling other agricultural crops in per unit
productivity. However, breeding efforts received well attention only in field crops
both at national and international levels. Vegetables were taught in horticulture. It
is very recently that the economical role of vegetable science is being taught as
independent discipline in agricultural universities vegetable breeding is now
receiving focal attention breeding in vegetables science. There is need to give this
aspect an exhaustive treatment in relation to vegetables crops. Nonetheless
vegetable breeding is an integral part of plant breeding but in this will be re-
modeled to suit to breeding for different vegetables crops. “Vegetable breeding
may be defined as” art and science for genetic improvement of vegetable
crops.” Earlier efforts of breeding began with domestication of wild plants that
resulted into several cultivated types.

Introductions followed domestication whereby plants

were distributed in different agro-climates and evolved further. In fact, all these
efforts come under breeding so vegetable breeding is consisted of all principles
and methods that favorably change the genetic constitution of plants. Now-a- days
the focal point of vegetable breeding is evolving of new varieties which are better
in economic traits. Thus in more practical ways “Vegetable breeding is the
science involved in evolving of varieties superior to the existing ones”. The
success of whole gamut lies in systematic and effective reshuffling of genome so
that genetic potential of a vegetable crop is realized. Vegetable breeding is still
developing science where plant biotechnology, molecular biology and transgenic
are the new aspects added to it .

Conclusively, vegetable breeding activities range

from crop domestication, introduction, conservation of genetic resources to
genomic modifications that lead to genetic up-gradation of vegetable crops.
These activities ultimately aim at enhanced economic utilization.

3.1. Nature of Vegetable breeding

Vegetable breeding comprises wide range of activities that involves selection of

useful variation whether present naturally or created artificially in vegetable
crops. The process of selection is central to vegetable breeding and requires both
artistic skill as well as scientific knowledge for effectiveness. From experiences of
early breeding to modern approaches breeder’s skill and keenness seem important
besides applications of scientific analytical techniques.

The art is highly subjective where as science is highly

objective. Science involves systematic gathering of information that consorts of
observation, formulation of hypothesis, experimentation, analysis and conclusion
indicating either rejection or acceptance of hypothesis. Earlier efforts of selection
were based on visual observation where skill mattered much Man knew nothing
about genes, their inheritance and interaction with environments. Gene transfer
technologies were not known the approach was purely an art. However now
techniques of genomic reshuffling, evaluation of inheritance of characters are
very well known and vegetable breeding is now largely based on scientific
knowledge that involves multidisciplinary approach. After the discovery of
Mendel’s laws of heredity statistical treatment to the scientific observations
became pivotal for directional and additive improvement in crop plants.

Despite the various advanced techniques available,

art continues to play the key role in identification of desirable plants in
segregating generations of crosses. Mass selection the basic and most extensively
used method for plants improvement demands breeder’s skill and observational
keenness. Attempting of hybridization is much depended on breeder’s skill.
Selection of plants in large population for recording observations is based on
experience and visual efficiency of the vegetable breeder and then scientific
treatment follows. Thus, modern vegetable breeding is largely scientific but is
very well supported by the art of experiences, skill and keenness of breeder
handling the plant population. A modern vegetable breeder ought to know more
about his crops which demands knowledge about related disciplines. This will
enable vegetable breeder to develop varieties that excel the existing varieties in
yield and quality attributes.
3.2. Disciplines related to vegetable breeding

A vegetable breeder should have knowledge across the discipline to successfully

achieve the targets related to genetic improvement of vegetables. Tailoring of
vegetable crops seeks acquaintance with subjects such as :-

Botany: Vegetable improvement is ultimately assessed in terms of morphological

change. Morphogenesis and reproduction are fundamental to phenotypic
description. Taxonomy is needed to explore the possibility of gene transfer across
the species or genera.

Genetics: It is now well known that each character is determined by a gene. Its
expression is influenced by various interactions among genes. Genetic
modifications are basic to evaluation of diverse varieties. Knowledge about
chromosomes gene structure and functions helps in genetic manipulation in a
species.

Plant biotechnology: Plant biotechnology mainly deals with foreign gene

introduction through recombinant technology and referred as transgenic
technology. Somaclonal variation, in vitro mutagenesis, gametoclonol variation,
anther culture are some other aspects which have direct relevance to vegetable
crop improvement. Hence, a modern vegetable breeder should be well versed with
these techniques for generation of noble variation in vegetables with respect to
economic traits.

Plant pathology: Vegetables are host to several pathogens and breeding for
disease resistance is an essential parameter for development of superior varieties.
So knowledge of pathogens, their mass multiplication and inoculation techniques
is essential for a vegetable breeder.

Entomology: Several pests haunts after vegetable crops because of their soft and
succulent nature. Vegetable are mostly eaten fresh or raw. Here pesticide
contamination is serious concern in relation to human health. Breeding for pest
resistance has assumed greater significance may it through conventional or
innovative means. Pest rearing, multiplication and inoculation are central
breeding methods for insect-pest resistance.

Plant biochemistry: Besides yield, several vitamins, minerals and therapeutic

compounds are improvement target in vegetables. Quality breeding has assumed a
greater role in vegetables with the FAO notion that these are more amicable and
natural means of tackling the menace of hidden hunger (malnutrition). Hence for
chemical analysis of proteins, vitamins amino acids and other quality imparting
organic compounds knowledge about plant biochemistry would be required.

Statistics: Evaluation of high precision needs statistical application. Statistical

designs like randomized block design, latin square and factorial etc are used to
find the best treatment. Various statistical tests, experimental designs and field
plot techniques are required for interpretation of crop performance.

Plant physiology: Plant performance is net outcome of how efficiently the

physiological processes are sequenced, adaptation has physiological basis.
Physiological alterations are also acknowledged in response to various abiotic and
biotic stresses. Photosynthesis is key process of biomass production and
subsequent metabolic manipulations and lead to more efficient plant type, the
ultimate goal of vegetable improvement. Hence, a vegetable breeder must acquire
adequate knowledge about physiological processes.

Marketing, post harvest technology and value

addition are the other fields concerned to a vegetable breeder. A single person
may not be able to acquire knowledge about so many disciplines, as a result
modern vegetable breeding is a team effort where scientists from pathology,
entomology, biochemistry plant physiology, plant biotechnology need to work in
association.

3.3 Objectives of vegetable breeding

Vegetables breeding aims to improve the plant characters that have economic
importance. The changes in plant morphometry have genetic basis and are thus
permanent. Alterations desired in crops vary from place to place depending upon
local preferences. Objectives in a crop vary with time, needs and cultivation
practices. Some general objectives in vegetable breeding are described below:-

3.3.1. Higher productivity

More yields per unit area remain even today the major objective in vegetables,
particularly in the developing world. Hybridization is commonly adopted
approach to develop better superior open pollinated varieties or F1 hybrid. Till
date 87 F1 hybrid varieties have been released in India for general cultivation in
addition to more than 350 open pollinated varieties.

3.3.2. Better quality

Growing health consciousness among masses is shifting people’s preference for

better food products. Quality in general perception includes all those parameters
that affect its marketing, shelf life, edibility and nutrition as well.

Fruit shape, size, color, firmness, flavor, pigments, vitamins,

proteins, essential amino acids and minerals are quality attributes in various
vegetables. Important quality characters of some vegetables have been discussed
separately in chapter on quality breeding.

3.3.3. Maturity duration

Short duration varieties now dominate the production scenario. Early maturing
varieties production scenario. Early maturing varieties are available in
cauliflower, radish, knol khol, tomato, peas, potato and onion etc. Varieties
suitable for different seasons or different date of planting are also available.
Round the year cultivation of knol khol and radish has been possible in some parts
of Jammu of J&K.

3.3.4. Breeding for resistance against pests and diseases

Pest attack many a time plant part that is directly consumed by human being.
Sprays of chemical for pest control often lead to pesticide contamination causing
health hazards so resistant breeding in vegetables is especially endowed with
socio-economic consequences and holds more promise. In some vegetables like
tomato, potato, brinjal and soybean pest resistant transgenic varieties have been
developed. Pest resistance varieties give safe and stabilized production.

3.3.5. Photo-insensitivity

Development of photo-thermal insensitive varieties has considerably the area of

cultivation in several vegetables. Breeding of high temperature tolerance strains in
temperate vegetables has enabled their cultivation in intermediate as well as
subtropical areas. Conversely cold tolerance in tropical vegetables is helping in
development of strains for temperate areas.

3.3.6 Determinate growth

Along with short maturity duration, emphasis has been on determinate growth.
Determinant types are physiologically more efficient. Example are determinant
strains in tomatoes, peas etc.

3.3.7. Drought resistance

Vegetables are the crops that need small quantity of water in the form of light
irrigations periodically for continuous moisture regime and this is the reason that
vegetables are considered crops of assured irrigation area. Varieties with
resistance to moisture stress have been developed but few. 70% cultivated area of
our country is rain fed and is adjudged unfit for vegetable cultivation. However
vegetables like green peas, some leafy vegetables and melons in cucurbits offer
scope for cultivation under rainfed farming. Breeding for drought resistance
varieties is needed in vegetables to make them important component of rainfed
agriculture.

3.3.8. Reduction in anti-nutritional factors

Trypsin inhibitor, oxalic acid, phenolic contents, nitrate context, bitter principle of
cucurbits are some of the undesirable molecules in vegetables. Breeding efforts
are used to reduce or eliminate them.

Lowering of anti-nutritional factors adds to nutritional value,

enhances marketing avenues of vegetables.

3.3.9. Cold tolerance

It is especially desired in summer vegetables at seedling or early vegetative

growth stage. For instance, Cold tolerance in chilli, tomato and brinjal help in
their nursery raising during mid-winter or else the seedlings have to be provided
protection. Tolerance against frost is required even in winter vegetables.

3.3.10. Plant type

Modification in plant type is basic to vegetable breeding. Agronomic features are

changed depending on climate. It includes change in growth habit, plant canopy,
plant height, lodging resistance and fertilizer response etc. Desirable characters
for a vegetable in an ecosystem may be identified and efforts are made to bring
these characters in a genotype. This approach is known as ideotype breeding.

Objectives are usually need based and a vegetable breeder has to

arrange them in relation to economic significance. Hence objectives keep on
depending on the changing situation.

3.4. Scope of vegetable breeding

Per unit land resources are decreasing globally. In India, the figure stands at 0.12
ha. It demands promotion of cultivation of those crops which give maximum
productivity per unit area. Vegetables excel cereals at least twice and also in gross
yield of caloric value, they are comparable to them. For instance, wheat yields on
an average8, 700, 000 K cal per ha whereas tomato yields 12,540,000 K cal and
that cabbage yields 6,000,000 K cal per hectare. Further role of vegetables in food
and nutritional security described earlier reflects considerable scope of vegetable
breeding.

Periodical studies carried by ICMR, New Delhi and National Institute of

Nutrition, Hyderabad show that deficiencies of iron, vitamin A and Vitamin C are
common and are responsible for several diseases. They attributed it to low intake
of fruit and vegetables. Vegetables are the cheapest source of protective foods like
dietary fibers, minerals and vitamins.

Role of vegetables in balanced diet is well established and

their consumption is described essential as per recommended dietary allowances
(RDA) given by ICMR for Indian people (table 3). Medicinal applications of
vegetables appear to be future area which will further enhance scope for breeding
vegetables for therapeutic uses.
Most of the agricultural systems in the developing world are
incapable to supply enough micronutrients (14 trace elements and 13 vitamins) to
meet human needs. Besides farm management, Graham et al (2001) describes that
breeding approaches like varietal selection, molecular-genetic crop
transformation, inheritance of nutritional traits, genotype environment
interactions, needed to be studied for their yield and quality improvement.

Vegetable breeding for nutritional balance is the need

of the hour if we want to achieve target set by World Food Summit 1996 in Rome
Declaration on world food security (We pledge our political will and our common
and national commitment to effort to eradicate the hunger in all countries with an
immediate view to reduce the number of undernourished people to half their
present level not later than 2015).

Genetic manipulations in vegetables will receive priority

considerations in the following areas:

 Breeding for antioxidants (β-carotene, vitamin C, selenium, magnesium,

and zinc etc.)
 Developing transgenic varieties possessing pest resistance (Purposely to
reduce number of pesticide sprays)
 Genetic built- in capacity to tolerate moisture stress (so that acreage
under vegetables increases via promotion of rainfed cultivation).
 Breeding for shelf-life and value addition quality traits.
 Pyramiding genes of economic importance.

4. Basis of vegetable breeding

Like begets like is justified by constancy of factors stated by Mendel. However

the off springs are not exact replica of parents. They usually differ in magnitude
of several biometrical traits from their parents. This fact was very well recognized
by Charles Darwin and described as organic evolution in his treatise ‘origin of
species’. The studies basically disclosed two universal facts about the biological
world namely, heredity and variation. Heredity preserves the individuality of
species while variation endows a genetic plasticity to species to adapt to
changing environment and progressively evolved towards better types.

Variation in a character is a prerequisite to its

improvement. Absence of variation means no improvement is possible. Once the
variation is present in a species it is utilized both by man and nature for the
species advantage. Man has superceded nature so far utilization of variation for
improvement of cultivated plants is concerned. Figure 1 depicts the various means
of evolution in cultivated plants. The whole program comprises the following
steps:-
a) Variation

Causes of variation are known. Mutation and recombination following

hybridization generate a lot of variation. Introduction and domestication are
carried with objectives of encouraging use of desirable variations. Variation can
be of two types, genetic and environmental. Environmental variation is non-
heritable and eludes the selection process. It is not of much use. Genetic variation
is heritable and is used in vegetable improvement program. Every effort has to be
made to keep the plant population rich in genetic variation. In case of its low
magnitude, some artificial means are used to create more genetic variability (Fig
1).

c) Selection

Selection is the process of isolating superior genotypes or culling of the inferior

types. Effectiveness of selection corresponds to the amount of variation due to
genetic factors. As the selection is based on phenotype which represents both
genotypic and environmental variation so various selection methods have been
developed to reduce the environmental component of variation in the selected
plants.

b) Evaluation

Evaluation is done to know the performance of selected plants or entries in

comparison to standard varieties. The process may be repeated over years, over
many locations to find out the stability of the selected strains. Three year
evaluation at various locations is the routine procedure followed in all India
coordinated Research projects on vegetable crops.

c) Minikit trials

A selected entry performing good for three years is put to minikit trials. Minikits
of the selected entry alongwith standard check are conducted in farmer’s fields for
one or two years. This step is not essential for identification of an entry at national
level but very much required when the entry is to be released at state level.

e) Seed multiplication

As a norm breeder seed of the identified variety or entry is produced by the

sponsoring institute under the supervision of concerned breeder. Foundation and
certified seeds are produced by concerned developmental agencies or by the
progressive farmers under the supervision of state seed certifying agency.

Continuity is must in the above steps for successful

vegetable breeding programme. Personally involved and dedicated efforts can
only land at destination. Negligence at only one step means breakage in the chain
of variety development process and amounts to wastage of resources. The
progress of such programs must be periodically reviewed and problems should be
immediately addressed to ensure steady progress.

5. References

Bagchi, D.K. and Hazra, P.2005. Role of vegetable in food and nutritional
security and poverty alleviation. In, souvenir, 23rd Annual group Meeting,
AICRPon vegetable crops. BCKVV, Mohanpur,(W.B.)Pp.1-6.

Chauhan, D.V.S. 1979. Vegetable production in India. Ram Prasad and sons,
Agra (U.P.).Pp.352.

Dreher, M.L.1987.Handbook of dietary fiber. Marcel Dekker, New York. P.205.

Graham, R.D.,Welch, R.M. and Bouis, H.E.2001.Adddressing micronutrient

malnutrition through enhancing the nutritional quality of staple foods. Principles,
perspectives and knowledge gaps. Adv. Agron. 70:77-141.

Kale, P.B., Dod, V.N. and Gonge,V.S.1986. Importance of vegetable and its
prospects for improvement in India. In, Vegetable crops in India (Bose ,T.K. and
Som, M.G. eds.) NayaProkash Calcutta-6. Pp.1-20.

Rai, Mathura. 2005. Recent advances in vegetable research and development in

India. In, Souvenir, 23rd Annual group Meeting, AICRP on vegetable crops,
BCKVV, Mohanpur (W.B.) Pp.7-26.

Ram, H.H. 1998. Vegetable breeding, principles and practices. Kalyani

Publishers, Ludhiana.

Sharma, Jag Paul. 2005. Role of vegetables in human food and nutritional
security. Paper presented at Ist J&K state science congress held at university of
Jammu from Feb.7-9,2005.

Sharma, Jag Paul. 2002. Crop production technology for cold arid region.
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Pp.226.

Singh, B.D.1983. Plant breeding, principles and methods. Kalyani Publishers,

Ludhiana Pp.620.
Natural means Artificial means

Domestication Hybridization
Germplasm collection Genetic variation Mutation
Introduction in plant Polyploidy
Mutation population Somaclonal variation
Transgenics

Selection

Evaluation

Minikit Trials

Identification

Seed multiplication
and distribution

Figure 1. Elements of vegetable Breeding. Modified from Singh (1983)

Table 1. Comparative productivity of field crops vs. vegetables

Crop Realized/ Potential Increase/Decrease

Yield (q/ha) over base 100
Rice 50 -50
Maize 40 -60
Wheat 40 -60
Chickpea 20 -80
Urdbean 10 -90
Mustard 12 -88
Tomato 300 +200
Potato 250 +150
Onion 110 +10
Cauliflower 150 +50
Methi 304 +104
Bottle gourd 370 +270
Peas 150 +50
Okra 180 +80
Brinjal 200 +100

Comparative percentage increase

Tomato over rice 600
Potato over wheat 620
Bottle gourd over maize 825
Peas over chickpea 750
Onion over mustard 816
Okra over maize 450
Okra over rice 360
 Table 2. Nutritional classification of vegetables

Carbohydrates Potato, sweet potato, dry beans, yam, plantain,

cassava
Protein Beans, sweet corn, peas, leafy legumes
Fat Mature seed of legumes and cucurbits
Pro-vitamin A Carrot, Squash, tomato, pepper, green peas,
( β-carotene) green leafy vegetables, sweet potato
Vitamin C Crucifers, tomato, pepper, melons, immature bean
(Ascorbic acid) seed, leafy vegetables, bean sprouts
Folic acid Spinach, leafy vegetables and beans
(Vitamin B9)
Thiamine Peas, cauliflower, muskmelon, yam, spinach,
( Vitamin B1) potato
Niacin Peas, potato, brinjal, yam, cabbage, cauliflower
( Vitamin B3)
Riboflavin Cabbage, garlic, spinach, brinjal, French bean,
( Vitamin B2) peas, okra
Iron Spinach, lettuce, Peas, bitter gourd, cucumber,
okra, muskmelon, garlic
Calcium Spinach, okra, French beans, cassava, cabbage,
onion, carrot
Phosphorus Garlic, peas, bitter gourd, cauliflower, okra, onion,
brinjal
 Table 3. Therapeutic properties of vegetables
Biological Compound
Flavoniods ( Flavonones, flavones,
flavonols, anthocynanis, catchins
and biflavins): wide spread in
vegetable crops
Vitamin C
Caroteniods
Ellagic acid
Allicin, allistin, garlic, diallyl
disulphide, diallyl tirsulphide and
essential oils(onion and garlic)
Cheratin (bitter gourd)
Diosgenin( Yam)
Indoles (Cole crops)
Dietary fiber (cellulose, hemi
cellulose, lignin, gums, pectins and
mucilages
Therapeutic property
Anti oxidants
Stabilize the biological activity of
ascorbic acid
Anti-carcinogenic activity due to
cellostatic activity
Antioxidant
Increases biomembrane stability
Reduces hypercholesterolemia
Reduce cancer risk by enhancing
tumor surveillance by the immune
system
Antimutagen
Anticarcinogen
-Hypocholesterolaemic action
-Antibacterial
-antifungal
-Lower blood sugar
-Cortisone hormone
-Contraceptive drugs
-Prevention of colon, rectum and
breast cancer
-Essential for bowel movement
- Prevent appendicitis, colon
cancer, diabetes, diverticulosis,
- Gallstones, obesity
- Gums and pectins owe to
slower gastric emptying
- Protects enzymes against
degradation
 Table 4. Recommended daily dietary allowances for Indians

Group Particulars Body Net Protein Fat Calcium Iron

wt. kg energy g/day g/day mg/day mg/d
Kcal/d
Man Sedentary
work 60 2425 60 20 400 28
Moderate
work 2875
Heavy work 3800
Woman Sedentary 50 1875 50 20 400 30
work
Moderate
work 2225 +15 30 1000 38
Heavy work 50 2925
Pregnant
woman +300
Lactation 50 +25 45 1000 30
0-6months +550 +18
6-12 months +400

Infants 0-6months 5.4 108/Kg 2.05/Kg 500

6-12months 8.6 98/Kg 1.65/Kg
Children 1-3years 12.2 1240 22 25 400 12
4-6years 19.0 1690 30 18
7-9years 26.9 1950 41 26
Boy 10-12 years 35.4 2190 54 22 600 34
Girl 10-12 years 31.5 1970 57 19
Boy 13-15 years 47.8 2450 70 22 600 41
Girl 13-15 years 46.7 2060 65 28
Boy 16-18years 57.1 2640 78 22 500 50
Girl 16-18years 49.9 2060 63 30

Source: Nutrient requirements and recommended dietary allowances for

Indians (1998), National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad.
 Table 5. Recommended daily vitamin requirement for Indians

Group Particulars Retinol ß- Thiamin Ribofla Nicotinc Pyri- Ascorbic Folic Vit.B-
carotene vin acid doxin acid ug/d acid 12 ug/d
mg/d mg/d mg/d ug/d

Man Sedentary 600 2400 1.2 1.4 16 2.0 40 100 1

work 1.4 1.6 18
Moderate 1.6 1.9 21
work
Heavy work
Woman Sedentary 600 2400 0.9 1.1 12 2.0 40 100 1
work
Moderate 1.1 1.3 14
work
Heavy work 2400 1.2 1.5 16
Pregnant 2.5 40 400 1
Woman 600 +0.2 +0.2 +2
Lactation
0-6 months 3800 2.5 80 150 1.5
6-12 " +0.3 +0.3 +4
950 +0.2 +0.2 +3

Infants 0-6 months 350 1200 55ug/kg 65ug/kg 710ug/kg 0.1 25 25 0.2
6-12 months 50ug/kg 60ug/kg 650ug/kg 0.4

Children 1-3 years 400 1600 0.6 0.7 8 0.9 40 30 0.2.1.0

4-6 years 400 2400 0.9 1.0 11 1.6 40
7-9years 600 1.0 1.2 13 60
Boy 10-12 years 600 2400 1.1 1.3 15 1.6 40 70 0.2.1.0
Girl0 10-12 years 1.0 1.2 13

Boy 13-15 years 600 2400 1.2 1.5 16 2.0 40 100 0.2.1.0
Girl 13-15 years 1.0 1.2 14

Boy 16-18 years 600 2400 1.3 1.6 17 2.0 40 100 0.2.1.0
Girl 16-18years 1.0 1.2 14