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PURE BIOLOGY FOR SCIENCES NUCLEUS

BIOLOGY TEXTBOOK Characteristics:
- consists of a small spherical mass denser than protoplasm, the nucleoplasm.
Dunce Name: ______________________ Dummy Index No.: ___________
- Embedded inside cytoplasm.
CHAPTER 1: Cells: The Building Blocks of Life - Control normal cell activities
1.1 CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATIONS
cell – is a unit of life. Consists of:
protoplasm – a complex jelly-like substance in which endless chemical reactions are - A long thread structures called chromatin which will condense and become
carried out. Consisted inside cells, 70 – 90% is water. highly coiled structures called chromosomes. It contain heredetary
materials and control cell activities.
- Spherical structures called nucleoli to build up proteins.
- A nuclear envelope to seperate nuclear content from surrounding
cytoplasm.

Importance:
- for cell reproduction,
- continuous life of the cell, and
- repair worn-out parts.
Without nucleus, i.e. red blood cell, the cell has short lifespan and cannot reproduce.

CYTOPLASM
is part of protoplasm surrounding the nucleus.
Role: forms the larger part of the cell and the occurance of life processes.
Protoplasm exists in 2 forms:
- sol (liquid) state Organelles in it:
- gel (semi-solid state) state - small spherical/rod-shaped organelles called mitochondria to release energy
from food during respiration.
Scientists can’t make protoplasm, while the components are known... - Adonesine Triphosphate (ATP) to temporarily store energy in small
- The exact nature is not fully known molecules. When needed, it can be broken down for energy.
- The environmental conditions is not suitable
SPECIAL ORGANELLE IN PLANT
Protoplasm has 3 parts: Chloroplast – sites where plant make food by combining carbon dioxide,
- Nucleus water and sunlight to make sugar.
- Cytoplasm Vacuoles – contain cell sap which has dissolved substance like sugars,
- Cell membrane mineral salts and amino acids, enclosed by special membrane tonoplast.
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SPECIAL ORGANELLE IN ANIMAL CELL

Xylem vessels transport water and mineral salts
Centrioles – pair of tiny structures close to nucleus for cell division. from roots to stem and leaves.
Vacuoles – many but small, contain water and food substances
CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE absence of cross walls allow water
move easily through lumen.
is a partially permeable membrane surrounding cytoplasm, controlling substances
which enter/leave cell. In plants, it surround vacuoles. lignin strengthens wall and prevent
collapse of vessel.
CELLULOSE CELL WALL
Only exist in plant, made of cellulose. xylem and lignin, bundled together
The xylem vessel is a narrow, cylindrical provide mechanical support for
tube enclosing a continuous space called plant.
1.2 SPECIALIZED CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS
lumen. Vessel is dead as there’s no
Modification of Cell Structure for Specific Functions protoplasm. Deposited on the wall is hard
The change and development of a new cell produced into new tissues is called substance known as lignin.
differentiation.
EXAMPLES OF SPECIALIZED CELLS Tissues, Organs and Systems.
Cell Structure Adaptation to Function Tissue is a group of cells which have common origin and similar structures, enabling
Root hair cell them perform a particular function.
Example:epithelium – cell sheets covering internal&external body surfaces
Animals: Muscle tissue, Glandular tissue, Nervous tissue, Bone tissue, etc
long and narrow root hair increases
surface area : volume ratio for Plants: Xylem, Pholoem, Cambium, Cork, etc
absorption of water mineral and N/B – tissues that connect different parts of organs together are called complex
salts. tissues.

Organ is a structure made up of different tissues working together for specific

function.
Red blood cell Example: Stomach – glandular tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue,
nervous tissue.
contain red pigment - haemoglobin Leaves, Roots, Stems, Flowers, etc.
to enable cell transport oxygen from
lungs to all parts of body. Organ system is a system made up of several organ working together to perform a
special function.
circular, biconcave shape increases
Example: Digestive system, Respiratory system, Nervous system, etc
surface area : volume ratio for
higher diffusion rate of oxygen.
END OF CHAPTER 1 chmsabee94/5090/06/09

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CHAPTER 2:DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS, SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO Diagrammatic explanation of osmosis:

2.1 DIFFUSION
Difusion is the net movement of molecules/ions from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration. (or simply: movement of particles down the
concentration gradient.)

The movement of particles when there is no net change of movement is known as

dynamic equilibrium.
5% sucrose solution would move to 10% sucrose solution by osmosis through a
Rule of concentration gradient: partially permeable membrane. Water molecules, being smaller, move to limb A and
The steeper the concentration gradient for a substance, the faster the rate of sucrose molecules are too large to pass through. The solution in limb A continues to
diffusion for that substance. rise and vice versa for limb B. The solution level stop changing if both have equal
concentration of water molecules.
Diffusion and Cells
Substances enter cells mainly from diffusion. Water Potential
Example:cell membrane is partially permeable,so allowing CO2&O2 to pass Water potential is a measure of tendency of water to move from one place to
amoeba takes in water by diffusion another.
Water move from higher water potential to lower water potential
Understandable experiment:
The particles are passing through permeable membrane from both sides and would ∴ with the relationship of water potential, we can say:
be equally blue when the concentrations are equal. the movement of water molecules from a solution of higher water potential to solution
of lower water potential through partially permeable membrane.

Osmosis in Living Organisms

Cell has cell surface membrane works like partially permeable membrane. When put
in dilute solution, i.e. 5% sucrose solution, water molecules will enter cell, having
lower water potential and sucrose molecules can’t enter due to its larger size.

Hypotonic, Isotonic and Hypertonic Solution

2.2 OSMOSIS
A membrane that allow some substances to pass through but not others is called
partially permeable membrane.
The passage of water from a dilute solution to a more concentrated solution across a
partially permeable membrane is called osmosis.
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The U-tube has dilute sucrose solution on arm B and more concentrated sucrose
solution in arm A. Arm B has more water molecules. So, we say:
- Solution in arm A is hypertonic to arm B.
- Solution in arm B is hypotonic to arm A.
Whilst when we have same solution concentration, i.e. both 5%, we say:
- Solutions in arm A and B are isotonic.
From above, we find out that the term:
Hypotonic – the solution has higher water potential than the other one.
Hypertonic – the solution has lower water potential than the other one.
Isotonic – both the solutions have same water potential.
Cell in a Solution of High Water Potential
Cell sap has lower water potential if placed in a solution of high water potential. Thus,
water enter through osmosis.
When water molecules enter in plant/animal cell, so:
IN PLANT CELL:
Vacuole size increases, push all contents towards cellulose cell wall, which exerts
opposing pressure preventing more water to enter. The cell is turgid.
Turgor: turgidity of cell with water.
Turgor pressure: pressure exerted by water on cell wall.
IN ANIMAL CELL:
Without cell wall to oppose the pressure, the cell will swell and may burst.
Cell in a Solution of Low Water Potential
Cell sap has higher water potential if placed in a solution of low water potential. Water
still enter through osmosis, but water move out from cell.
IN PLANT CELL:
Vacuole size decreases, shrinking cytoplasm from cellulose cell wall. The cell is
plasmolysed but can return to original state by putting in high water potential solution.
Plasmolysis – shrinkage of cytoplasm from cell wall when immersed in solution of
low water potential.
IN ANIMAL CELL:
Cell crenates and dehydrated, thus may die eventually.
Crenation – the process when membrane forms spikes as water is lost and cell
shrinks.
Importance of Turgor in Plants
- Maintain shape of soft tissues, i.e. young stems/leaves remain firm due to
turgor pressure.
- To move certain plant parts, i.e. change in turgor of guard cell cause
opening/closing of stomata.
EXTRA INFO: Why shouldn’t we put too much fertilizers?
Fertilizers make soil more concentrated, causing plant flaccid. To overcome, dilute
the soil to prevent wilting and dying.
2.3 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Is the process in which energy is used to move the particles of a substance from
lower concentration region to higher concentration.
- Is occuring when tissue respire releasing energy.
- Occur only in living cells as only living cells respire.
Examples of active transport:
 Absorption of dissolved mineral salts by root hairs
 glucose & amino acids absorption by cells in human small intestine
2.4 SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO IN RELATION TO CELLS
→ The higher surface area:volume ratio, the faster the rate of diffusion.
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CHAPTER 3: ENZYMES Each enzyme would only react with a praticular substrate, i.e. protease for
3.1 WHAT ARE ENZYMES? proteins, lipase for fats. The specificity of enzyme is related to its surface
Enzymes are biological catalyst made of protein which speed up/alter chemical configuration. It’s represented by lock and key specific shown below.
reactions without themselves being changed at the end reaction.

DIGESTION: An Enzyme-Catalysed Process

Enzyme convert complex food molecules into simpler ones to be digested.

Digestion is the process by which large, insoluble food molecules into smaller,
soluble food molecules.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

Enzymes can break down in molecules hydrolysis, which is the process of breaking
down complex molecule into simpler molecule in which water molecules are needed.

Enzyme that break down molecules by hydrolysis are hydrolases.

Examples are:
 Carbohydrase – digests carbohydrate
 Amylase hydrolyse starch - Temperature affects enzyme activity
 Cellulase hydrolyse cellulose (only plants) Enzymes have optimum working temperature but not always close to that at
 Protease, i.e. stomach pepsin – digests protein which they usually function.
 Lipase, i.e. pancreatic juice steapsin – digests fats K
DO YOU KNOW???
- Detergents may contain enzymes to digest organic stains.
- Unripe pineapples and papayas can tenderize meat with their enzymes.
But Also Note!!! 0 D
- Fruits tenderize meat by covering it on meat before cooking as cooking fire may From graph, we know:
denature enzyme when heated in high temperatures. (see 4.3) - Enzymes are least active at low temperatures
o
- Enzyme reactions speed up as temperature rises. (2x per 10 C)
o
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES - Enzyme reaches optimum temperature between 40-45 C at K
- Enzymes speed up chemical reactions - Enzyme starts to denature at temperatures beyond K until D
- Enzymes are required in small(minute) amounts Denaturation is the three-dimensional structural change produced by proteins by
Enzyme remain unchanged during chemical reaction, so it can be used over heat/pH values which make them coagulate.
and over again on a substrate
- Enzymes are substrate specific
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Why do Enzymes Denature?
When heated at high temperatures, enzymes undergoes changes in shape,
protein become less soluble and coagulates.
Hence, when the three-dimensional structure is altered, enzymes lose their
active sites, making them useless now.
- pH affects enzymes
enzyme denatures in extreme changes in acidity/alkalinity.
M Mostly they’re non-protein but organic compound.
In (ii), the rate of reaction increases as concentration increased, but constant
after point Y.
 The concentration is now a limiting factor.
Limiting factor is a factor that directly affect the rate at which a process
occur if its quantity change.
- Enzymes need coenzymes for activity
Coenzyme is another compound to be bound to enzyme before they catalyse.
Examples of coenzymes: vitamin B complex

- Enzymes catalyse reversible reactions

A+B C+D
Since most reactions in living cells are reversible, enzymes catalyse
In the above graph is rate of reaction of pepsin with pH. reversible reactions too.
• The optimum pH is pH 7
• As solution gets acidic/alkaline, the reaction slows down HOWEVER,
• At pH 4 or 9, enzyme completely denatures The process is usually proceed in forward direction, i.e. A + B to C + D,
because the products (C + D) are not allowed to build up but are used
- Substrate and enzyme concentration affect enzyme reactions up/removed from cell as soon they are formed.

END OF CHAPTER 2 & 3

chmsabee94/5090/06/09

In (i), rate of reaction increases until point X is reached.

• This is because enzyme molecule is saturated, so amount of
products formed per time is same.
 If an enzyme act on 10 substrates and produce 10 products
per second, when there’s 50 enzyme, it’ll react on 500
substrate and make 500 products.

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CHAPTER 4: NUTRITION THREE MAIN GROUPS OF CARBOHYDRATES

4.1 THE NEED FOR FOOD
Organisms need food to:
- Provide energy for vital activities of the body
- To synthesize new protoplasm for growth and repair of worn out parts of body
and for reproduction
- To maintain good health
* Green plants make use of sun energy for photosynthesis to make food. So, this
stored energy in food is potential chemical energy.

REMEMBER:
Glucose is the simplest carbohyrate sugars. The formula is CnH2mOm, as if n = 6 and
Energy is not created/destroyed, but converted from one form to another. m = n, the formula is C6H12O6.
With this there’s still a loss of energy even when resting.
Example: muscle cells convert potential chemical energy to kinetic energy to move Functions of Carbohydrates
the skeleton. - Source of energy
- To form supporting structures, i.e. cellulose cell wall
4.2 NUTRIENTS IN FOOD - To be converted to other organic compounds, i.e. amino acids, fats
Nutrients are chemical substances in food to nourish the body. - For formation of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Types of Nutrients: - To synthesize lubricants, i.e. mucus, made of carbohydrates and proteins to
ORGANIC (Obtained from living organisms):
trap dust particles in respiratory system
- Carbohydrates - Make nectar in flower. The sugary nectar attract pollinating agent
- Fats
- Proteins Types of sugar
- Vitamins Sugar are sweet crystalline compounds which readily dissolves in solvent.
- Dietary Fibre Simple sugars/monosaccharides
- Glucose
INORGANIC: - Fructose
- Water - Galactose
- Mineral Salts
Glucose are found in small quantities in all organisms.
Carbohydrates Fructose is common in animals.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The Galactose is a component of milk sugar, lactose. They both rare in organisms like
ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is same as water, i.e. 2:1 mammals.
- Comes from mainly plants.
- Are good source of energy for the body.
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Complex sugars/disaccharides ENZYMES TO HYDROLYSE COMPLEX SUGARS:

Complex sugars are called as the molecule is made of 2 molecules of simple
sugars. Also called disaccharides.
- Sucrose
- Lactose
- Maltose
Sucrose
- Is available in sugarcane stems and certain storage roots, i.e. beetroots and
carrots.
- Consists of glucose and fructose combined together.
- Not found in mammals
C6H12O6(glucose) + C6H12O6(fructose)→C12H22O11(sucrose) + H2O(water)
Lactose
- Available in milk of all mammals
- Formed by glucose and galactose combined together.
C6H12O6(glucose) + C6H12O6(galactose)→C12H22O11(sucrose) + H2O(water)
Maltose
- Available in malted cereals and sprouting grains.
- Formed during partial digestion of starch
- Consists of two molecules of glucose.
C6H12O6(glucose) + C6H12O6(glucose)→C12H22O11(sucrose) + H2O(water)
These reactions use the process condensation reaction.
Condensation Reaction is a chemical reaction where 2 simple molecules joined
together to form bigger molecule with removal of 1 water molecule.
These sugars can return to original compositions by hydrolytic reaction.
Hydrolytic Reaction is when 1 water molecule is added to split up complex molecule
into its component units.
Sucrase – Sucrose + Water → Glucose + Fructose
Lactase – Lactose + Water → Glucose + Galactose
Maltase – Maltose + Water → Glucose + Glucose
Polysaccharides
Is made up of many monosaccharides molecules joined together by polymerization,
a process of condensing many similar molecules to form a large molecule.
Polysaccharides from condensation of many glucose molecules:
- Starch
- Cellulose
- Glycogen
Starch is made up of large number of glucose molecules condensed together as
bonds. It can broken down by hydrolysing with acid.
Starch is digested with amylase enzyme to form maltose which is digested again with
maltase enzyme to form glucose.
FACTS ABOUT STARCH:
- Important source of carbohydrate
- Available in vegetable foods, i.e. cereals, potatoes,etc.
Test for starch:
Iodine Test: Put few drops of iodine onto sample and it will produce blue-black
colour.
Glycogen is formed when numerous glucose molecules condense and form highly
branches chained of glucose units.
IT IS USED AS:
- Carbohydrate storage in animals and fungi.
- In mammals is stored mainly in liver and muscles
WHY GLYCOGEN AS STORAGE MATERIAL?
- Insoluble in water, so they don’t change osmotic pressure in cells.
- Large molecules; unable to diffuse through cell membrane.
- Easy to be hydrolysed to glucose when needed.
- They have compact shapes; take less space.

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Fun Fact: Do You Know Atheletes Take in Bananas Before Sporting? OCCURENCE
This is because bananas contain glucose which can be converted to glycogen to be - butter, cheese, fatty meat, olives, nuts, castor oil seeds, palm oil
stored and used whenever needed during the sport.
- saturated fats are fats ocurring in animal bodies.
Cellulose is the carbohydrate that forms the greater part of plant cell walls. - unsaturated fats are harmless fats occuring in plants, i.e. vegetable fats.
FEATURE: - cholesterol come with saturated fats and can be deposited in arteries which
- Inactive; very few organisms can digest it. could cause heart disease.
- Man cannot digest it, but it forms fibre which is important for the functioning of
the large intestine. Test for fats:
3
Ethanol emulsion – add 2cm of ethanol into crushed food substance in a test-tube
SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCE WITH STARCH: and shake thoroughly. A temporary emulsion is observed. Add water to turn it into a
Similar: Consists of glucose linked together to form straight chains. permanent emulsion.
Difference: The way cellulose is linked is different from that of starch.
Proteins
Fats Are very complex organic substances containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
Fats are organic elements made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen, with the nitrogen. Sulphur and phosphorus are also found.
proportion of oxygen much less to hydrogen. (C57H110O6) CHARACTERISTICS:
- It provides energy. - always present in protoplasm
- Used as food stores by animals. - most complex and largest food molecule substances.
- Made up of amino acids.
Fats can be hydrolysed with lipase enzyme. Amino acids linked up to form protein and one water molecule is removed. The bond
C57H110O6 + 3(H2O) → C3H5(OH)3 + 3(C17H35COOH) between 2 amino acids is strong and known as peptides. If there are more than 2
(Tristearin) (Water) lipase Glycerol Stearic Acid (Fatty acids) amino acids bonded is known as polypeptides or peptones, and protein molecule is
3 mol 3 mol made up with one or more of this chain.

FATS AND OILS NOTE: The chain of acids in protein is coiled up and weak, so it is easily broken by
fats are solid but oils are liquid at room temperature. heat, acids and alkalis, which leads to enzyme denaturation.

APPLIANCES OF FATS
- As source and storage of energy.
- Insulating material, that is preventing excessive heat loss.
- As a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and other vital substances like sex
hormones and related hormones.
- For protoplasm constituent, especially in protoplasmic membranes.
Since protein molecule is large, it is broken down to polypeptides and into amino
acids to be digested.
PROTEIN DEFICIENCY: When protein is lack (less than 100g), children may suffer
deficiency disease called kwashiorkor, which results to make children have swollen
abdomens, scaly and cracking skins.

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FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS: Vitamins Sources Functions

- Synthesizing protolasm for growth & repair of worn-out body cells. Vitamin B Complex - yeast Coenzymes in cellular respiration.
- liver
- For synthesis of enzymes and some hormones. - bran LACK:
- For formation of antibodies to combat diseases. Beri-beri, pellagra, pernicious anaemia.
Vitamin A - dairy products - Formation of light sensitive pigment in
- Source of energy. - fish liver-oils the retina
- green vegetables - maintain healthy epithelial tissues.
Test for Proteins:
3
BIURET TEST: Add 2 cm of egg white and add equal volume of biuret solution. Water
Shake thoroughly and expect a purple colour change. Important because essential constituent of protoplasm. It is also solvent for inorganic
salts and other inorganic compounds.
Vitamins USES:
Vitamins are a group of chemically unrelated organic compounds required in human - as medium which various chemical reactions of organism occur
diet in very small amounts for normal health and development. - transporting agent for: digested food substances from intestines to other body
parts; excretory products from tissue cells to excretory organs for removal;
fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in fats in the body while water-soluble vitamins and hormones from their places of origin to body regions which require them.
cannot be stored, but to be supplied in daily diet. - a major component of blood, digestive juices and lubricant found in joints.
- for hydrolytic reactions during digestion
Vitamins Sources Functions - reactant in photosynthetic process in green plants
Vitamin D - fish liver-oils - Absorption of calcium and phosphorus - regulate body temperature by evaporating sweat from skin surface
(fat-soluble) - egg yolk from intestines.
- margarine - Formation of teeth and bone.
- UV rays from sunlight. Minerals
LACK: Minerals are inorganic elements which do not provide energy but are indispensable
Vitamin D is resistant to Rickets – poor teeth and soft bones,
heat and oxidation. causing bowed legs and knock knees. to readily functions. Examples are:
Osteomalacia – adults; bone softening - calcium
EXCESS: - iron
Bone demineralization with multiple
fractures and calcification of soft tissues.
Vitamin C - citrus fruits - Formation of intercellular substances. minerals are obtained from plants or animals. Mammals need large quantities of
(water-soluble) - green vegetables - Maintain healthy epitelial tissues. Calcium, Phosphorus, Sodium, Chlorine, Potassium, and Iron.
- fruit juices
LACK:
Vitamin D is easily Scurvy – swollen bleeding gums and Minerals that are needed in minute amounts are called trace elements.
destroyed by heat. loosening of teeth.
Haemorrhages – internal bleeding in
muscles and skin.
Poor healing and swollen joints.

EXCESS:
Excreted by the body

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Inorganic Sources Requirements Functions 4.3 FOOD VALUES AND DIET

element A Balanced Diet and Food Values
Calcium milk - building bones&teeth
Balance diet contains right amount of the seven nutrients to meet daily body
eggs - for normal muscle
cheese Children: 1 g /day functioning requirements.
small fish with bones Adult: lesser, more -blood clotting
eaten during the period
cereals pregnancy/lactation LACK: Energy used to carry on vital life processes of body while resting is called the basal
soya beans - Rickets metablolism.
dark green vegetables
Iron For formation of the: The basal metabolic rate depends on these factors:
- Haemoglobin - Climate
Red coloured pigment
transporting oxygen in
- Body size
the body - Age
Liver - Myoglobin - Sex
Red meat Protein in muscle cells
Egg yolk that stores oxygen for - Health
Bread Adult: 0.02 g / day muscular contraction. - Occupation
Flour Pregnant women: more - certain enzymes for
Dark green vegetables respiration
Climate
LACK:
Lowering level of the
Living in cold country release more heat energy than in tropic country. Thus, basal
haemoglobin in blood metabolic rate is higher in cold country.
causing anaemia, can
be seen by tiredness/
breathelessness. Body size
Bigger build need more energy for basal metabolism than smaller build.
Dietary Fibre or Roughage
Roughage are indigestable fibrous materials which provides bulk to the intestinal Age
contents and helps peristalsis. Sources are: Growing children need more energy for growth than adult. Therefore, children have
- Fruits and vegetables higher basal metabolic rate.
- Bran
- Wholemeal bread Sex
- Cereals Men have produce heat more than women due to less fatty tissue. So, men have
higher basal metabolic rate.
Peristalsis – a series of wavelike, muscular movements of walls of digestive tract to
enable food mixed with digestive juices. Health
Constipation – is the absence of proper peristaltic movements resulting in Thyroid gland produce thyroxine hormone to control metabolic rate. A person with
undigested matter in large intestine cannot be moved and too much water absorbed under-active thyroid gland have lower metabolic rate while a person with over-active
making faeces hard and dry, and removing waste difficult. thyroid gland have higher metabolic rate.
To overcome: Take roughage, drink enough water and exercise regularly.
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Occupation Problems of World Food Supplies

The more active and heavy your work is, the more energy is required, thus the higher Starvation, Malnutrition, Over-nutrition
basal metabolic rate.
Starvation – insufficient energy in mammals or animals.
Energy balance To meet metabolic rate, body uses stored glycogen and fats. Whe finished, body
If you need 12 000 kJ of energy daily: used proteins from skeletal or heart muscles leading heart weakening
- Eating less than that results in underweight
- Eating more than that results in overweight Malnutrition – dietary imbalance due to deficiency or excess nutrients intake over a
period of time.
During weight reducing programme: Lack of protein – kwashiorkor. Lack of roughage – constipation.
- Only intake of carbohydrate/fats should be lowered.
Why starvation and malnutrition?
High protein intake: - Increasing population growth
- Cause excessive nitrogen in body, to be removed as urea. - Unequal food distribution
- Liver and kidney overwork, and may be damaged. - Growing cash crops rather foods in developing countries

Over-nutrition – intake of more energy than what a person needs.

Results in obesity and coronary heart disease, which forces heart to work harder to
pump blood around the body.

Why dietary imbalance?

- Economic constraints, i.e. prefer cheap foods
- Poor eating habits – lacking of nutritional knowledge
- Unwilling to follow national guidelines

END OF CHAPTER 4
chmsabee94/5090/06/09
It is advised to:
- Take less fats and cholesterol
- Eat more fruits and vegetables
- Consume less salts
- Maintain healthy weight

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CHAPTER 5: NUTRITION IN MAMMALS Mouth and Buccal Cavity

5.1 HOLOZOIC NUTRITION Food enters via mouth which leads to buccal cavity. In front of the cavity are moving
Nutrition – intake of food ans process to convert food substances into living matter, lower jaws and fixed upper jaws. Food are broken with the teeth. Salivary glands
i.e. cells produce saliva into buccal cavity.
Nutrition comprises of:
FEEDING – intake of food into body Pharynx
DIGESTION – the process whereby large food molecules broken down into soluble The part of the gut from mouth to oesophagus and trachea by way of larynx or voice-
and diffusable molecules to be absorbed into cells box. Larynx has slit-like opening called glottis. To prevent food mass enter wind pipe,
ABSORPTION – the process whereby digested taken into cells a flap-like cartilage epiglottis moves up to cover the trachea.
ASSIMILATION – the process whereby absorbed food materials are converted into If food masses or water enter trachea, the person would cough violently to let the food
new protoplasm/used to provide energy out.

Holozoic nutrition – the taking in of ready-made complex organic matter for animals The Oesophagus
and involving nutritional steps. It’s a narrow, muscular tube continuing
from pharynx through plorax and
5.2 MAMMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM diaphragm to stomach. It has 4 layers:
Consists of gut and glands associated to it - Serous coat
Gut consists of: outermost layer, a thin membrane
- Mouth and buccal cavity that is moist and slippery to reduce
- Pharynx friction between organs.
- Oesophagus - Smooth mucsles
- Stomach muscle layers next to serous coat,
- Small intestine outer: longitudinal muscle, inner:
- Large intestine circular muscle. Slow and sustained
- Anus contractions.
- Submucous coat
Intestines outer part next to smooth muscles,
SMALL INTESTINES: layer of blood vessels and
Comprises of duodenum, jejunum and ileum. connective tissues
- Mucous coat
LARGE INTESTINES: innermost layer, folded extensively
Made up of caecum, colon and rectum. and contain gland cells secreting
slimy mucus to lubricate food for
Gland is a cell, tissue or organs that secrete chemical substance. smooth moving along the gut.
Example: salivary gland secrete saliva.
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Peristalsis
Is the wave-like contractions of the wall of the gut caused by the two layers of smooth
muscles.
When circular muscle contracts, longitudinal muscle relaxes, the wall of gut constricts
(become narrower and longer) and pushes bolus forward.
When circular muscle relaxes, longitudinal muscle contricts, the wall of gut dilates
(wider and shorter) to allow bolus pass through widened lumen.
The Stomach
Is distensible muscular bag with well developed muscular walls.
Location: beneath diaphragm to the left side, partly covered by liver.
Structure:
- mucous coat of stomach has pits connected to gastric glands secreting gastric
juices.
- has muscular valve (pyloric sphincter) which connects to small intestine (valve
contracts, entrance closed; when relaxes, entrance open-food pass)
The Small Intestine
Consists of: U-shaped duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Length: 6 metres
Function: Wall lining secrete digestive enzymes.
Organs and Glands Associated with the Gut
The Liver and Gall Bladder
Liver: largest gland in body.
Structure: dark-red, made up of five lobes, 3 on the right and 2 on the left. Has 3
blood vessels: hepatic portal vein, hepatic vein, hepatic artery.
Position: below diaphragm, to the right. Upper part touch diaphragm, lower part touch
stomach and small intestine.
Function: secrete bile (alkaline greenish-yellow liquid) containing bile salts and
pigments to help fat digestion. Waste product as faeces.
Gall Bladder: greenish-yellow bag attached to liver which stores bile.
Transporting bile to gall bladder:
Bile duct let bile flow into duodenum when bile duct contracts
The Pancreas
Location: lies in the loop of duodenum. Connected to it by pancreatic duct.
Function: - produces pancreatic juice having digestive enzymes
- secrete insulin hormone to control blood sugar level and
carbohydrate utilization.
The Large Intestine
Structure: shorter but broader than small intestine. Connected to small intestine. At
junction is caecum and appendix which don’t play part in digestion but may cause
appendicitis when inflamed. It’s 1.5 metres length.
Consists of:
- Caecum and appendix
- Ascending colon runs upwards at right side of abdominal cavity
- Horizontal tranverse colon
- Descending colon runs downwards at left side of abdominal cavity joining
rectum.
Function: absorb water and mineral from undigested food matter and remove bacteria
during egestion.
RECTUM: stores faeced temporarily. When contracts, faeces expelled through anus.
5.3 DIGESTION IN HUMANS
In the Mouth
Function: stimulating salivary gland to secrete saliva to mix with food.
- The mucin in saliva soften food
- Chewing increase surface food area, break it into smaller pieces
- The enzyme salivary amylase in saliva digest starch to maltose
- Tongue roll the food into small and slippery spherical masses called bolus
which later enter oesophagus via pharynx
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In the Oesophagus The enzymes in intestine:

- Moves bolus down with help of gravity and peristaltic movement - pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase and trypsinogen(all protease)
Enzymes in intestine:
In the Stomach - enterokinase, erepsin(all peptidase), maltase, sucrase, lactase and intestinal
Food stimulates gastric glands secrete gastric juices and mixes with it by peristalsis. lipase

GASTRIC JUICE: dilute hydrochloric acid solution having 2 enzymes, rennin and Carbohydrate digestion in small intestine:
pepsin. Dilute hydrochloric acid: - Food enters mouth. Salivary amylase digest partial starch into maltose.
- Stops salivary amylase action - Boli enter stomach. No carbohydrate digestion occurs.
- Changes inactive enzymes in gastric juice to be active - Boli enter small intestine. Starch digested to maltose.
- Provide suitable slightly acidic medium for gastric enzyme action - Cellulose carbohydrate is not digested.
- Kill germs and parasites - End products are simple sugars

The enzymes are produced inactively in the form of: Fat digestion in small intestine:
- Pepsinogen - Bile emulsifies fats so fats are simplified and sufrace area enlarged
- Prorennin - Emulsified fats are digested by lipase
They are later converted by acid to be rennin and pepsin. - End products are glycerol and fatty acids

PEPSIN: Digests proteins to polypeptides/peptones. It’s inactive as it will digest cells
which consist of mainly proteins.
RENNIN: Curdles milk protein by converting soluble milk protein (caseinogen) into
insoluble one (casein) and later digested by pepsin.
* If not converted to casein, it wouldn’t be digested and get to duodenum.
In the Small Intestine
The chyme (liquefied food) will stimulate:
- Intestinal gland to secrete intestinal juice
- Pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice which passes pancreatic duct to
duodenum
- Gall bladder to release bile. Bile passes bile duct to duodenum
Protein digestion in small intestine:
- Protein partially digested in stomach
- In intestine, inactive trypsinogen converted to active trypsin enzyme by
intestinal enterokinase.
- Protein further digested in small intestine to polypeptides by trypsin
- Polypeptides are digested by intestinal erepsin in intestinal juice
- End products are amino acids
Simplified diagram for protein digestion in small intestine:

Note: Bile, Pancreatic juice and Intestinal juice are alkaline to neutralize acidic chyme
from stomach and provide alkaline for enzyme action.

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Summary of digestion in human gut Process of Absorption

Carbohydrate, protein and other substances absorption
- Simple sugars, amino acids, mineral salts and vitamins pass through walls of
villi into blood capillaries.
- Blood transports them to other body parts.

Fat absorption
- Glycerol diffuse into epithelium (dissolves in water).
- Fatty acids react with bile salts, forming soluble soaps, and diffuse into
epithelium.
- In epithelium, the soaps and glycerol combine to form fat globules and
absorbed in lympathic capillary.

5.4 ABSORPTION In the large intestines

Simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by the villi of small - Water and mineral salts absorbed here.
intestine especially of the jejunum and ileum. - Undigested/unabsorbed matter are stored temporarily in rectum and egested.
Egestion is removal of undigested matter from the body.
Adaptations of the Small Intestine for Absorbed Digested Food Products 5.5 ASSIMILATION
- Inner walls of small intestines are thrown into numerous transverse folds and Assimilation – transport and utilization of absorbed food
furrows.
- Small intestines has numerous finger-like projections called villi to increase Sugars
surface area for efficient absorption. - The blood capillaries rich of simple
- Epithelial cells in villi bear microvilli sugars from small intestines unite to
- Between villi are small opening of intestinal gland to produce intestinal juice. form larger blood vessel which
- Intestinal wall and villi are supplied with blood vessel and lympathic vessel to forms hepatic portal vein to
carry away food substances. transport sugar to liver.
- Lympathic capillary transport fats away from small intestine - In liver, most absorbed sugars are
- Blood capillary transport sugars and amino acids away stored as glycogen. Sometimes
glucose bypass liver.

Glucose processing in liver and pancreas:

- glucose oxidation during tissue
respiration release energy for vital
activities of the cell.
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- pancreas produces hormone insulin used to convert excess glucose as Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration
3
glycogen. Liver keeps amount of glucose in blood constant of 70-90mg/100cm blood
Glycogen is converted back to glucose in liver when needed for energy.
After heavy meal:
Amino Acids - Glucose in blood rises, excess glucose converted to glycogen by liver and stored,
- are passed through hepatic portal vein with sugars. leaving blood having fair amount of glucose.
When need glucose:
Are used for: - Glucose in blood drops, glycogen converted back to glucose by liver.
- enter cells to be converted to new protoplasm When fasting:
- used for growth and repair of worn-out tissues - Glucose in blood drops, brain send impulses to empty stomach and give hunger
- formation of enzymes and hormones sensations
After fasting and eating:
Fats - Blood glucose rises, brain send impulses to stomach, hunger stopped
- Lymphatic capillaries contain colourless liquid – lymph. This deposition and mobilization of glycogen are controlled by the hormones
- When fats are absorbed into these capillaries, they mix with lymph to produce insulin and adrenaline.
milky fluid – chyle.
- Lymphatic capillaries join to form larger lymphatic vessels to discharge chyle This Information Might be Helpful!
into bloodstream and carries fats to all body parts. Other Important Functions of The Liver
But before fats are used:
Protein Synthesis
- They are brought to liver - converted to oxidizable/storable forms. But when Liver produce plasma proteins such as albumins and globulins from
there are enough glucose, fats are not oxidized. amino acids for blood clotting with fibrinogen.

Use of fats: Iron storage

- Build protoplasm in cell membranes.
- Excess stored in adipose tissues which are fat storage and insulating
tissues found beneath skin, around heart and kidneys.
The Liver: Functions Associated with Digestion and Assimilation
Production of Bile
Bile - produced by liver to emulsify fats, stored temporarily in gall bladder.
Worn-out red blood cells are destroyed in spleen and the haemoglobin
are brought to liver to break haemoglobin down and store iron that’s
released in the process. Bile pigments are produced too.
Detoxication
Harmful substances such as benzoic acid, picric acid, alcohol and
chloroform may be absorbed in gut. These are converted to harmless
substances by liver – process is detoxication.

Heat Production
Heat can be produced during chemical activities in liver. The heat is
distributed by blood to other body parts to regulate body temperature.

END OF CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER 6: NUTRITION IN PLANTS Simplified diagram to relate light-dependent and light-independent stage:
6.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis – the process whereby light energy is absorbed by the chlorophyll
and transformed into chemical energy used in synthesis of carbohydrates from water
and carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

Knowledge Required for Doing Photosynthetic Experiments

- Since simplest carbohydrates are sugars, to prove photosynthesis took place,
sugars must first be formed from carbon dioxide.
- Sugars are formed faster than being used up, so it’s changed to starch to From above:
prevent excess for storage. (THIS ISN’T PART OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS!) - Active energy of light converted and stored as carbohydrate molecule that is
- In darkness, photosynthesis stops, enzymes in leaves changed starch to glucose.
sugars and transported to other plant parts. - 12 water molecules splits up to all 6 oxygen molecules and 24 hydrogen atoms.
- The hydrogen reduce 6 carbon dioxide molecules to form a glucose molecule and
Conditions Essential for Photosynthesis 6 water molecules.
- Sunlight
- Carbon dioxide Combining these steps, we get:
- Chlorophyll
- Temperature (for enzyme in chloroplasts)
- Water
Are all the wavelengths of light used in photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis occur in 2 stages:
- Light-dependent stage
- Light-independent stage

LIGHT-DEPENDENT STAGE:
Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll to:
- Convert it into chemical energy.
- Split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen – photolysis.

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT STAGE:
means the stage where light is not required for the activity.
- Hydrogen produced reduces carbon dioxide to glucose by using chemical energy
provided during light-dependent stage.

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From graph, we know not all wavelength are absorbed. The fate of glucose in leaves
- Only red and blue are most effectively absorbed.
- Green is hardly absorbed, therefore chlorophyll are green as it reflects most
green lights.
The higher the wavelength absorption, the higher the photosynthesis rate

LIGHT AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

- Light is absorbed by chlorophyll.
- Light moves in waves, energy is contained in pockets called photons.
- Photon is inversely proportional to light wavelength; the longer wavelength, the
less energy per photon.
Sunlight has spectrum of light, which red (longest wavelength) and blue (shortest
wavelength) are most effective for photosynthesis

Limiting factors
- Carbon dioxide concentration
- Light intensity
- Temperature
GRAPH 1 AND 2
- as light intensity increases, photosynthesis rate increases to A and then
remain constant. A is limiting factor of light. Beyond that is not
- as temperature increases with same CO2 concentration, the rate doesn’t
increase appreciably so temperature isn’t so limiting factor
GRAPH 3 AND 4
- CO2 concentration increased, rate increased. CO2 is limiting factor
- at E, limiting factor is temperature as difference is appreciable
First, CO2 and H2O produce glucose in leaf by photosynthesis. It’s used:
- By cells during tissue respiration to provide energy.
- To make cellulose cell walls.
- Excess glucose converted to sucrose transported to storage organs to be stored
as starch or other forms.
- During day, sugars are formed faster and these are accumulated in leaf to be
converted to starch for temporary storage in leaf. At night, photosynthesis stops,
leaf enzymes reconvert it to glucose.
- To react with nitrates and other mineral salts brought to the leaf to form amino
acids to form proteins which is converted into new protoplasm within the cells.
o Excess amino acids are stored as proteins in the leaves or carried to growing
regions of plant to build new protoplasm or stored as proteins.
- To reach storage organs & convert to fats – stored within these organs.
Digestion and Utilization of Stored Food in Plants
Stored fats, proteins and starch in storage organs can be digested to soluble and
diffusable substances by the enzymes produced by storage organs when needed
Digestion of Stored Food
diastase maltase
1. starch maltose glucose sucrose (transported away)
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Lamina
pepsin and erepsin
- Has large surface area:volume ratio for maximum sunlight absorption.
2. proteins polypeptides and amino acids
- Thin expanded lamina- carbon dioxide reach rapidly the inner laef cells.

3. fats fatty acids and glycerol Venation

Vein networks and Vein branches
Utilization of Stored Food Carry water and mineral salts to cells in lamina and carry manufactured foods to other
Digested food are carried to all plant parts, especially growing zones. parts of the plant.
- Sugars and digested fats for energy production.
- Amino acids assimilated to form new protoplasm. Mid-rib
Main vein that gives off branches and form a network of fine veins.
The Importance of Photosynthesis
- During photosynthesis, carbohydrates are formed which further forms fats, Internal Structure of the Lamina
proteins and other organic compounds which become food to animals directly
or indirectly.
- Sunlight energy is converted to chemical enery which is stored within
carbohydrates molecules, which is fed to animals and the energy stored is
passed to them. nucleus
- Coal from trees has energy from sunlight through photosynthesis. When
burnt, energy produced is used to cook, machine works, etc.
- Photosynthesis purifies air by removing carbon dioxide and produce oxygen
for animal respiration.

6.2 THE LEAF: NATURE’S FOOD MAKING FACTORY

The lamina on either side of mid-rib has upper epidermis.

- consists of single layer closely packed cells covered with cuticle outside
A green leaf is equipped with lamina, petiole and leaf base for functioning
Cuticle
Petiole - Prevents excessive evapiration of water
Holds lamina away from stem so lamina obtain sufficient sunlight and air. - Focuses light into mesophyll layers

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MESOPHYLL LAYERS The entry of carbon dioxide into the leaf

Lies below upper epidermis. During daylight, photosynthesis occurs, so carbon dioxide in leaf used up. Carbon
- Main site of photosynthesis dioxide concentration in leaf is lower than outside so carbon dioxide from outer
- Has 2 regions – palisade tissue & spongy tissue enviroment diffuse into air spaces leaf and dissolves in thin film of water which covers
mesophyll cells.
Palisade Cells Tissue
Consists of 1 or 2 layers of closely packed, long cylindrical cells with axes at right The entry of water and mineral salts inro the leaf
angles to the epidermis. Veins in leaf form branches which end among mesophyll cell, containing xylem and
- Cells has numerous chloroplasts for maximum sunlight absorption for phloem.
photosynthesis process. Xylem – brings water and mineral salts to leaf from soil via roots. When out of veins,
Chloroplast – oval-shaped structures which contain chlorophyll these materials diffuse cell to cell throgh leaf mesophyll.

Spongy Mesophyll Tissue Phloem - transport sugars produced by green leaf from the raw materials to all plant
Has irregular shaped cells, containing chloroplasts too, which are loosely arranged to cells.
provide large intercellular air spaces among them.
How Is Leaf Adapted to Photosynthesis?
LOWER EPIDERMIS
Lies below mesophyll, consists of 1 layer of closely packed, covered by outer cuticle
layer. Has small openings called stomata, and bounded with 2 guard cells.

Differences between guard cells and epidermal cells:

GUARD CELLS EPIDERMAL CELLS
Bean-shaped in surface view Irregular shape
Contain chloroplasts-photosynthesis Doesn’t contain chloroplasts
Can make sugar Cannot make sugar
Prevent water loss by closing stoma Do not regulate water amount
How guard cells work:
6.3 MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS
During the day
Essential elements:
Potassium concentration increases in guard cells and with sugars formed, water
Carbon
potential in guard cell lowers so water from outer cells enter guard cells by osmosis
Hydrogen Potassium
making it turgid. As guard cell have thicker cellulose cell wall on one side of cell,
Oxygen non-metallic Calcium metallic
guard cell swollen and curved, pulling stoma open.
Nitrogen Magnesium
Phosphorus Iron
During the night
Sulphur
Sugar is used up, water leaves guard cell so it turn flaccid. Stoma closes.

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These elements occur in traces of plant and human body. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
- Hydrogen and Oxygen are needed for building of carbohydrates which are starting
blocks in which all other glands in plants are made. They can be obtained from
water that plant take in.
- Carbon Dioxide is needed for photosynthesis.
- Water is essential for healthy growth of plant.

END OF CHAPTER 6 Shape: circular, flattened, biconcave disc – centre of cell thinner than edge
Characteristics:
CHAPTER 7: TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS - No nucleus
7.1 THE NEED FOR A TRANSPORT SYSTEM - Diameter less than 0.01 mm
To carry substances from one body part to another: - Can squeeze through capillaries smaller than its diameter
Blood System: having the fluid blood - Produced in bone marrow
Lymphatic System: having the fluid lymph - Lifespan 3 – 4 months
- When worn out, it’s destroyed in spleen and liver
7.2 BLOOD
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF BLOOD Content of RBC:
55% plasma (fluid part of blood), 45% platelets HAEMOGLOBIN: a red coloured pigment protein containing iron.
Plasma - Lets blood cells transport oxygen from lungs to all body cells
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
BLOOD Blood Cells
White blood cells (leucocytes)
Platelets
Plasma White Blood Cells (Leucocytes):
Pale yellowish in colour Shape: Irregular, can change shape to squeeze among blood capillaries and between
90% water containing various dissolved substances: tissue cell spaces.
- Soluble protein: serum albumin, serum globulin, antibodies Characteristics:
fibrinogen, prothrombin. Fibrinogen & Prothrombin: Clotting of blood; - Has nucleus
Antibodies: Fighting diseases - Colourless and no haemoglobin
- Dissolved mineral salt: Ions of chloride, bicarbonate (HCO3), NaSOX, - Fewer than RBC (Ratio: 700:1)
NaPOX, KNOX, KPOX, Calcium. Calcium: blood clot - Keep body healthy by fighting disease
- Food substances: Glucose, Amino Acids, Fats, Vitamins - Lifespan: Few days
- Excretory products: urea, uric acid, creatinine
- CO2, present as HCO3 ions Types of WBC: - Lymphocytes
- Hormones - Phagocytes
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Lymphocytes: Oxygen is carried in RBC. Haemoglobin greatly affinates with oxygen.

- Produced in lymph glands/lymph nodes - As blood passes through lungs, oxygen diffuses from lung cavities into cells.
- Has large rounded nucleus, few non-granular cytoplasm It’ll then combine with haemoglobin, forming a new bright red coloured
- Almost round shaped, rarely move compound called oxyhaemoglobin.

Oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen when encountering tissues lacking of it.

Phagocytes: - Oxygen released diffuse in solution into tissue cells to give adequate oxygen
- Produced in bone marrow supply.
- Ingests foreign particles, e.g bacteria (phagocytosis)
- 2 kinds: monocytes – bean-shaped nucleus Haemoglobin w/o oxygen → purplish red
polymorphs – many lobed-nucleus, granular cytoplasm ∴ arteries are seen red, veins are seen bluish.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning

CO combines more readily than oxygen with haemoglobin to form bright pink
compound carboxyhaemoglobin. The compound does not readily release CO, so they
Phagocytes are useless.
Platelets (Thrombocytes):
- Cytoplasm fragments of bone marrow, for blood clotting. Acclimazation to high altitudes
High altitudes → more RBC
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD - Oxygen concentration low → haemoglobin & RBC must increase to allow
- Medium to carry various substances from one body part to another more oxygen transported to tissue cells per unit time.
- Protects body against disease-carrying organisms (pathogens)
Protective function of blood
Transport function of blood  Phagocytosis
Blood transports the following: - Engulfing and ingesting foreign particles, i.e. bacteria by WBC
- Digested food substances from the intestines to all parts of body - Some phagocytes may die in the process. They mix with dead bacteria
- Excretory products from tissues to respective excretory organs for removal. forming pus.
o Nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid, etc) removed by kidneys. The need for phagocytosis:
o CO2 in cells enter blood as HCO3 ions in blood plasma. As blood passes - One celled organisms, i.e. Amoeba, engulf food and ingest in food vacuole.
lungs, HCO3 ions dissociate to release CO2 into lung cavities by diffusion The digested products are absorbed and assimilated directly in cytoplasm.
which then expelled during expiration. - Dead cells in humans are phagocytosed to prevent inflammatory reactions by
- Hormones from producing glands to requiring body parts. body’s immune system.
- Fat produced in respiring body tissues (i.e. muscle, liver) to body parts to - As immunity against bacteria.
maintain stable body temperature.
- Oxygen, combined with haemoglobin from lungs to all body parts.
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 Production of antibodies
- Disease causing germs may produce poisonous substance toxin which also
induce production of antibodies by the lymphocytes and can be found freely
in the plasma.
USES:
- Act as antitoxin to neutralize poisonous effects of toxins.
- Kill bacteria in blood.
- Agglutinate (clump) bacteria together before phagocytosed.
 Clotting or coagulation of blood
Blood exposed to air will soon clot to seal the wound.
- To prevent excessive loss of blood
- To prevent foreign particles entering the blood stream
Haemophilia
Is hereditary disease which impair normal blood-clotting system. Sufferer may die
due to excessive bleeding or internal bleeding.
THE CLOTTING PROCESS:
- Blood vessels damaged → damaged tissues & blood platelets release
enzyme → thrombokinase
- Prothrombin in blood plasma activated by thrombokinase + calcium ions →
thrombin
- Thrombin catalyses fibrinogen (soluble) → fibrin (insoluble threads)
- Fibrin threads entangle blood cells, they form clot.
=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
Blood in undamaged blood vessels don’t clot as heparin from liver → anticlotting
substance.
- Thrombokinase released → neutralise heparin → clot takes place
- Blood clot → serum (yellowish liquid with same composition of plasma but
more anticlotting subtituent) left behind
Organ transplant and tissue rejection
Means: Replacement of damaged/diseased organs/tissue with healthy one
Tissue may be rejected by recipient’s immune system as:
Organ from another person = foreign body. Lymphocytes may destroy it.
Tissue may not be rejected when:
The tissue transplanted is from the same person.
To prevent tissue rejection:
 Tissue match (donor’s & recipient’s tissue must be as close as possible, i.e.
brothers, sisters, parents)
 Usage of immuno-suppressive drugs → inhibit immune system activity
Bad: Recepient prone to infections & to continue treatment forever
 X-Ray radiation to bone marrow & lymphoid tissue to inhibit blood cells
production. Hence, slows down rejection.
7.3 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Blood Circulation – The transportation of blood carrying various substances from
one part part of the body to another by flowing continuously around the body through
a closed system of blood vessel.
- Blood is kept flowing by muscular pump of the heart
o Heart relaxes → filled with blood; heart contract → squeeze blood out
Large arteries leaving left side of heart – aorta
- Branches to form smaller arteries and branch again to form tinier arteries
called arterioles and arterioles divide to form even tinier blood vessels –
capillaries
Capillaries – microscopic blood vessels found between most tissue cells
- Walls made of single layer of greatly flattened cells – endothelium
- Endothelium enables certain substances to diffuse quickly
- Branches repeatedly → more branches → large surface area → exchange of
substances between blood and tissue cells
- Before leaving organ/tissue, they unite - form small veins - venules
When arterioles branches to capillaries, total cross-section area increases
- Lowers blood pressure of capillaries → slows blood → more time for
exchange of substances
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ARTERIES Double Circulation is Important Because:

- Have thick, muscular and elastic walls withstand pressure when pumped out - Oxygenated blood is separated from deoxygenated blood: Median septum in heart
of the heart (the great arteries near heart is thicker) ensures complete separation and oxygenated blood flows through left side of heart
- Thick elastic walls to maintain high blood pressure in artery while deoxygenated blood flows through right side of heart.
- Wall elasticity permit stretching and recoiling of wall, to push blood
- When artery constricts, lumen narrower, less blood flows through - Blood pressure in systemic circulation is kept higher than pulmonary circulation as
- When artery dilates, vice versa left ventricle, with thicker wall to withstand high pressure, pumps blood to all body
VEINS parts under high pressure for faster delivery of oxygenated blood to body cells in
- Have thinner walls as the blood pressure is low. systemic circulation while right ventricle, with thinner wall, pumps blood to lungs
- Less elastic tissues. under low pressure to prevent lung damage.
- Have internal valves to prevent backflow of blood. The valves are folds of the
inner walls, shaped half-moon – semilunar valves
- Movement of blood assisted – skeletal muscle action
o Muscular excercise increases pressure exerted on veins and moves
blood along quickly.
Differences Table

7.4 DOUBLE CIRCULATION

Right Auricle Left Auricle
This means blood passes the heart twice in one complete
Differences Between Systemic Circulation and Pulmonary Circulation:
circuit. It consists of SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION and
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
- In pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood is carried
to lungs via pulmonary artery and oxygenated blood
is returned to heart via pulmonary vein.
- In systemic circulation, oxygenated blood is carried to
all body parts from left side of heart via aorta and
deoxygenated blood returned to heart via vena cava.
The deoxygenated blood undergo pulmonary
circulation & again systemic circulation.
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Main Blood Vessels of Body Coronary Blood Vessels:

Coronary Arteries – branch from aorta to provide blood for heart muscles.
Coronary Veins – they converge into main vein to transport deoxygenated blood
from heart muscle tissues to right atrium

Liver Blood Vessels:

Hepatic Artery – brings blood to liver from heart
Hepatic Vein – brings blood from liver to heart
Hepatic Portal Vein – brings blood from gut to liver and breaks up into many
capillaries before they converge into hepatic vein. It’s called portal vein as it carries
blood from one capillary network to another.

Kidney Blood Vessels:

Renal Artery – brings blood to kidneys from heart
Renal Vein – brings blood from kidneys to heart

7.5 OUR HEART, OUR PUMP

The heart is located in thoracic cavity between two lungs. It is protected by sternum
and rib cage and surrounded by two-layered membrane called pericardium on which
between these two membranes contains pericardial fluid to reduce friction when the
heart is beating.
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Median septum separates the left side of heart from the right side of heart.

The chambers types are namely atria on the upper chambers having thin wall, and
ventricles on the lower chambers, having thick walls. Atria have thin walls as it only
have to force blood into ventricles with low force but ventricles need thick walls as it
needs pressure force to transport blood to other body parts.

The 4 chambers in heart are:

Right Atrium: Upper chamber of the right side of heart. Blood from other body parts
are returned via anterior and posterior vena cavae. When the atrium
contracts, blood flows from right atrium into right ventricle through
tricuspid valve, consisting of 3 flaps, which opens downwards.

Right Ventricle: Lower chamber of right side of heart. When it contracts, blood
pressure forces the flaps to close, preventing backflow of blood
into right atrium after receiving blood from it. Blood then leaves the
ventricle via pulmonary arch into pulmonary arteries, one to
each lung, with backflow of blood prevented by semilunar valves.

Left Atrium: Upper chamber of left side of heart. Oxygenated blood returned to heart
via pulmonary veins which opens here. When left atrium contracts,
blood enters left ventricle via bicuspid valve, consisting of 2 flaps.

Left Ventricle: Lower chamber of left side of heart. When it contracts, flaps close and
blood leaves ventricle via aoric arch under high pressure to all over
the body and backflow is prevented by semilunar valves in aortic arch.

Chordinae Tendinae attaches the bicupid and tricuspid valves to ventricle walls and
prevents blood pressure from forcing the valves to open upwards into atria.

HEARTBEAT
Coronary contraction is termed systole while coronary relaxation is called diastole.
The bicuspid and tricuspid valves are atrioventricular valves of a heart.
Systole and diastole make up one heartbeat. An average person average heartbeat
is 70 beats per minute (BPM).
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CHAPTER 8: TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN FLOWERING PLANTS INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PLANT ORGANS

8.1 FLOWERING PLANT STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT Internal Structure of Dicotyledonous Stem
TRANSPORT (VASCULAR) TISSUES Phloem & Xylem together – vascular bundles
Consists of xylem and phloem; for transporting materials in flowering plants Vascular bundles arranged around a central region, pith.
Xylem Xylem & phloem lie along same radius.
2 Functions: Phloem outside xylem, with tissue, cambium in
- Conducts water with mineral salts from roots to stems & leaves between.
- Provides mechanical support within the plant - Cambium cells divide to form new xylem and
phloem tissue – thicken stem
Xylem consists of mainly vessels. Covering layer of cells – epidermis
Vessel – long hollow tube fetching from root to Epidermal cells protected from evaporation from stem by cuticle.
leaf. Region between vascular bundles & epidermis – cortex
Properties: Cortex & pith – store food substances
- have a continuous hollow space
(lumen). Internal Structure of Young Dicotyledonous Root
- is a dead structure. Xylem & phloem lie on different radii,
- wall strengthened by a deposited alternating with each other.
substance, lignin, deposited in the Cortex – storage tissue
form of rings (annular), spirals or pitted. Epidermis of root bearing hair – piliferous
Adaptation: layer
- lumen without partition to hinder passage of water & mineral salts. Root hair – tubular outgrowth of epidermal
- lignified walls prevent collapse of vessel. cell.
Phloem Cuticle absent in piliferous layer
Conduct manufactured food from green parts of plant to other parts of plant
Consists of: sieve tubes; companion cells Translocation of Organic Food Substances
SIEVE TUBES Translocation: Transport of food manufactured substances (e.g. sugars, amino acid)
Consists of a row of elongated, thin-walled living
cells – sieve tube cells 1. Anaesthesize feeding aphid on plant stem and remove the body from its proboscis.
Cross walls seperating the cells perforated by A liquid oozes out from the end of proboscis when the proboscis is attached to the
minute pores – sieve plates sieve tube of a plant. This liquid contains sugars and amino acid, which proves that
Mature sieve tube – no central vacule & nucleus, but translocaion of these substances occurs in sieve tubes of phloem.
thin cytoplasm layer
Transport of food – through sieve tube cells & sieve 2. Expose plant to CO2 radioactive carbon-14 for photosynthesis. The sugars formed
plates cytoplasm by diffusion and active transport contain the radioactive carbon-14 which can be detected by photographic film. It is
Companion cells – to keep the tubes alive & to assist transportation of food found that the traces of this carbon occurs in phloem.
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THE ENTRY OF WATER INTO THE PLANT
Mineral salts are dissolved in soil water, thus, thin film of liquid surrounding each soil
particle is dilute solution of mineral salts. Absorption of water and mineral salts takes
place in zone of root hairs (tubular outgrowth of epidermal cells growing between soil
particles coming to close contact with water surrounding them).
- Sap of root hair cell has concentrated sugar and salt solutions, thus has lower water
potential than soil solution and these are separated by plasma membrane of root
hair cell acting as partially permeable membrane.
- Water enters root hair by osmosis, which then dilutes the sap so that the sap of root
hair cell is more dilute than the next cell
- Water continues to pass to next inner cells until it enters xylem vessels of plant
Diffusion and Active Transport in Absorption of Dissolved Salt
Partially permeable membrane does not allow sugars and starch to pass out of the
root hair, but allows the passage of dissolved mineral salts via root hair by active
transport against concentration gradient, as the mineral salts content in root is
generally higher than that in the soil. The energy for this comes from tissue respiration
in plants. Diffusion rarely takes place and only when mineral content is higher in soil.
Adaptation of Root Hair to Absorption
- Long and narrow for larger surface area:volume ratio to maximise rate of absorption
- Cell sap is more concentrated than soil (i.e. more mineral salts, less water), allowing
mineral salts enter by active transport while water by osmosis. Moreover, mineral
salts in root hair is not allowed to pass out of it due to cell surface membrane
- Root hair cells respire so they provide energy for active transport
8.2 UPTAKE OF WATER
1. Root Pressure
Living cells along xylem vessels absorb ions by active transport, making xylem
vessels more concentrated. Hence, water is passed from root cells up to xylem
vessels up the plant by osmosis.
2. Capillary Action
Water moves up inside capillary tubes in small plants (i.e. xylem vessels) by
capillary action which uses adhesion forces between water molecules and xylem
vessel walls to be sucked upwards. However, this doesn’t occur in tall, big plants.
3. Transpiration Pull
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour (from excess water drawn from soil and
tissue respiration) from the aerial parts of the plant, especially through leaf stomata.
Evaporation of water from inside leaf continually occurs on surfaces of leaf. Water is
constantly sucked out of intercellular spaces in mesophyll layer to form thin layer of
water diffusing out to surface of leaf via stomata. As water leaves the mesophyll cells,
it becomes concentrated and hence draw water from neighboring cells deeper in
leaves which in turn sucks water up from xylem vessel.
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This creates a continuous water column running from roots up to the leaves, called CHAPTER 9: RESPIRATION
transpiration stream, which creates tensional force up the plant to draw water and 9.1 WHAT IS RESPIRATION?
mineral salts which is called transpiration pull. 9.2 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS
9.3 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
TRANSPIRATION – IMPORTANT FOR PLANTS!
Importance:
- Enables transpiration pull in plants which allows continuous drawing of water and
mineral salts up the plant to leaves for photosynthesis
- Evaporation of water from leaf surfaces removes latent heat hence cooling down
the leaves, preventing them being burnt by sun

What helps transpiration?

1. Humidity of surrounding air
If air is less humid, water from intercellular spaces in leaves diffuses out quickly
down the steep concentration gradient. If air is humid, it hinders evaporation which
in turn lowering rate of transpiration.
2. Atmospheric temperature
Water evaporates faster in hot days hence increasing rate of transpiration. However
when too much water is lost, stomata close, preventing further loss of water.
3. Wind
In presence of wind, water vapour around the leaves from diffusion of water out of
the leaves are blown away, making air less humid hence enhancing transpiration. If
wind absent, the air is damp, decreasing rate of movement of water out the leaves.
4. Light
In sunlight, stomata open, allowing diffusion of water out of stomata. In darkness,
stomata close, preventing water to diffuse out of leaves for transpiration.

WILTING
When in sunlight, excessive transpiration may occur which makes a plant loses its
turgor, causing leaves flaccid and the plant to droop.
Advantage: Leaf folds and reduces surface area exposed to sunlight, causing guard
cell flaccid and closes the stomata, reducing rate of transpiration.
Disadvantage: Closed stomata reduces the entry of CO2, hindering photosynthesis.
Also, water is lacked and becomes limiting factor for photosynthesis.
END OF CHAPTER 8
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CHAPTER 10: EXCRETION Two main regions:

10.1 WHAT IS EXCRETION? - outer dark-red region – cortex
Catabolic activities – the process of the breakdown complex substances into simpler - inner thick paler red region – medulla
ones. Example: • Medulla consists of 12-16 conical structures called pyramids projecting into
- tissue respiration funnel-like space called renal pelvis
- production of proteins and amino acids to form urea o Renal pelvis is enlarged portion of ureter inside kidney.
o Pyramids possess radial stripes due to nephrons presence, which form urine
Anabolic activities – build up of simpler substances into complex ones.
- formation of new protoplasm from amino acids Excretory products Excretory organs Remarks
- conversion of glucose to glycogen in liver and muscles Carbon dioxide Lungs Gas in expired air
- photosynthesis in green plants Nitrogenous waste products Kidneys
Constituents of urine
Metabolic activities – involves chemical changes by anabolic and catabolic activitirs Urea (protein deamination)
Constituents of sweat in
that go on in cells of organisms which keep it alive. Creatinine (muscle breakdown) Skin
small quantities
Lactic acid (nuclear material)
Excretion – the process by which metabolic waste and toxic materials are removed Kidneys Main constituent of urine
Waste water Skin Main constituent of sweat
from the body of an organism.
Lungs Water vapour in expired air
Red pigments (haemoglobin
10.2 EXCRETION IN MAMMALS Liver Excreted via intestines
breakdown)
The Mammalian Urinary System
Consists of: a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder, a urethra The structure of a nephron
KIDNEYS: are bean-shaped organs embedded in fat mass in abdominal cavity - Each nephron begins in cortex as cup-like
Hilus – depression on centre of concave surface of structures called renal capsules
kidney where renal artery, renal vein & nerves - Capsule leads to first convoluted (coiled)
connected to kidney. tubule before it straightens into medulla.
Ureter – narrow tube emerging from hilus travelling - In medulla, tubule U-turns in U-shaped tubule:
downwards to join dorsal surface of urinary bladder loop of Henlé & passes back into cortex where it
Urinary bladder – elastic muscular bag to store becomes convoluted again.
urine. When it’s full, sphincter muscle relaxes to - Then it enters into collecting tubule which runs
allow urine flow to urethra and pass out the body straight past medulla into renal pelvis.
- Blood enters kidney through branch of renal
Longitudinal Section of a Kidney artery which breaks into mass of capillaries in
renal capsule – glomerulus.
- Capsule with glomerulus – Malphigan corpuscle
- Blood leaving glometulus enters capillaries forming brance of renal vein.
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Formation of urine Table showing processes at different parts of nephron

Blood entering kidney – more O2, less CO2. Part of nephron Process Function What happens
– higher concentration of water, mineral salts, nitrogenous Small molecules in
Bowman’s capsule Separates wastes from
waste than blood leaving kidneys Ultrafiltration blood plasma forced
glomerulus blood plasma
• nitrogenous waste+excess mineral salt=no use→remove into glomerulus
Useful salts actively
Convoluted tubules Prevents loss of salts,
Selective transported out of
Loop of Henlé glucose, amino acids
reabsorption tubule into surrounding
Collecting duct essential to body
tissue
Convoluted tubules Water moves out of
Prevents too much
Loop of Henlé Osmosis filtrate in tubules by
water loss
Collecting duct osmosis
Selected substances
Removes substances are actively transported
Diagram of nephron Convoluted tubules Secretion
from blood by blood capillaries into
Urine formation involves 2 processes – ultrafiltration, selective reabsorption tubules

Ultrafiltration Variety Constituent of Urine

Ultrafiltration involves mechanical filtration which separates solutes of plasma:
- urea from large proteins and cells
The process:
- Blood entering glomerulus has high hydrostatic (blood) pressure due to blood is
carried from heart & afferent arteriole leaving glomerulus narrower than entrance.
- High pressure forces filtrate which are small molecules (water, glucose, amino
acids, urea) through the fine-pored filter from blood in glomerulus across the
membrane of Bowman’s capsule which directs into nephron.
- Large molecules (plasma proteins, fats, blood cells) cannot pass through the filter
and therefore retained in glomerular capillaries.
Selective Reabsorption
If all filtrate are excreted through urea, a person would dehydrate as a lot of useful
substances such as water and mineral salts are lost from the body. Therefore:
- Selective reabsorption reabsorbs useful materials back into bloodstream by osmosis
(water) and active transport (glucose and amino acids) through the walls of tubule into
surrounding blood capillaries.
- Drugs, hydrogen and potassium ions are not filtered out into capsule but later actively
transported into tubules as the capillaries pass the convoluted tubules.
PROTEIN RICH DIET: More urea in urine – proteins deaminated in liver with
subsequent urea formation
HEAVY INTAKE OF MEAL: More glucose present in urine from food
LARGE INTAKE OF WATER: More water volume in blood – unwanted volumes
excreted via urine
INTAKE OF SALTY FOOD: Excess salts are excreted via urine – more salt in urine
DIABETES MELLITUS: Urine contains considerable amount of glucose – body unable
convert glucoso to glycogen – inability of pancreas to secrete insulin
Osmoregulation in Blood – Control of Water Content
Osmoregulation is the control of water and solute levels in blood to maintain a
constant water potential in the body.
- Kidneys (osmoregulators) decrease/increase water absorption in tubules by anti-
diuretic hormone (ADH) which increases the permeability of tubules and collecting
duct. ADH production is regulated by pituary gland in brain.
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Kidney Failure
When 2 kidneys fail, a person will die of poisoning of untreated metabolic wastes. This
is prevented by dialysis of blood with dialysis machine on the diagram above.
- Blood is withdrawn from patient’s artery and is allowed to flow through the tubing in
the dialysis machine.
- In tubing, used dialysis fluid is removed and fresh one containing same
concentrations of salts and water as the blood is sucked up into the tubing. This is
1. A lot of water lost through the sweat to prevent salts and water diffuse out into tubing from blood while only unwanted
2. As blood becomes more concentrated and blood volume falls, receptors in urea and waste products diffuse out into the dialysing solution by diffusion through
hypothalamus of the brain are triggered partially permeable membrane walls. Big molecules (protein, blood cells) don’t pass
3. Pituitary gland releases more ADH through this membrane. Note that only diffusion occurs.
4. This increases water reabsorption at nephron. Blood becomes more dilute when - The narrow, long, coiled tubing is to increase surface area to volume ratio to speed
urine becomes more concentrated up the rate of exchange of substances between blood and dialysis fluid.
5. Receptors in brain note the change in blood volume and concentration - Direction of blood flow is opposite to the flow of bathing fluid to maintain diffusion
6. Pituitary gland reduces production of ADH gradient for removal of waste products.
7. Water reabsorption is reduced. Blood becomes more concentrated. - Filtered blood is returned to vein of patient.
8. Step 2 is repeated as blood is concentrated.
Since dialysis occurs by slow process diffusion, it need 4-6 hours, three times/week.
Functions of the Kidney Differences between glucose regulation in kidneys and in dialysis
- Kidneys are excretory organs which removes nitrogenous wastes and excess water KIDNEYS DIALYSIS MACHINE
and salts in the form of urine - Small molecules are separated from
- Small molecules are separated from
- In selective reabsorption in nephron pH & composition in blood plasma maintained large ones by partially permeable
large ones by ultrafiltration in nephrons
membrane in tubing of dialyser
- Kidneys regulate salt and water balance in the body fluid
- Blood is sent to kidneys under high - High blood pressure is not necessary
• Intake of water & reduced production of sweat dilutes the blood. Kidney remove pressure to filter the filtrate as interchange occurs by diffusion
excess water as more water present of urine. - Depends mainly on active transport
- Depends mainly on diffusion
• Less intake of water & increased sweat production make the blood concentrated. and osmosis
More water will be reabsorbed into the blood stream from tubules. END OF CHAPTER 10
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CHAPTER 11: HOMEOSTASIS
Need for Homeostasis
If there’s drastic change within our body, it’ll affect normal reactions of organs/cells
e.g. when temperature rise high, enzyme maybe inactivated or even denatured.
Homeostasis – the maintenance of constant and stable internal environment of an
organism.
Stimulus – change from normal condition (norm) of internal environment
Receptor – organs that detects changes in either external and internal environment
Regulator – triggers appropriate response to restore internal environment to norm
Response – counteracts change & returns internal environment to norm. Example:
moving into shade to avoid sun; increase glucose level in blood.
Feedback – instructions to regulator to prevent further corrective action once norm is
acquired back
Negative Feedback
Is corrective mechanism in body to maintain normal constant internal environment.
11.1 GLUCOSE AND WATER POTENTIAL REGULATION IN MAN
Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration
Importance of glucose level regulation
Glucose is needed for tissue respiration to provide energy for vital activities
Regulation of Glucose Level
After meal, glucose level in blood rises. When we starve, glucose level decreases.
• Change in blood glucose concentration – stimulus
• Pancreas which is stimulated - receptor
- After heavy meal islets of Langerhans in pancreas secretes insulin which makes:
• Plasma membrane now more permeable, more glucose into cells from blood
• Respiration increases oxidation of glucose into carbon dioxide and water
• Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen
• Decreases breakdown of glycogen in liver and muscle cells
• Inhibit conversion of non-carbohydrate sources (e.g. fats) to glucose in liver
• Increases synthesis of lipids and proteins from glucose and amino acids
- This makes the amount of glucose in blood decrease. Secretion of insulin drops
and when below norm, glucagon secreted from liver which makes:
• Plasma membrane less permeable – less glucose taken into cells from blood
• More glycogen is broken down into glucose from liver and muscle cells
• Body burns fat rather than glucose to produce energy
• Less respiration to oxidate glucose
- And the process repeats when glucose level turns above norm.
Diabetes Mellitus
It is a disease where a body is unable to control blood glucose concentration which
results in increase of glucose where it exceeds kidney ability to reabsorb all glucose.
• Type 1 diabetes – juvenile diabetes/insulin-dependent diabetes.
Normally occurs when pancreas unable produce insulin. Affects below 30yrs old.
• Type 2 diabetes – Occurs in later ages or overweight people
Normally occurs when insulin receptors not stimulated by insulin
Diabetes can be seen when blood glucose level is high and glucose present in urine
after having a meal.
Treatment – people must undergo urine test for blood glucose concentration
Type 1: Inject insulin into veins daily. Also they have to eat carbohydrates to balance
glucose level from being too low, added with physical exercise.
Type 2: Control blood sugar level by regulating carbohydrate content in their diet.
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Regulation of Water Potential – refer CHAPTER 10: EXCRETION on kidneys.
11.2 SKIN AND ITS THERMOREGULATION FUNCTION
The Skin of A Human
Advantages of skin: - protective covering over the general body
- excretory organ of excess water and salt as sweat
- regulator of body temperature as changes detected by skin
Structure of a skin:
Composed of: - outer, thin layer called epidermis
- inner, thicker underlying layer, dermis: made of connective tissue
- hypodermis containing adipose (fatty) tissue
The Epidermis – consists of mainly epithelial tissue
- Prevents entry of bacteria
- Prevents loss of water by evaporation from underlying tissue
- Renewal of dead cells in cornified layer which constantly being rubbed off
Malpighian Layer – The Need For This Layer:
• Contains a pigment melanin for: - giving skin its characteristic colour
- shields underlying cells againts UV radiation
• Constantly dividing and replacing dead cells in cornified layer
Granular Layer – The Need For This Layer:
• Consists living cells from Malpighian layer which moves upwards and become flatter
and dryer as they get further from blood vessels in dermis. They synthesize keratin
at same time, which is flexible water-resistant protein in cornified layer & fingernails
Cornified layer – The Need For This Layer:
As keratin content in cells increases, a cell lose nucleus and cells die, forming a
series of tightly interlocked keratin sacs.
• This makes cornified layer waterproof and prevents uncontrolled water evaporation
• Germs are also prevented from gaining entry into the layer unless there’s a cut
• The layer act as protective layer over body surfaces, preventing mechanical injuries
Cells in this layer rubbed off every 2 weeks or so, so cornified layer replaced by cells
pushing up from the granular layer
The Dermis – mostly connective tissue with fibrous connective tissue, blood
capillaries, sensory cells, glands and hair follicles
Hair – is a dead structure made of epithelial cell which have been cornified by keratin.
Hair becomes white when melanin production falls. The production of hair:
• Malpighian layer sinks into dermis forming hollow tube – hair follicle
• At base of follicle is mass of tissue containing nerve endings and blood capillaries
which makes up hair papilla covered with epidermal cells, and erector muscles.
- capillaries nourish cells in papilla and remove wastes
- epidermal cells constantly divides and pushed upwards where it die, forming hair
- Erector muscle contracts and alter the angle between hair and skin to vary the
amount of air that can be trapped by hair
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Glands – sebaceous glands and sweat glands
Sebaceous glands
Characteristics: - derived from epidermis, has two of them open into hair follicle
Function: - release oily substances – sebum made up of fatty acids & waxes, which:
• Lubricates hair, making hair supple
• Keeps skin soft and smooth
• Prevents dehydration of skin
• Keeps hair follicle free from dust and bacteria
Alteration: - under hormonal influence, e.g. puberty, excessive sebum is secreted
which blocks follicle and forms whitehead which multiplies bacteria
present on skin in the follicle, causing inflammatory reaction to acne.
Sweat glands
Characteristics: - occur in dermis, which is a coiled tubular gland formed by a down-
growth from epidermis
- it forms a tight knot in the dermis provided with blood capillaries
Secretion: - sweat is secreted from the blood in the capillaries, which flows through
narrow tube: sweat duct; then out through sweat pore on skin surface
Function: - release sweat having mainly water, inorganic salts and little organic waste.
• Sweat excretes as little metabolic wastes are removed from body
• Sweat helps temperature regulation when sweat evaporates on the skin
surface, removing latent heat
Alteration: - Sweat began to be produced in groin, anal area and armpits only at
puberty. They release odorless fluid on which bacteria feed on protein
and oily substances, causing odor in line with activity of bacteria
Subcutaneous Fat
Description: These are several layers of adipose cells where fat is stored.
Function: - The fat in the cells serves as insulating layer
- It stores fat, therefore known as fat storage
Sense Receptors
Function: Found in dermis and epidermis, they enable us feel pain, pressure or
temperature changes in external environment
Blood vessels/capillaries
Presence: In numerous in our dermis.
Function: has loops and shunts to vary blood flow in capillaries to control temperature
with the help of vasomotor nerves in arterioles
• In vasoconstriction, smooth muscles in walls of arterioles contracts,
making arterioles constrict so decreased blood flow to the capillary loop
near the skin and blood instead flow through shunt vessel. Since blood
carrying heat flow less to near skin surface, heat loss is reduced.
• In vasodilation, smooth muscles in walls of arterioles relaxes due to high
blood pressure when heat has to be lost. This causes arterioles dilate so
more blood flow to the capillary loop near the skin and around sweat
glands. Since blood carrying heat flow more to near skin surface, heat
loss is reduced. Also more blood flow to sweat glands increases the
sweat amount which is evaporated and more heat loss from skin surface
HEAT GAIN
Animals gain heat from environment and cell reactions within body.
Poikilothermic animals: cold-blooded animals which are unable to maintain body
temperature physiologically and rely heat from external environment – ectothermic
Homoiothermic animals: warm-blooded animals able to maintain a constant body
temperature regardless the environment and rely on internal sources – endothermic
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HEAT LOSS When external temperature is low,

Heat is lost : - through skin by convection, radiation and conduction
- by evaporation of sweat produced by heat of the body
- in faeces and urine and in expired air from the lungs
Advantages of Thermoregulation in the Body
• Warm-blooded animals can remain active throughout the day even years,
regardless external environment temperature
• Enzymes work best at constant optimum temperature of about body temperature
• Animals don’t need to hibernate; they can continue to feed throughout the year
• Animals can exploit and colonize many areas with different climatic conditions
The Hypothalamus of the brain
It monitors the blood temperature passing through it. It has 2 parts:
• heat loss center
• heat gain center
Uses of hypothalamus:
• detect temperature changes information in external environment from skin receptor
• monitors the blood temperature passing through it
Stimulus:
• skin thermoreceptors detect decrease in blood and skin temperature; hypothalamus
detect change in blood temperature – brain send impulses to effectors.
Corrective mechanism:
• vasomotor contract arterioles in skin (vasoconstriction) – less blood carrying heat to
skin which results less heat is lost by conduction, convection and radiation
• sweat glands less active: less or no sweating – less latent heat removed
• hair erector muscles contract – more warm air trapped & insulates (less effective)
• skeletal muscles contract and relax repeatedly – shivering – heat production raised
• metabolic rate increased – increased heat production by cells
Negative feedback: body temperature raised

THE PROCESS OF THERMOREGULATION

When external temperature is high,
Stimulus:
• skin thermoreceptors detect increase in blood and skin temperature; hypothalamus
detect change in blood temperature – brain send impulses to effectors.

Corrective mechanism:
• vasomotor dilate arterioles in skin – more blood carrying heat to skin which heat is
lost by conduction, convection and radiation
• sweat glands active: increased sweating – sweat evaporate, latent heat removed
• hair erector muscles in skin relax – less warm air trapped
• rapid breathing – heat lost during expiration
• metabolic rate decreased – decreased heat production by cells

Negative feedback: body temperature lowered

END OF CHAPTER 10
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CHAPTER 12: COORDINATION AND RESPONSE
12.1 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensitivity – the ability to respond to stimulus.
Response to stimulus in verterbrates:
Involuntary actions: activities not under control of the will, e.g. peristalsis, heartbeat
Voluntary actions: activities under control of the will
NERVOUS SYSTEM IN MAMMALS
Nervous system coordinates and controls the work of all systems in the body
Nervous system in mammals comprises of:
• Central Nervous System (CNS) comprising brain and
spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprising cranial
nerves from brain to all head parts, and spinal nerves
from spinal cord and receptor organs
- Receptors keep CNS informed of change in surroundings,
produce message as electrical impulses: nerve impulses,
which is sent to CNS by nerves. If impulse is sent to
muscles, then muscle moves the body part away. Muscles
are therefore effectors
The Nervous Tissue
It is made up of nerve cells called neurones. There are 3 types of neurons:
• Sensory/Receptor neurones – transmit impulses from sense organs to CNS
• Motor/Effector neurones – transmit impulses from CNS to effectors
• Intermediate/Relay neurones – found in CNS
a nerve fibre
A neurone consists of a cell body containing nucleus and nerve fibres.
Nerve fibres:
- There are 2 types of nerve fibres:
- Nerve fibre that transmits impulses away from cell body – axon
- Nerve fibre that transmits impulses towards cell body – dendrons
- The terminal branches at the ends of nerve fibres are called dendrites
- Nerve fibres are enclosed by a layer of fatty substances – myelin sheath
- Sheath serves as insulating layer
- It is surrounded by thin membrane neurilemma – providing nourishment for fibre
- It is not continuous like nerve fibres; it is seperated by nodes of Ranvier where
neurilemma sinks down and comes in contact with the fibre. The nodes speed up
transmission of impulses along fibre
The Central Nervous System
Nervous tissue of CNS has 2 distinct regions: grey matter and white matter
- Grey matter consists of cell bodies of neurons and forms outer layers of brains and
central portions of spinal cord.
- White matter consists of nerve fibres and forms the central part of brain and outer
layers of the spinal cord.
The Synapse
Electric pulses are transmitted from axon of a neuron to dendron of another neurone
across a small gap called synapse (a junction between 2 neurones)
Nerve impulses that reach axon end are converted to chemicals neurotransmitters
into the synapse. These chemicals trigger impulse in dendrites of following neurone.
If neurone ends in muscle or gland (effectors), the chemicals stimulate the effectors.
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The Brain of a Mammal Midbrain

Consists of optic lobes. They deal with input from various organs:
1. Relay messages from ears
2. Controls visual reflexes such as movement of eyeballs
3. Filters sensory input before they reach concious regions of brain (e.g. a mother can
sleep although there’s loud traffic noise but awake when her baby cries)

Hindbrain
Cerebellum lies behind optic lobes with many folds and is large.
- It controls muscular co-ordination especially in maintaining body balance

The mammalian brain is divided into 3 parts:
- Forebrain – includes cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus and pituitary gland
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain – consists of cerebellum and medulla oblongata
Forebrain
Cerebrum of brain is made up of 2 cerebral hemispheres – the largest parts in brain.
- They concerned with intelligence, memory, learning, voluntary actions & emotions
Medulla oblongata lies below cerebellum. Its posterior narrows down into spinal cord
- It controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood circulation and
contraction and relaxation of blood vessels. A direct blow here could cause death.
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
Spinal cord extends from medulla oblongata to end of vertebral columns.
Spinal nerves emerge at intervals along length of spinal cord. (PNS&CNS diagram)

Thalamus sorts data, suppresses signals and enhnces others before sending the
sorted information to appropriate brain centre for further interpretation and integration.

The floor of cerebral hemisphere is hypothalamus

- It controls and monitors body’s activities like thermoregulation & osmoregulation.
Other functions are:
• Controlling automatic nervous system (control involuntary actions in the body)
• Regulating food intake through hunger sensation
• Inducing sleep or wakefulness
• Controlling emotions
• Controlling endocrine system through its control of pituitary gland

Pituitary gland is attached to hypothalamus, secreting ADH and other hormones.

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Structure of the spinal cord:

- Has grey and white matter, where grey matter is inside while white matter outside
- In the middle of spinal cord runs a narrow central canal containing cerebrospinal
fluid which brings nutrients to the cord
- Relay/intermediate neurones lie in grey matter of spinal cord, where they form
synapses with receptor and effector neurones which enable impulses to be
transmitted from receptor neurones to effector neurones
Structure of the spinal nerves:
- Spinal nerve divides into 2 roots before it joins the spinal cord Spinal and Cranial Reflexes
• Dorsal roots join dorsal part of spinal cord and contain receptor neurones Spinial reflex actions are controlled by spinal cord.
 Cell body of the neurones aggregate in small swelling – dorsal root ganglion Cranial reflex actions are controlled by brain and usually occur in head region.
 The axon end in grey matter of spinal cord; dendron become sensory fibres in
dorsal root and spinal nerve Reflex Arc
• Ventral roots attached to ventral part of spinal cord and contain effector It is the nervous pathway by which impulses can travel from receptor to effector.
neurones Reflex arc consists of: - receptors
 Cell bodies of neurones lie in grey matter of spinal cord. - receptor neurone
 Axon leave spinal cord to enter ventral root and spinal nerve - reflex centre (spinal cord/brain)
- Nerve fibres from both roots converge into spinal nerve, where it contain both - effector neurone
receptor and effector neurones. It is called mixed fibre - effectors
- Spinal nerve subdivide into branches supplying nerve fibres to various parts of body
- Sensory and motor neurones soon separate going to their destinations Below is a simple reflex arc of the example given above
How these work hand-in-hand to make you feel someone touches your hand
- Receptors in hand stimulated – impulses transmitted through receptor neurons to
grey matter in spinal cord.
- Neurones in spinal cord conduct impulses to brain and the touch is felt when
impulses reach cerebrum
Voluntary Actions – the response to a specific stimulus with conscious control
Reflex Actions – immediate response to a specific stimulus without conscious control
The events of reflex action on the picture on the right is as follows:
1. Heat on object stimulates nerve endings (receptor) in the skin.
2. Impulses are produced. Impulses travel along receptor neurone to spinal cord.
3. In spinal cord, impulses are transmittes across synapse to relay neurone then Conditioned reflex
across another synapse to effector neurone. It is the reflex action to a fixed stimuli acquired from past experience
4. Impulses leave spinal cord along effector neurone to effector e.g.: Plums might be sour and not tasty for the first sight but once we tried it for a
5. Biceps muscle (effector) contracts to suddenly withdraw hand from the object. number of times, we find it mouth watering and salivary gland secretes saliva.
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12.2 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers in animals which assist the nervous system in
co-ordinating various parts of the body, ensuring they develop and work harmoniously

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Exocrine glands are glands having duct to carry the secretion to be poured out of the
body (e.g. salivary glands, sweat glands)

Endocrine glands are glands which do not have duct to carry the secretion. The
hormone secreted passes directly into bloodstream to be distrubuted around the
body. They secrete gland internally (e.g. adrenal glands, thyroid gland)
- Pituitary gland is the master gland whih secretes hormones which controls activity
of a particular gland
- Some glands don’t function until the organism reaches certain age e.g. gonads
- Divided into 2: short-lived hormone(adrenaline) and long-term hormone(thyroxine)

Hormonal and Nervous Control

Hormonal control serves as means of co-ordination within the body.
- Stimulus causes transmission of messages to target organ (effector)

Differences between nervous and hormonal controls

Nervous control
- Involves nervous impulses (electrical
signals)
- Impulses transmitted by neurones
- Quick response
- Response short-lived
- May be voluntary or involuntary
- Usually localized (only one target
organ affected)
Hormonal control
- Involves hormones (chemical substances)
- Hormones transported by blood
- Slow response
- Response may be short-lived or long-lived
- Always involuntary
- May affect more than one target organ

The table next shows endocrine glands and their secretion

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12.3 THE EYE Structure Function

Eyeball is located within a depression in the skull (the orbit) so only front part’s visible.
It’s attached to orbit by 6 rectus muscles for rotating eyeball without moving head.
Lies on the outer corner of the upper eyelid to secrete tears which
Tear gland
lubricates the eye and cleanse eye from dust particles
Tear duct Drains excess tears into nasal cavity
Eyebrow Shades eye & catches drops of sweat from entering to irritate eye
Eyelashes Stiff hairs along eyelids to trap dust particles and irritants
It’s the outermost layer of the eye which is a tough, white, fibrous
Sclera
coat, forming protective layer for eye and gives eye its shape
Transparent coat of eye on the visible outer part which allows light
Cornea
to pass through and refracted
Layer under sclera containing network of capillaries to nourish the
Choroid
eye and pigmented black to prevent total internal reflection of light
Anterior part of choroid which work with suspensory ligaments to
Ciliary muscles
alter the length and thickness of lens
Circular disc-shaped structure which gives eye colour and alters
Iris size of pupil to control the amount of light which can enter. This
also prevents excessive exposure to light which may damage eye
Pupil It’s a hole in the centre of iris which allows light to enter the eye
It’s the innermost layer of eye where image is formed as it
Retina
consists of photoreceptors connected to optic nerve
Also called fovea. It is a shallow yellow depression where cones
Yellow spot are most concentrated so it gives sharpest vision when light is
focused here.
Found just over optic nerve and has no photoreceptors so it’s
Blind spot
insensitive to light causing no image formed when light falls here
Watery fluid in the small chamber in front of iris and lens used to
Aqueous humour
refract light into the eye and keeps eyeball firm
Transparent jelly-like fluid in the large chamber behind the lens
Vitreous humour
used to refract light into the eye and keeps the eyeball firm
Optic nerve Transmit impulses to brain when retinal photoreceptors stimulated
Controlling pupil size

Structure Function
Conjunctiva Thin transparent membrane covering the exposed part of eyeball
Movable flap which can control the amount of light entering the
Eyelids eye, prevents mechanical damage to eyeball and spreads tears
throughout the eye to lubricate conjunctiva, everytime we blink

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Circular muscles arranged in circle around the pupil works antagonistically with Lens is adjusted by ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments (antagonistic muscles)
radial muscles arranged radially around the pupil so that light rays are accurately focused onto the retina

In dim light
Circular muscles relax while radial muscles contract, pulling the pupil to dilate,
maximising the amount of light entering the eye.

In bright light
Circular muscles contract while radial muscles relax, decreasing size of pupil to
prevent excessive light from damaging the retina.

About our Retina

The retina consists of light-sensitive cells – photoreceptors – where image is formed.

Photoreceptors:
(a) Rods
Contains visual purple which is a pigment helping for vision in dim light. The
pigment bleaches in bright light and hence when we look into the dark from bright
room, we may not be able to distinguish objects as it takes time for visual purple to
reform. The reform needs vitamin A, so without it, we may not be able to see in
dim light, suffering night-blindness.
(b) Cones
Contains less light-sensitive red, green and blue cones having separate pigments
which absorb different light wavelengths for colour vision in bright light. They work
together to create different colours hence completing spectrum of light on retina.
Controlling lens size for Accomodation
Accomodation means the ability of the eye to adjust the lens so that images of any
distances are formed accurately on the retina.
Light reflected from object falls onto retina after refracted by cornea and aqueous
humour and further refracted to converge and focus on retina by lens. The image
formed stimulates the rods or cones to create impulses to be transmitted via optic
nerve to the brain which interprets the impulses so that we can see it upright and
same size because real image formed on retina is inverted, reversed and diminished.
Focusing Distant Objects
Ciliary muscles relax to pull suspensory ligaments so that it contract and pull the lens
to flatten and becomes less convex. This allows the almost “parallel” distant light rays
to be less refracted so that it can be sharply formed on retina.
Focusing Near Objects
Ciliary muscles contract to slacken the pull on suspensory ligaments so that the lens
attached to it thickens and becomes more convex. This diverges the light rays further
so that images are formed sharply on retina.
The closer the object, the more ciliary muscles contract to make lens more convex so
that it can make the object as focused as possible on retina, but when the contraction
is at its maximum, if the object is placed any more nearer, the image will be blurred as
the lens can’t be further adjusted. The point where the image formed starts to blur is
near point of the eye.
END OF CHAPTER 12
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CHAPTER 13: SUPPORT, MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION 13.2 JOINTS

Support, Movement and Locomotion Joint is the location where 2 or more bones make contact for movement and support.
Support means the skeleton which holds up the body structure and shape. - Ball and socket joint located at shoulder, allows free movement in many planes.
Movement means the change in position of one body part in relation of another part. - Hinge joint is located at elbow which allows movement in one plane only.
Locomotion means the movement of the whole body from one place to another. (Refer Fig. 13.1 on previous page)

13.1 BONES 13.3 ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES

Functions of a Bone Antagonistic muscles are muscles which are usually arranged in pairs to work
- They act as levers by working hand-in-hand with muscles which provides force for together but producing opposite effects (e.g. biceps and triceps)
movement for locomotion.
- They support the body clear of the ground. Movement of Bones by Muscle at a Joint
- They provide protection (e.g. skull) Tendons are tough fibrous tissues which attach muscles to bones. They don’t stretch.
Ligaments are eleastic issues attaching bones to each other. They stretch a little.

When a muscle contracts, it shortens and when it relaxes, it gets to its original length
by contraction of another muscle in antagonistic pair because muscles can only pull,
that is, to contract/shorten. For example, muscles in your arm – biceps and triceps.
Biceps contracts while triceps relaxes when you raise your arm so that biceps pull
ligaments up your lower arm. Vice versa happens when you lower your arm.

END OF CHAPTER 13

Humerus runs from the shoulder to elbow as the longest forelimb bone. It connects
the scapula to lower arm bones

Radius is the bone on forearm extending from side of elvow to thummb and side
wrist. It is longer and bigger than ulna.

Ulna is placed at the middle side of forearm parallel to radius.

Scapula connects to humerus forming ball and socket joint.

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CHAPTER 14: USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS
14.1 INTRODUCTORY ON DRUGS
Drug is externally administered chemical substances that modifies/affects chemical
reactions in the body.
14.2 MEDICINAL DRUGS
- drugs taken under medical supervision to treat diseases, relieve pain and in surgery.
Antibiotics
- Antibiotics are chemicals, usually produced by certain bacteria and moulds, that are
used to treat many infectious diseases caused by microorganisms
• Antibiotics aren’t useful on viruses. When a person acquiring viral infection given
antibiotic: prevent him getting bacterial infection as his resistance is very lowered.
Four types of antibiotics:
- Penicillin made by fungus Penicillum. They interfere metabolic functions of
microorganisms from producing enzyme to synthesize their cell wall.
- Cephalosporins made by mould Cephalosporium. Useful against bacteria which
have developed resistance against penicillin.
- Tetracyclines made by bacterium Streptomyces aureofaciens. They attack a wide
variety of bacteria, therefore called broad-spectrum antibiotics.
- Erythromycins attack bacteria affected by penicillin. They are useful against
bacteria which have developed resistance against penicillin.
Antibiotics work in 2 ways:
- Prevents bacterium from making essential components of the cell wall which makes
it easier for body’s immune system to destroy it. E.g. penicillin
- Damages protein-producing machinery inside cytoplasm of bacterium, preventing it
from dividing. E.g. tetracycline
Anaesthetics and Analgesics
Anaesthetics are drugs that make body unable to feel pain, e.g. novoacain and
cocaine causes loss of sensation around injected area. Applied for tooth extraction.
Analgesics relieve pain without causing numbness/affecting consciousness, e.g.
aspirin relieves minor pain and reduces fever. If taken in large dose causes side effect
14.3 ALCOHOL
Alcohols are rapidly absorbed into bloodstream from intestine & broken down in liver
The Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System
- Alcohol is a depressant which slows down brain functions
• It causes increased anxiety
• It reduces nervous tension and worries and stimulates appetite
• It makes the drinker carefree as alcohol takes away his inhibitions
• It reduces the drinker’s self-control which causes a person to take personal and
social liberties which they may regret when alcohol effects have worn off.
- Increased consumption of alcohol creates observable effects of intoxication
• It causes slurred speech
• It causes blurred vision and poor muscular co-ordination – the person becomes
clumsy and unable to walk properly
• It deters the drinker’s judgement, e.g. he underestimates speed causing speeding
- More areas of brain are pulled, drinker becomes anaesthetized and unconscious
• High alcohol levels paralyzes medulla oblongata or hind brain, which controls
breathing and heartbeat, contributing to death
- Frequent consumption of alcohol makes a person addicted
• They neglect work & families - exhibit violent behaviours towards family members
• They commit crimes under influence of alcohol
The Effects of Alcohol on the Digestive System
• Stimulates acid secretion in stomach – increased risk of gastric ulcers
• Prolonged alcohol abuse damages liver leading to liver cirrhosis (disease in which
liver cells destroyed and replaced with fibrous tissues making liver less functioning).
It can cause haemorrhage in liver and liver failure – causing death
Withdrawal Symptoms
When a person stops drinking alcohol, they experience symptoms (e.g. illness, mental
disturbance, etc.) which makes it hard for them to give up their drinking habit.
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14.4 ABUSE OF DRUGS
Drug abuse can cause:
- Tolerance – condition where a person has to keep on taking more and more of a
drug to achieve the same effect
- Addiction/Dependance – condition where a person experiences withdrawal
symptoms (e.g. physical illness – nausea, vommiting, uncontrolled trembling;
mental disturbance – cause anxiety, depression) if he does not take the drug
Types of Drugs
Stimulant Drugs: These drugs stimulate CNS, e.g. cocaine, amphetamine.
- Amphetamines are used to counteract depression and hunger, and prevent fatigue
Depressant Drugs: Drugs which slows down brain functions and induce sleepiness.
- Alcohols and sleeping pills can make you sleepy
Hallucinogenic Drugs: These drugs cause a person to experience hallucinations,
illusion and distorted images.
- E.g. Marijuana, Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
Opiates: These are narcotic drugs which relieve pain and induce sleep and stupor.
- E.g. Opium, Morphine, Heroin
Heroin – The Opiate
Heroin is a powerful depressant which sedates and relieves pain
Danger
- User commit crime under drug influence as they need money to get heroin supply.
- User becomes rapidly addicted & needs larger dosage to produce same sensation
- User has to use the drug more often to avoid withdrawal symptoms (i.e. anxiety,
stomach upsets, sweating, goosebumps, watering of eyes, vommiting, diarrhoea,
convulsion, hallucinations and death), leading them to misery as they desperately
need to obtain more money for the drugs, so they turn to crime
- Injecting shared unsterilized and contaminated needles into vein results in
transmission of hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causing AIDS
(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
14.5 SMOKING
Why do young people smoke?
- They smoke as they believe smoking is a symbol of adulthood, under the effect of
advertisements from cigarette companies trying to give impression that maturity,
social status, happiness and success are linked with smoking.
- They smoke to cover their weaknesses such as failing in studies or sports.
- They smoke out of curiosity as they want to experience what smoking is all about,
but addictive drugs in smoke makes smokers difficult to give up smoking.
- They imitate their parents who smoke.
- They want to be accepted as members of group of friends who smoke as their
friends’ persistent teasing and urging make them not sporting enough if they don’t
smoke. This is called ‘peer group’ pressure.
A Goodbye From Being Socially Acceptable... Why Could This Happen?
Smoking’s no more considered fashionable due to harm to smokers & people around
- Scientists provide scientific evidence on harmful effects of smoking, therefore
making people aware of dangers of smoking to health.
- Smoking has been recognised to have been causing significant number of death
and disability around the world by lung and heart cancer.
- Smoking harms people around smokers by passive smoking, that is, non-smokers
breathe in smoke exhaled by smokers, exposing them to smoking-related diseases.
What is in That Smoke?
- Nicotine
This is addictive drug present in tobacco.
Profession:
• First stimulates the brain, making smoker feel alert and relaxes muscles, while
later dulls the brain and senses
• Causes release of adrenaline – increasing heartbeat rate and blood pressure
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• Makes blood clot easily – increasing risk of blood clots blocking blood vessels,
leading to heart attack if clots block coronary arteries, or stroke if clots block
capillaries of the brain
- Carbon Monoxide
Profession:
• Reduces the capacity of haemoglobin transporting oxygen
• Speeds fat deposition on inner arteries walls, narrowing lumen (atherosclerosis)
• Damage lining of blood vessels – increase tendency of blood clot & block vessels
- Tar
This is brown sticky substance that accumulates in lungs during smoking
Profession
• Cell division in lungs continuously replase air sacs membrane. Tar containing
many carcinogenic(cancer-causing) chemicals induces cells to divide at abnormal
rate. Uncontrolled multiplication of cells causes outgrowths of tissue (cancer)
which block off air sacs, reducing efficiency for gaseous exchange
• Paralyse cilia lining, preventing cilia removing dust particles from lungs & trachea
- Irritants (e.g. hydrogen cyanide, acrolein)
Profession:
• Paralyse cilia in air passages and weaken walls of alveoli
• Irritate cells lining air passages causing them to produce mucus which in turn
causes smokers’ cough which bursts the weakened walls of alveoli causing a
decrease in wall area as many minute alveoli coalesce to form reduced number of
enlarged alveoli, reducing surface for gaseous ecxhange in lungs. (emphysema)
Smoking-Related Diseases
- Lung cancer
Carcinogenic substances in cigarette smoke may cause abnormal growth of
bronchial tube wall. The growth blocks bronchial wall, making breathing difficult.
Without immediate treatment, the cancer may spread to other neighboring cells and
organs, increasing risk of mouth, throat, pancreas, kidney & urinary bladder cancer.
- Chronic bronchitis
epithelium lining bronchi inner surfaces to lungs become inflamed & narrowed, and
excessive mucus is produced, reducing air flow in air passages making breathing
difficult and forces a person to cough and sneeze persistently to clear air passages,
making lungs more likely infected by bacteria. It also increase production of pleghm.
- Emphysema
it is associated with chronic bronchitis and smoking. The partition walls between
alveoli break down due to intense coughing, enlarging air spaces and decreases
surface area of lungs, thus reducing absorption of oxygen. Lungs over-inflated with
air and lose elasticity and makes breathing difficult. The person spends lots of
energy to breathe & sneeze, and he suffers severe breathelessness/slight exertion.
Smoking and Pregnancy
Effect of Carbon Monoxide on fetus:
Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin which
cannot transport oxygen, reducing amount of oxygen reaching fetus through placenta.
Effect of Nicotine on fetus:
Nicotine causes arteries bringing blood to placenta narrower – food substances
reaching fetus is reduced. The mother suffers lack of oxygen or chronic bronchitis.
Dangers of smoking to fetus:
- Fetus brain development affected – child may have learning difficulties in later life
- Fetus grows more slowly causing underweight & may die within first few days of life.
- There is higher risk of baby born prematurely
- There is greater risk of miscarriage
- The baby has greater risk of being born dead.
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CHAPTER 15: MICROORGANISMS AND BIOTECHNOLOGY Mode of life:

15.1 MICROORGANISMS Types:
Viruses saprophytic – feed on decaying organic matter
Structure: parasitic – causing diseases on plants and animals
- Made up of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in protein coat autotrophic – manufactures food using energy from sun or inorganic matter

Mode of life: Respiratory System:

- Attacks on a living cell called host cell. Aerobic – requires oxygen for respiration
- Do not carry out living processes outside host cell, i.e. feed, respire, excrete, grow, Anaerobic – doesn’t require oxygen
reproduce, but inside host cell replicates by taking over biochemical systems of host Both aerobic and anaerobic – survives in conditions with and without oxygen.
cell and later bursts, releasing viruses to infect new cell.
Reproduction System:
Against virus: Binary fission – bacterial cell copies its DNA and splits in half to form two new cells.
- Natural immune system in body – antibodies, kill these. Antibiotics for bacteria only.
Fungi
Bacteria They are saprophytes which feeds on decaying organic matter
These are living cells visible under light microscope, bigger than viruses.
Structure: Structure:
- Has cell surface membrane, cytoplasm and cell wall.
- Has DNA which is bactrial chromosomes that contains genes of bacterium which
gives properties and characteristics as it doesn’t have nucleus as it has no nuclear
envelope. There are smaller rings of DNA – plasmids, which can be used as carrier.
- Most cannot move but some which moves has long, hair-like threads called flagella
which beats to enable bacteria move in fluid medium.

Types:
- Cocci (spherical shaped bacteria)
- Bacilli (rod shaped bacteria)
- Vibrio (comma shaped bacteria) <shown above>
- Spirilla (spiral shaped bacteria)
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CHAPTER 16: REPRODUCTION IN (a) ANIMALS AND (b) PLANTS Diploid Cell and Haploid Cell
16.1 INTRODUCTORY ON REPRODUCTION Diploid cells are cells containing complete number of chromosomes, i.e. 2n. They
Significance of Reproduction exist in pairs and can be found in all body cells.
Reproduction is the production of new individuals from the parents. It is important to Haploid cells are cells containing half the complete number of chromosomes, i.e. n.
prevent extinction of an organism. They are unpaired and found in gametes.

Gametes In humans, diploid number is 46 while haploid number in gametes is 23.

Gametes are sex cells produced by gonads of humans/plants.
Meiosis and Mitosis
Meiosis is the cell division by which gametes having haploid number are made from
parent cell. The diploid number of chromosomes is restored when gametes fuse to
form a zygote.
Mitosis is the cell division by which parent cells divide and multiply to form new cells
which are identical to parent cells and diploid.

16.2 REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Human body cell have 46 chromosomes in form of 23 pairs. One member of each pair
comes from one parent and another from other parent.

Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction In sperm or ovum, 2 nuclei of gametes of ovum and sperm from mother and father
Asexual Reproduction: produce genetically identical offsprings involving one parent fuse to form a zygote and each of them contain haploid number of chromosomes, i.e.
Benefit Drawback 23. Hence when they fuse, the haploid number of chromosomes adds up and zygote
A species with desired characteristics can There’s higher risk of having diseases – formed will have diploid number of 46 chromosomes. Then the zygote divides by
be produced in massive scale they don’t have genetic variation mitosis and puts the diploid number of chromosomes in all cells in the child except
ovum/sperm cell.
Sexual Reproduction: production of dissimilar offsprings by fusion of haploid nuclei
to form its diploid zygote 16.2a THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN REPRODUCTORY ORGANS
Differences between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction The Male Reproductive System
Sexual Asexual
Involves 2 parents Involves single parent
Offsprings are genetically different to their Offsprings are genetically identical to
parents their parents
Occurs by meiosis Occurs by mitosis
Involves fusion of nuclei of gametes No fertilization occurs
Shows genetic variations and has Absent or fewer genetic variation, so it
evolutionary significance has not much evolutionary significance
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Testes (sing: testis) are male gonads producing sperms from the coiled tubules and
testosterone (male sex hormone). Millions of sperms are produced per ejaculation.
Sperm/spermatozoon:
- Has a head of about 2.5 nanometre with large nucleus containing haploid set of
chromosomes, little cytoplasm and an acrosome, which is a sac containing enzymes
to break down the part of egg membranes so sperm can penetrate during fertilization.
- The middle piece contains mitochondria which provide energy for activity of sperm.
- Has a tail (flagellum) to enable sperm swim toward the egg.
Scrotum is pouch-like extension of the skin between the thighs where testis is kept.
They are outside the body as sperm development needs temperature lower than body
Epididymis stores the sperms temporarily in inactive form before entering sperm duct .
Sperm duct is a tube that transports sperm from testis to urethre
Seminal vesicle, prostate gland and Cowper’s gland secrete a slippery fluid which
mixes with sperms called semen to provide nutrients and enzymes to nourish the
sperms and activate them so that they swim actively.
Urethra is a tube passing through the centre of penis to the exterior.
Semen and urine don’t pass through at same time as the base of urinary bladder is a
circular band of muscle called sphincter muscles which prevents coming out of urine
during ejaculation.
Penis is erectile organ where erectile tissues and numerous blood spaces are present
When blood spaces filled with blood, penis becomes erect and hard.
The Female Reproductive System
Ovaries (sing: ovary) are female gonads producing ovum which develop inside
overies and female sex hormones (oegesterone and progesterone). Only one ovum
is produced per ovulation.
Ovum:
It is spherical with diameter of about 120 nanometre as largest cell in human body
containing large nucleus having haploid set of chromosomes, abundant cytoplasm
and a plasma membrane which is surrounded by an outer membrane.
Oviduct is a narrow muscular tube which transports ovum from ovary to uterus.
Fertilization occurs in here.
Uterus is where embryo is attached and develops. The inner lining (endometrium) is
soft and smooth which is broken down during menstruation.
Cervix is the lower circular lining of uterus which leads to vagina.
Vagina receives and deposits semen during intercourse and acts as birth canal.
Vulva is the opening of the vagina.
16.2b PUBERTY
Puberty is time of active growth in humans during a person stages from child to adult.
Reproductive system begins to work properly and secondary sex characteristics
brought about by sex hormones. In girls start at age 11 while in boys at age 14.
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16.2c FERTILIZATION

16.2d FAMILY PLANNING

16.2e SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Signs are observable and measurable
Symptoms are something that can be felt or described by patient.
=================================================================
Syphilis is an STD passed on by spirochete from infected partner.

16.3 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

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CHAPTER 17: HEREDITY A Conclusion

17.1 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
Understanding The Terms
Monohybrid inheritance – inheritance of one distinct features only (e.g. tall & short)
Trait – characteristics variation shown (e.g. tall/short, smooth/wrinkled, white/purple)
True-Breeding Plant – plants with particular trait that will only produce offspring of
that same trait only. (e.g. plant producing yellow seed produces plants producing
yellow seeds only)
P Generation – parental/initial generation
Fn Generation – n represents the order of filial generation, e.g. F1 represents first filial
generation, F2 represents second filial generation and so and so for.
Hereditary factors (or alleles) are responsible for transmission of characteristics.
These factors appear in pairs in cells of organisms, controlling characteristics of the
organisms. If the factors differ in the cell (i.e. one dominant, one recessive or
heterozygous), only dominant factor show its characteristics. The two factors in
each pair separate during gamete formation and each will contain either one of
the factors. The fusion of gametes restores the diploid zygote which unite at random
thus contain 2 factors and characteristic is predictable by rational number.
Let T as dominant factor (true-breeding yellow seed) and t as recessive factor (true-
breeding green seed).

Mendel experiment
By crossing true-breeding yellow seed plant with true-breeding green seed plant, all
yellow seed of F1 generation is produced. When F1 is self-pollinated, it produces
6,022 yellow seeds and 2,001 green seeds totalling 8,023 seeds. In ratio yellow to
green is 3:1. Since the F1 generation is always yellow by true-breeding seeds, yellow
trait is known as dominant while green is recessive.

Mendel performed same experiment with 6 other different traits:

Ratio of
Trait F1 Dominant F2 dominant to
recessive
purple/white? Purple Purple 705 purple 224 white 3:1
smooth seed/ 17.2 UNDERSTANDING GENETICAL TERMS
Smooth Smooth 5,474 smooth 1,850 wrinkled 3:1
wrikled seed? Gene is a unit of hereditary material in DNA of chromosome which shows the specific
yellow seed/ organism characteristic for that gene(e.g.in above, all genotypes are genes for color)
Yellow Yellow 6,022 yellow 2,001 green 3:1
green seed?
inflated pod/
Inflated Inflated 882 inflated 299 wrinkled 3:1 Allele is alternative form of the gene. Alleles for same gene (e.g. for color) appear on
wrinkled pod?
green pod/ same gene locus on each pair of homologous chromosome. (e.g. in above, T and t
yellow pod?
Green Green 428 green 152 yellow 3:1 are alleles for color genes)different genes homozygous recessive alleles
flowers on
On stem On stem 651 on stem 207 at tip 3:1
stem/ at tip? paternal r a B c D
tall/short? Tall Tall 787 tall 277 dwarf 3:1 heterozygous
Chromosome
Table 17.1 Mendel’s results maternal R A B c d alleles

alleles of Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010

homozygous
same gene
dominant alleles
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Chromosome is a thread-like structure in nucleus which carries genetic material of If the individual is heterozygous
the impending new organism as Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) molecule. Half of total offsprings show dominant trait while other half recessive trait in ratio 1:1

Dominant allele expresses itself whenever the allele is present in the genotype. A
dominant allele is denoted with capital letters, e.g. T

Recessive allele will express itself only if the genotype is homozygous recessive. A
recessive allele is denoted with lowercase letters, e.g. t

Homozygous means the two alleles of a gene pair is the same, e.g. TT, tt. A true-
17.4 INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE, CO-DOMINANCE AND MULTIPLE ALLELES
bred organism is always homozygous dominant, TT, or homozygous recessive, tt.
Incomplete dominance occurs when both alleles in gene pair is not dominant over
another as both exert repective effects so that phenotype of the organism is between
Heterozygous means the two alleles of a gene pair is different, e.g. Tt
those of their parents. Example: when red snapdragon crossed with white snapdragon
Phenotype is description of physical expression of a trait (e.g. height, eye color, etc.)
Let R to be red snapdragon allele and W as white snapdragon allele. Since there is no
dominance relationship, both alleles are represented by capital letters.
Genotype is genetic make up of an organism (e.g. TT or Tt for yellow, tt for green)
P phenotype pure-breeding red pure-breeding white
genotype RR WW
17.3 DETERMINING THE GENOTYPES
To test unknown genotype and find out if the organism is homozygous recessive, we
gametes R R W W
could just see the characteristic if it has positive recessive trait as it only appear if the
organism is homozygous for that trait. But what if the organism shows dominant trait?
F1 genotype RW RW RW RW
Test Cross
phenotype pink pink pink pink
This is crossing individual of unknown genotype with homozygous recessive individual
If the individual is homozygous dominant
F1 self-pollinate to produce F2
The offsprings all show dominant trait and all heterozygous. This can be worked out
Heterozygous
using Punnett square.
gametes R W
R RR RW
Heterozygous
W RW WW
Pure-bred red snapdragon is crossed with pure-bred white snapdragon. It produces
F1 generation of all pink flowers. F1 is self pollinated to produce F2 of red, white and
pink snapdragons in ratio 1:2:1
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Co-dominance is when both genes in heterozygous pair are equally expressed.

Multiple alleles is when a gene exists in 2 or more alleles.

Multiple alleles in rabbit fur

Let C as allele for full fur colour
a
c as allele for albinism
ch as allele for combined fur colour as in Himalayan

Through breeding experiments, it’s found that C is dominant over ca and ch, while ch
a a
is dominant over c . c is recessive to the other ones. In other words:
Allelic combinations Phenotype
CC, Cca, Cch Full fur colour
chch, chca Combined fur colour
a a
cc Albino

Co-dominance in multiple alleles in ABO blood system

A B O O
The allele for A, B and O blood groups are I , I and I respectively. I is recessive
A B
while I and I are co-dominant over each other, creating blood type AB. Humans Diagram:
posess 2 ABO alleles, one from each parent. Parent phenotype male female
Allelic combinations Blood types Inheritance module genotype XY XX
IAIA A Homozygous Dominant MEIOSIS
IAIO A Heterozygous Dominant gametes X Y X X
IAIB AB Co-dominant
IBIB B Homozygous Dominant
IB IO B Heterozygous Dominant
Offspring genotype XX XX XY XY
IOIO O Homozygous Recessive
phenotype female female male male
RATIO 1 : 1
17.5 IT’S A BOY! (OR A GIRL?)
A human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair as sex chromosome and the other Therefore the possibility is half total number of offspring will be male and other half is
22 are autosomes. The sex chromosomes determines gender of individual. One X female in the ratio 1:1.
chromosome is received by either gender from mother while the other chromosome
from the father might be Y to be a boy or X to be a girl. Therefore, a boy has sex 17.6 MUTATION
chromosomes pair of XY while girl has XX. During pregnancy, to find out gender of Mutation: sudden change in gene structure/chromosome number, may be inheritable.
Mutagens: mutagenic agents from external agents which speeds up rate of mutation.
fetus is carried out during.
E.g.: UV rays; alpha, beta and gamma radiations; formalin, LSD

Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010
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Albinism
This is caused by absence of pigments in skin, eyes and hair due to recessive
mutation caused by recessive albino allele. The hair and skin will be white while the 17.7 VARIATION
eyes will be red of blood vessel colour.
17.8 GENETIC ENGINEERING
Sickle-cell anaemia
This is due to slight chemical structural change in DNA. The sickle-cell allele is CHAPTER 18 – ORGANISMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
recessive hence it expresses itself only in homozygous recessive condition. The
mutated gene produces HbS, similar to HbA, but different in one amino acid.

HbS clump together forcing the disc shaped RBC into longer sickle-shaped RBC
which breaks more easily causing anaemia. Clumping reduces efficiency of oxygen-
carrying property of haemoglobin.

Heterozygous individuals have a dominant normal allele and a recessive sickle-cell

allele and will have fewer sickle-shaped RBC, enhancing survival probability. These
individuals are called carriers as they can pass the recessive allele to their offsprings
without showing sickle-cell anaemia symptoms.

Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome) – Mistakes while dividing

Down’s syndrome is a disorder due to mutation in chromosome number. There is an
extra copy of chromosome 21, which makes it consisting of 3 chromosomes in that
sequence. Usually, there are only 2 chromosome 21, making homologous pair. Since
it has 3 chromosome 21, it’s known as trisomy 21.

This mutation occurs during meiosis in ovary. The ovary receives 2 copies of
chromosome-21 from the mother instead of being haploid that when the ovary fuse
with the sperm, each sperm also contain chromosome-21 – but single from the father,
ends up of creating 3 chromosome-21. The possibility of this happening increases
with age of the mother. The baby may have these traits:
- Slanted eyes, flat round face, short stature
- Heart defects, respiratory infections
- Mild to moderate mental disability
- Poor muscle development and stunted growth, leading to death at young age

Copyrights AF/PS/2009/2010