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6th Edition

How Canadians
Govern Themselves

Eugene A. Forsey
Cover photos:
Library of Parliament/Mone’s Photography (flag)
Library of Parliament/Len Staples (Parliament Buildings)
Canadian Tourism Commission

How Canadians Govern Themselves


First Edition 1980
© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, 2005

Exemplaires en français disponibles également.


Library of Parliament Catalogue No. 1102EIP (04/2005)

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication


Forsey, Eugene A. (Eugene, Alfred), 1904-1991
How Canadians govern themselves
6th ed.
Issued also in French under title: Les Canadiens et leur
système de gouvernement.
Cover title.
ISBN 0-662-39689-8
Cat. no. X9-11/2005E
1. Federal government — Canada.
2. Canada — Constitutional history.
3. Federal-provincial relations — Canada.
4. Canada. Politics and government.
I. Canada. Library of Parliament. Public Information Office.
II. Title.
JL65.F67 2005 320.471 C2005-980079-8
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Preface
How Canadians Govern Themselves, first For information on how to obtain
published in 1980, explores Canada’s additional copies of this booklet,
parliamentary system, from the please contact:
decisions made by the Fathers of
Information Service
Confederation, to the daily work of
Library of Parliament
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House of Commons. Useful information Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0A9
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The book was initially commissioned Internet: www.parl.gc.ca
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State of Canada, which also published Information Centre at 125 Sparks Street.
the second edition. The House of
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while the fourth and fifth were Pour obtenir d’autres exemplaires de
published by the Library of Parliament. cette publication, renseignez-vous
This sixth edition was prepared by the auprès du :
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The ideas and opinions expressed in
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this document belong to the author or Parlement canadien au 125, rue Sparks.
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Preface

i
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Note on the Author


The Honourable Eugene A. Forsey was

Photo: Jean-Marc Carisse


widely regarded as one of Canada’s
foremost experts on the country’s
constitution.

Born in Grand Bank, Newfoundland, he


attended McGill University in Montreal
and studied at Britain’s Oxford
University as a Rhodes Scholar. He also
received numerous honorary degrees.

From 1929 to 1941, Mr. Forsey served as


a lecturer in economics and political
science at McGill.

In 1942, he became director of research


for the Canadian Congress of Labour
(CCL), a post he held for 14 years. From
1956 to 1966, he served as director of
research for the CCL’s successor, the
Canadian Labour Congress, and from
1966 to 1969, as director of a special
The Honourable Eugene A. Forsey,
project marking Canada’s centennial, a
1904-1991
history of Canadian unions from 1812
to 1902.
Regina Manifesto, the CCF’s founding
During most of his union career, declaration of policy.
he taught Canadian government at
Carleton University in Ottawa and, Mr. Forsey was appointed to the
later, Canadian government and Senate in 1970. He retired in 1979 at Note on the Author
Canadian labour history at the the mandatory retirement age of 75,
University of Waterloo. From 1973 to and in 1985 was named to the
1977, he served as chancellor of Privy Council. In 1988, he was named
Trent University. a Companion of the Order of Canada,
the highest level of membership. The
Mr. Forsey ran for public office Honourable Eugene A. Forsey died
four times for the Co-operative on February 20, 1991, leaving
Commonwealth Federation (CCF). Canadians a rich legacy of knowledge
In the 1930s, he helped draft the of how we are governed. iii
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Note on the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Parliamentary Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ITS ORIGINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
HOW IT OPERATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A Federal State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
OUR CONSTITUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Powers of the National and Provincial Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Canadian and American Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
The Rule of Law and the Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
The Institutions of Our Federal Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
THE QUEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
THE SENATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
THE HOUSE OF COMMONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
POLITICAL PARTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
THE PRIME MINISTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
THE CABINET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
THE SPEAKERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
What Goes On in Parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
OPENING OF A SESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
A WORKING DAY IN THE COMMONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
END OF A SESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Table of Contents

Provinces and Municipalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48


Living Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

iv
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Introduction
Governments in democracies are elected Governor General, except when the
by the passengers to steer the ship of Queen is in Canada.
the nation. They are expected to hold it
on course, to arrange for a prosperous The Governor General, who is now
voyage, and to be prepared to be thrown always a Canadian, is appointed by the
overboard if they fail in either duty. Queen on the advice of the Canadian
Prime Minister and, except in very
This, in fact, reflects the original sense extraordinary circumstances, exercises
of the word “government,” as its roots all powers of the office on the advice of
in both Greek and Latin mean “to steer.” the Cabinet (a council of Ministers),
which has the support of a majority of
Canada is a democracy, a constitutional the members of the popularly elected
monarchy. Our head of state is the House of Commons.
Queen of Canada, who is also Queen of
Britain, Australia and New Zealand, Canada is not only an independent
and a host of other countries scattered sovereign democracy, but is also a
around the world from the Bahamas federal state, with 10 largely self-
and Grenada to Papua New Guinea governing provinces and three territories
and Tuvalu. Every act of government is administered by the central government.
done in the name of the Queen, but the
authority for every act flows from the What does it all mean?
Canadian people.
How does it work?
When the men who framed the basis of The answer is important to every citizen.
our present written constitution, the We cannot work or eat or drink; we
Fathers of Confederation, were drafting cannot buy or sell or own anything; we
it in 1867, they freely, deliberately and cannot go to a ball game or a hockey
unanimously chose to vest the formal game or watch TV without feeling the
executive authority in the Queen, “to be effects of government. We cannot marry
administered according to the well or educate our children, cannot be sick,
understood principles of the British born or buried without the hand of
constitution by the Sovereign personally government somewhere intervening.
Government gives us railways, roads
Introduction

or by the Representative of the Queen.”


That meant responsible government, and airlines; sets the conditions that
with a Cabinet responsible to the House affect farms and industries; manages or
of Commons, and the House of mismanages the life and growth of the
Commons answerable to the people. cities. Government is held responsible
All of the powers of the Queen are now for social problems, and for pollution
exercised by her representative, the and sick environments. 1
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Government is our creature. We make


it, we are ultimately responsible for it,
and, taking the broad view, in Canada
we have considerable reason to be proud
of it. Pride, however, like patriotism,
can never be a static thing; there
are always new problems posing
new challenges. The closer we are to
government, and the more we know
about it, the more we can do to help
meet these challenges.

This publication takes a look at our


system of government and how it
operates.
Introduction

2
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Parliamentary
Government
the Senate; and an elected Lower
I TS O R I G I N S House, the House of Commons. For
Nova Scotia (which, till 1784, included every province there was a legislature,
what is now New Brunswick) was with a Lieutenant-Governor representing
the first part of Canada to secure the Queen; for every province except
representative government. In 1758, it Ontario, an appointed Upper House,
was given an assembly, elected by the the Legislative Council, and an elected
people. Prince Edward Island followed Lower House, the Legislative Assembly.
in 1773; New Brunswick at its creation The new Province of Manitoba, created
in 1784; Upper and Lower Canada (the by the national Parliament in 1870,
predecessors of the present Ontario and was given an Upper House. British
Quebec) in 1791; and Newfoundland Columbia, which entered Canada in
in 1832. 1871, and Saskatchewan and Alberta,
created by Parliament in 1905, never
Nova Scotia was also the first part of had Upper Houses. Newfoundland,
Canada to win responsible government: which entered Canada in 1949, came in
government by a Cabinet answerable without one. Manitoba, Prince Edward
to, and removable by, a majority of the Island, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
assembly. New Brunswick followed a and Quebec have all abolished their
month later, in February 1848; the Upper Houses.
Province of Canada (a merger of Upper
and Lower Canada formed in 1840) in
March 1848; Prince Edward Island in H OW I T O P E R A T E S
1851; and Newfoundland in 1855.
Parliamentary Government
The Governor General (and each
By the time of Confederation in 1867, provincial Lieutenant-Governor) governs
this system had been operating in most through a Cabinet, headed by a Prime
of what is now central and eastern Minister or Premier (the two terms
Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers mean the same thing: first minister). If a
of Confederation simply continued the national or provincial general election
system they knew, the system that was gives a party opposed to the Cabinet in
already working, and working well. office a clear majority (that is, more
than half the seats) in the House of
For the nation, there was a Parliament, Commons or the legislature, the
with a Governor General representing
the Queen; an appointed Upper House,
Cabinet resigns and the Governor
General or Lieutenant-Governor calls
3
How Canadians Govern Themselves

on the leader of the victorious party to If a Cabinet is defeated in the House of


become Prime Minister and form a new Commons on a motion of censure or
Cabinet. The Prime Minister chooses want of confidence, the Cabinet must
the other Ministers, who are then either resign (the Governor General
formally appointed by the Governor will then ask the Leader of the
General or, in the provinces, by the Opposition to form a new Cabinet) or
Lieutenant-Governor. If no party gets a ask for a dissolution of Parliament and
clear majority, the Cabinet that was a fresh election.
in office before and during the
election has two choices. It can resign, In very exceptional circumstances, the
in which case the Governor General or Governor General could refuse a request
Lieutenant-Governor will call on the for a fresh election. For instance, if an
leader of the largest opposition party to election gave no party a clear majority
form a Cabinet. Or the Cabinet already and the Prime Minister asked for a
in office can choose to stay in office and fresh election without even allowing
meet the newly elected House — which, the new Parliament to meet, the
however, it must do promptly. In either Governor General would have to say
case, it is the people’s representatives no. This is because, if “parliamentary
in the newly elected House who government” is to mean anything, a
will decide whether the “minority” newly elected House of Commons must
government (one whose own party has at least be allowed to meet and see
fewer than half the seats) shall stay in whether it can transact public business.
office or be thrown out. Also, if a minority government is
Parliamentary Government

Canada, 2005

2 3
4
1

Canada, 1867 1. Ontario


2. Quebec
3. New Brunswick
4 4. Nova Scotia
How Canadians Govern Themselves

defeated on a motion of want of If a Prime Minister dies or resigns, the


confidence very early in the first session Cabinet comes to an end. If this Prime
of a new Parliament, and there is a Minister’s party still has a majority in
reasonable possibility that a government the Commons or the legislature, then
of another party can be formed and get the Governor General or Lieutenant-
the support of the House of Commons, Governor must find a new Prime
then the Governor General could refuse Minister at once. A Prime Minister who
the request for a fresh election. The resigns has no right to advise the
same is true for the Lieutenant- Governor as to a successor unless
Governors of the provinces. asked; even then, the advice need
not be followed. If he or she resigns
No elected person in Canada above because of defeat, the Governor must
the rank of mayor has a “term” of call on the Leader of the Opposition to
office. Members of Parliament or of a form a government. If the Prime
provincial legislature are normally Minister dies, or resigns for personal
elected for not more than five years, reasons, then the Governor consults
but there can be, and have been, leading members of the majority party
Parliaments and legislatures that have as to who will most likely be able to
lasted less than a year. The Prime form a government that can command
Minister can ask for a fresh election at a majority in the House. The Governor
any time but, as already stated, there then calls on the person he or she has
may be circumstances in which he or decided has the best chance. This new
she would not get it. The Cabinet has Prime Minister will, of course, hold
no “term.” Every Cabinet lasts from the office only until the majority party has
moment the Prime Minister is sworn chosen a new leader in a national or
in till he or she resigns or dies. For provincial convention. This leader will
example, Sir John A. Macdonald was then be called on to form a government.
Prime Minister from 1878 until he died
in 1891, right through the elections The Cabinet consists of a varying
of 1882, 1887 and 1891, all of which number of Ministers. The national
he won. Sir Wilfrid Laurier was Prime Cabinet ranges from 20 to 40 members,
Minister from 1896 to 1911, right and provincial Cabinets from about 10
through the elections of 1900, 1904 and to over 30. Most of the Ministers have
1908, all of which he won. He resigned “portfolios” (that is, they are in charge Parliamentary Government
after being defeated in the election of particular departments — Finance,
of 1911. The same thing has happened Foreign Affairs, Environment, Health,
in several provinces. An American etc.), and are responsible, answerable
President or state Governor, re-elected, and accountable to the House of
has to be sworn in all over again. A Commons or the legislature for their
Canadian Prime Minister or Premier particular departments. There may also
does not. be Ministers of State, who normally

5
How Canadians Govern Themselves

assist Cabinet Ministers with a a motion to decrease a tax or an


particular responsibility or section of expenditure, and the House concerned
their departments. At times there have can pass it, though this hardly
also been ministers without portfolio, ever happens.
and Ministers of State responsible for
managing policy-oriented bodies
known as Ministries of State. In the
1990s, assisting ministers were
sometimes called Secretaries of State,
not be confused with historically
important departmental ministers once
known by the titles Secretary of State
for Canada or Secretary of State for
External Affairs.

The Ministers collectively are answerable


to the House of Commons or the
legislature for the policy and conduct of
the Cabinet as a whole. If a Minister
does not agree with a particular policy
or action of the Government, he or she
must either accept the policy or action
and, if necessary, defend it, or resign
from the Cabinet. This is known as “the
collective responsibility of the Cabinet,”
and is a fundamental principle of our
form of government.

The Cabinet is responsible for most


legislation. It has the sole power to
prepare and introduce bills providing
for the expenditure of public money
or imposing taxes. These bills must be
Parliamentary Government

introduced first in the House of


Commons; however, the House cannot
initiate them, or increase either the tax
or the expenditure without a royal
recommendation in the form of a
message from the Governor General.
The Senate cannot increase either a
tax or an expenditure. However, any
Member of either House can move

6
How Canadians Govern Themselves

A Federal State
A federal state is one that brings states, like the United States from
together a number of different political 1776 to 1789. But for our Fathers of
communities with a common government Confederation, the term emphatically
for common purposes, and separate did not mean that. French-speaking and
“state” or “provincial” or “cantonal” English-speaking alike, they said plainly
governments for the particular purposes and repeatedly that they were founding
of each community. The United States “a new nation,” “a new political
of America, Canada, Australia and nationality,” “a powerful nation, to take
Switzerland are all federal states. its place among the nations of the
Federalism combines unity with world,” “a single great power.”
diversity. It provides, as Sir John A.
Macdonald, Canada’s first Prime They were very insistent on maintaining
Minister, said, “A general government the identity, the special culture and
and legislature for general purposes the special institutions of each of
with local governments and legislatures the federating provinces or colonies.
for local purposes.” Predominantly French-speaking and
Roman Catholic, Canada East (Quebec)
The word “confederation” is sometimes wanted to be free of the horrendous
used to mean a league of independent threat that an English-speaking and
Photo: Library of Parliament

A Federal State

The Fathers of Confederation, Quebec Conference, 1864. 7


How Canadians Govern Themselves

mainly Protestant majority would also divided by deep divergences of


erode or destroy its rights to its language, economic interest, language, religion,
its French-type civil law, and its law and education. Communications
distinctively religious system of were poor and mainly with the world
education. Overwhelmingly English- outside British North America.
speaking and mainly Protestant, Canada
West (Ontario) was still smarting from To all these problems, they could find
the fact that Canada East members in only one answer: federalism.
the legislature of the united Province of
Canada had thrust upon it a system of The provinces dared not remain
Roman Catholic separate schools which separate, nor could they merge. They
most of the Canada West members had could (and did) form a federation,
voted against. Canada West wanted to with a strong central government and
be free of what some of its leaders Parliament, but also with an ample
called “French domination.” For their measure of autonomy and self-
part, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick government for each of the federating
had no intention of being annexed or communities.
absorbed by the Province of Canada, of
which they knew almost nothing and
whose political instability and incessant O UR C O N S T I T U T I O N
“French-English” strife they distrusted. The British North America Act, 1867,
was the instrument that brought the
On the other hand, all felt the necessity federation, the new nation, into
of union for protection against the existence. It was an Act of the British
threat of American invasion or American Parliament. But, except for two small
economic strangulation (for six months points, it was simply the statutory form
of the year, the Province of Canada was of resolutions drawn up by delegates
completely cut off from Britain, its main from what is now Canada. Not a single
source of manufactured goods, except representative of the British government
through American ports) and for was present at the conferences that
economic growth and development. So drew up those resolutions, or took the
the Fathers of Confederation were remotest part in them.
equally insistent on a real federation, a
real “Union,” as they repeatedly called The two small points on which our
it, not a league of states or of sovereign constitution is not entirely homemade
or semi-independent provinces. are, first, the legal title of our country,
A Federal State

“Dominion,” and, second, the provisions


The Fathers of Confederation were for breaking a deadlock between the
faced with the task of bringing together Senate and the House of Commons.
small, sparsely populated communities
scattered over immense distances. Not The Fathers of Confederation wanted
only were these communities separated to call the country “the Kingdom of
by natural barriers that might well have Canada.” The British government was
8 seemed insurmountable, but they were afraid of offending the Americans so it
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Library of Parliament

The Constitution Act, 1982 , came into force on April 17, 1982.

insisted on the Fathers finding another That the federation resolutions were
title. They did, from Psalm 72: “He shall brought into effect by an Act of the
have dominion also from sea to sea, British Parliament was the Fathers’
and from the river unto the ends of the deliberate choice. They could have
earth.” It seemed to fit the new nation chosen to follow the American example,
like the paper on the wall. They and done so without violent revolution.
explained to Queen Victoria that it was
“intended to give dignity” to the Union, Sir John A. Macdonald, in the
and “as a tribute to the monarchical Confederation debates, made that
principle, which they earnestly desire perfectly clear. He said: “...If the people
to uphold.” of British North America after full
deliberation had stated that...it was for
A Federal State

To meet a deadlock between the Senate their interest, for the advantage of
and the House of Commons, the British North America to sever the tie
Fathers had made no provision. The [with Britain],...I am sure that Her
British government insisted that Majesty and the Imperial Parliament
they produce something. So they did: would have sanctioned that severance.”
sections 26 to 28 of the Act, which have But: “Not a single suggestion was
been used only once, in 1990. made, that it could...be for the interest 9
How Canadians Govern Themselves

of the colonies...that there should be a Attempts to bring this about began in


severance of our connection....There 1927. Until 1981, they failed, not
was a unanimous feeling of willingness because of any British reluctance to
to run all the hazards of war [with make the change, but because the
the United States]...rather than lose federal and provincial governments
the connection....” could not agree on a generally acceptable
method of amendment. Finally, after
Hence, the only way to bring the more than half a century of federal-
federation into being was through a provincial conferences and negotiations,
British Act. the Senate and the House of Commons,
with the approval of nine provincial
That Act, the British North America Act, governments, passed the necessary
1867 (now renamed the Constitution joint address asking for the final British
Act, 1867), contained no provisions for Act. This placed the whole process of
its own amendment, except a limited amendment in Canada, and removed
power for the provinces to amend the last vestige of the British
their own constitutions. All other Parliament’s power over our country.
amendments had to be made by a fresh
Act of the British Parliament. The Constitution Act, 1867, remains the
basic element of our written constitution.
At the end of the First World War, But the written constitution, the strict
Canada signed the peace treaties as a law of the constitution, even with the
distinct power, and became a founding latest addition, the Constitution Act,
member of the League of Nations and 1982, is only part of our whole working
the International Labour Organization. constitution, the set of arrangements by
In 1926, the Imperial Conference which we govern ourselves. It is the
recognized Canada, Australia, New skeleton; it is not the whole body.
Zealand, South Africa, the Irish
Free State and Newfoundland as Responsible government, the national
“autonomous communities, in no way Cabinet, the bureaucracy, political
subordinate to the United Kingdom in parties: all these are basic features of
any aspect of their domestic or external our system of government. But the
affairs.” Canada had come of age. written constitution does not contain
one word about any of them (except for
This gave rise to a feeling that we that phrase in the preamble to the Act
should be able to amend our constitution of 1867 about “a Constitution similar
ourselves, without even the most formal in principle to that of the United
A Federal State

intervention by the British Parliament. Kingdom”). The flesh, the muscles,


True, that Parliament usually passed the sinews, the nerves of our
any amendment we asked for. But constitution have been added by
more and more Canadians felt this was legislation (for example, federal and
not good enough. The whole process provincial elections Acts, the Parliament
should take place here. The Constitution of Canada Act, the legislative assembly
10 should be “patriated” — brought home. Acts, the public services Acts); by
How Canadians Govern Themselves

custom (the Prime Minister, the Fourth, it vested the formal executive
Cabinet, responsible government,
political parties, federal-provincial
4 power in the Queen, and created the
Queen’s Privy Council for Canada (the
conferences); by judgements of the legal basis for the federal Cabinet).
courts (interpreting what the Act of
Fifth, it gave Parliament power to
1867 and its amendments mean); and
by agreements between the national 5 set up a Supreme Court of Canada
(which it did, in 1875).
and provincial governments.

Sixth, it guaranteed certain limited


If the written constitution is silent on all
these things, which are the living reality 6 rights equally to the English and
French languages in the federal
of our constitution, what does it say? If it
leaves out so much, what does it put in? Parliament and courts and in the
legislatures and courts of Quebec
Before we answer that question, we and Manitoba.
must understand that our written
Seventh, it guaranteed separate
constitution, unlike the American, is
not a single document. It is a collection 7 schools for the Protestant and
Roman Catholic minorities in Quebec
of 25 primary documents outlined in
the Constitution Act, 1982: fourteen Acts and Ontario. It also guaranteed separate
of the British Parliament, seven of the schools in any other province where
Canadian, and four British orders- they existed by law in 1867, or were set
in-council. up by any provincial law after 1867.
There were special provisions for
Manitoba (created in 1870), which
The core of the collection is still
proved ineffective; more limited guar-
the Act of 1867. This, with the antees for Alberta and Saskatchewan
amendments added to it down (created in 1905); and for Newfoundland
to the end of 1981, did 12 things. (which came into Confederation in
First, it created the federation, the 1949), a guarantee of separate schools
1 provinces, the territories, the national
Parliament, the provincial legislatures
for a variety of Christian denominations.
(Constitutional amendments have now
and some provincial Cabinets. changed the school systems in Quebec
and in Newfoundland and Labrador, as
Second, it gave the national the province of Newfoundland is now
2 Parliament power to create new
provinces out of the territories, and
officially known.)
A Federal State

Eighth, it guaranteed Quebec’s


also the power to change provincial
boundaries with the consent of the 8 distinctive civil law.
provinces concerned.
Ninth, it gave Parliament power to
Third, it set out the power of 9 assume the jurisdiction over property
3 Parliament and of the provincial and civil rights, or any part of such
legislatures. jurisdiction, in other provinces, provided
11
How Canadians Govern Themselves

the provincial legislatures consented. The final British Act of 1982, the Canada
This power has never been used. Act, provided for the termination of the
British Parliament’s power over
Tenth, it prohibited provincial
10 tariffs.
Canada and for the “patriation” of our
constitution. Under the terms of the
Canada Act, the Constitution Act,
Eleventh, it gave the provincial
11 legislatures the power to amend
the provincial constitutions, except
1982, was proclaimed in Canada and
“patriation” was achieved.

as regards the office of Lieutenant- Under the Constitution Act, 1982, the
Governor. British North America Act, 1867, and its
various amendments (1871, 1886, 1907,
Twelfth, it gave the national
12 government (the Governor-in-
1915, 1930, 1940, 1960, 1964, 1965, 1974,
1975) became the Constitution Acts, 1867
Council, that is, the federal Cabinet) to 1975.
certain controls over the provinces:
appointment, instruction and dismissal There is a widespread impression that
of Lieutenant-Governors (two have been the Constitution Act, 1982, gave us a
dismissed); disallowance of provincial “new” constitution. It did not. In fact,
Acts within one year after their that Act itself says that “the Constitution
passing (112 have been disallowed — the of Canada includes” fourteen Acts of
last in 1943 — from every province the Parliament of the United Kingdom,
except Prince Edward Island and seven Acts of the Parliament of Canada,
Newfoundland and Labrador); power of and four United Kingdom orders-in-
Lieutenant-Governors to send provincial council (giving Canada the original
bills to Ottawa unassented to (in which Northwest Territories and the Arctic
case they do not go into effect unless Islands, and admitting British Columbia
the central executive assents within one and Prince Edward Island to
year; of 70 such bills, the last in 1961, Confederation). Several of the Acts got
from every province but Newfoundland new names; two, the old British North
and Labrador, only 14 have gone America Act, 1867 (now the Constitution
into effect). Act, 1867), and the Manitoba Act, 1870,
suffered a few minor deletions. The
These are the main things the written part of the United Kingdom Statute of
constitution did as it stood at the end of Westminster, 1931, that is included had
1981. They provided the legal frame- minor amendments.
work within which we could, and did,
A Federal State

adapt, adjust, manoeuvre, innovate, The rest, apart from changes of name,
compromise, and arrange, by what are untouched. What we have now is
Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden not a new constitution but the old one
called “the exercise of the common- with a very few small deletions and
place quality of common sense.” four immensely important additions; in
an old English slang phrase, the old
12 constitution with knobs on.
How Canadians Govern Themselves

What are the big changes that and their residence qualifications; the
t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n A c t , 1 9 8 2 , m ad e constitutional position of the Supreme
Court of Canada (except its composition,
in our constitution?
which comes under the first formula);
First, it established four legal

1
the extension of existing provinces into
formulas or processes for amending the territories; the creation of new
the Constitution. Until 1982, there provinces; and, generally, the Canadian
had never been any legal amending Charter of Rights and Freedoms (which is
formula (except for a narrowly limited dealt with later).
power given to the national Parliament
in 1949, a power now superseded). Such amendments must be passed by
the Senate and the House of Commons
The first formula covers amendments (or, again, the Commons alone if the
dealing with the office of the Queen, Senate delays more than 180 days), and
the Governor General, the Lieutenant- by the legislatures of two-thirds of the
Governors, the right of a province to at provinces with at least half the total
least as many seats in the House of population of all the provinces (that is,
Commons as it had in the Senate the total population of Canada excluding
in 1982, the use of the English and
French languages (except amendments
Photo: ©NCC/CCN

applying only to a single province),


the composition of the Supreme Court
of Canada and amendments to the
amending formulas themselves.

Amendments of these kinds must be


passed by the Senate and the House of
Commons (or by the Commons alone,
if the Senate has not approved the
proposal within 180 days after the
Commons has done so), and by the
legislature of every province. This gives
every single province a veto.

The second formula is the


general amending formula. It includes
amendments concerning the withdrawal
A Federal State

of any rights, powers or privileges of


provincial governments or legislatures;
the proportionate representation of the
In this bronze sculpture on Parliament Hill,
provinces in the House of Commons; Emily Murphy, one of the “Famous Five”
the powers of the Senate and the who fought for women’s legal status as
method of selecting Senators; the persons, invites us to celebrate women’s
number of Senators for each province, equality, now enshrined in the Charter.
13
How Canadians Govern Themselves

the territories). This means that any The second big change made by
four provinces taken together (for
example, the four Atlantic provinces, or
the four Western) could veto any such
2 the Constitution Act, 1982, is that
the first three amending formulas
“entrench” certain parts of the written
amendments. So could Ontario and constitution, that is, place them beyond
Quebec taken together. The seven the power of Parliament or any
provinces needed to pass any provincial legislature to touch.
amendment would have to include at
least one of the two largest provinces of For example, the monarchy cannot now
Quebec or Ontario. be touched except with the unanimous
consent of the provinces. Nor can the
Any province can, by resolution of its governor generalship, nor the lieutenant-
legislature, opt out of any amendment governorships, nor the composition of
passed under this formula that takes the Supreme Court of Canada, nor the
away any of its powers, rights or right of a province to at least as many
privileges; and if the amendment it opts Members of the Commons as it had
out of transfers power over education Senators in 1982, nor the amending
or other cultural matters to the national formulas themselves. On all of these,
Parliament, Parliament must pay the any single province can impose a veto.
province “reasonable compensation.” Matters coming under the second
formula can be changed only with the
The third formula covers amendments consent of seven provinces with at least
dealing with matters that apply only to half the population of the 10.
one province, or to several but not all
provinces. Such amendments must be The guarantees for the English and
passed by the Senate and the House of French languages in New Brunswick,
Commons (or the Commons alone, if Quebec and Manitoba cannot be
the Senate delays more than 180 days), changed except with the consent both
and by the legislature or legislatures of of the provincial legislatures concerned
the particular province or provinces and the Senate and House of Commons
to which it applies. Such amendments (or the Commons alone, under the
include any changes in provincial 180-day provision). The guarantees
boundaries, or changes relating to the for denominational schools in
use of the English or French language Newfoundland and Labrador could not
in a particular province, or provinces. have been changed except with
the consent of the legislature of
The fourth formula covers changes in Newfoundland and Labrador; nor can
A Federal State

the executive government of Canada or the Labrador boundary.


in the Senate and House of Commons
(other than those covered by the first The amending process under the first
two formulas). These amendments can three formulas can be initiated by the
be made by an ordinary Act of the Senate, or the House of Commons, or a
Parliament of Canada. provincial legislature. The ordinary
14
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Act of Parliament required by the Equality rights (no discrimination


fourth formula can, of course, be
initiated by either House.
5 on grounds of race, national or
ethnic origin, religion, sex, age, or
mental or physical disability; again,
Third, the Constitution Act, 1982,

3
with provision for “affirmative action”
sets out the Canadian Charter of programs).
Rights and Freedoms that neither
Parliament nor any provincial legislature Official language rights.
acting alone can change. Any such
changes come under the second formula
6
Minority-language education rights
(or, where they apply only to one or
more, but not all, provinces, the third 7 in certain circumstances.
formula).
All these rights are, under section 1
of the Charter, “subject only to
The rights and freedoms such reasonable limits...as can be
guaranteed by the Charter are: demonstrably justified in a free and
Democratic rights (for example, the democratic society.” The courts decide
1 right of every citizen to vote for the
House of Commons and the provincial
what these limits are.

legislative assembly, and the right to The equality rights came into force
elections at least every five years, on April 17, 1985, three years after the
though in time of real or apprehended time of patriation of our constitution.
war, invasion or insurrection, the life of (This gave time for revision of the
a federal or provincial legislature may multitude of federal, provincial and
be prolonged by a two-thirds vote of territorial laws that may have required
the Commons or legislative assembly). amendment or repeal.)

Fundamental freedoms (conscience, The fundamental, legal and equality


2 religion, thought, expression, peaceful
assembly, association).
rights in the Charter are subject to a
“notwithstanding” clause. This allows
Parliament or a provincial legislature to
Mobility rights (to enter, remain in, pass a law violating any of these rights
3 or leave Canada, and to move into,
and earn a living in, any province subject
(except the equality right that prohibits
discrimination based on sex) simply by
to certain limitations, notably to provide inserting in such law a declaration that
for “affirmative action” programs for the it shall operate notwithstanding the fact
A Federal State

socially or economically disadvantaged). that it is contrary to this or that


provision of the Charter. Any such law
Legal rights (a long list, including can last only five years, but it can be
4 such things as the right to a fair,
reasonably prompt, public trial by an
re-enacted for further periods of five
years. Any such legislation must apply
impartial court). equally to men and women.
15
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Library of Parliament


The Charter guarantees four fundamental freedoms and six basic rights.

The official language rights make is “a sufficient demand” for the use of
English and French the official languages English or French or where the nature
of Canada for all the institutions of the of the office makes it reasonable.
government and Parliament of Canada
and of the New Brunswick government The minority-language education
and legislature. Everyone has the right
rights are twofold.
to use either language in Parliament
In every province, citizens of
and the New Brunswick legislature.
The Acts of Parliament and the New 1 Canada with any child who has
received or is receiving primary or
Brunswick legislature, and the records
and journals of both bodies, must be in secondary schooling in English or
both languages. Either language may French have the right to have all their
be used in any pleading or process in children receive their schooling in the
A Federal State

the federal and New Brunswick courts. same language, in minority-language


Any member of the public has the right educational facilities provided out of
to communicate with the government public funds, where the number of
and Parliament of Canada, and the children “so warrants.” Also, citizens
government and legislature of New who have received their own primary
Brunswick, and to receive available schooling in Canada in English or
16 services in either language where there French, and reside in a province where
How Canadians Govern Themselves

that language is the language of the rights or freedoms that exist in


English or French linguistic minority, Canada.” It declares also that nothing
have the right to have their children get in it “abrogates or derogates from any
their primary and secondary schooling rights or privileges guaranteed by or
in the language concerned, where under the Constitution of Canada in
numbers warrant. respect of denominational, separate or
dissentient schools.” These are, and
In every province except Quebec,
2 citizens whose mother tongue is
that of the English or French linguistic
remain, entrenched.

Before the Charter was added, our


minority have the right to have their written constitution entrenched certain
children get their primary and secondary rights of the English and French
schooling in the language concerned, languages, the Quebec civil law, certain
where numbers so warrant. This right rights to denominational schools
will be extended to Quebec only if the and free trade among the provinces.
legislature or government of Quebec Apart from these, Parliament and the
consents. provincial legislatures could pass any
laws they saw fit, provided they did not
Anyone whose rights and freedoms jump the fence into each other’s gardens.
under the Charter have been infringed As long as Parliament did not try to
or denied can apply to a court of legislate on subjects that belonged to
competent jurisdiction “to obtain provincial legislatures, and provincial
such remedy as the court considers legislatures did not try to legislate on
appropriate and just.” If the court subjects that belonged to Parliament,
decides that any evidence was obtained Parliament and the legislatures were
in a manner that infringed or denied “sovereign” within their respective
rights and freedoms guaranteed under fields. There were no legal limits on
the Charter, it must exclude such what they could do (though of course
evidence “if it is established that... provincial laws could be disallowed by
the admission of it...would bring the the federal Cabinet within one year).
administration of justice into disrepute.” The only ground on which the courts
could declare either a federal or a
The Charter (except for the language provincial law unconstitutional (that is,
provisions for New Brunswick, which null and void) was that it intruded
can be amended by joint action into the jurisdictional territory of the
of Parliament and the provincial other order of government (or, of
legislature) can be amended only with
A Federal State

course, had violated one of the four


the consent of seven provinces with at entrenched rights).
least half the total population of the ten.
The Charter has radically changed
The Charter is careful to say that the the situation. Parliament and the
guarantees it gives to certain rights and legislatures will, of course, still not be
freedoms are not to “be construed as allowed to jump the fence into each
denying the existence of any other other’s gardens. But both federal and 17
How Canadians Govern Themselves

provincial laws can now be challenged, Act shall operate “notwithstanding”


and thrown out by the courts, on the the Charter. Such an Act is limited to
grounds that they violate the Charter. five years, but can be extended for
This is something with which the renewed periods of five years. This
Americans, with their Bill of Rights allows a partial restoration of the
entrenched in their constitution, have sovereignty of Parliament and the
been familiar for over 200 years. For us, provincial legislatures, but has seldom
it was almost completely new. been used because of the political
consequences.
Plainly, this enormously widens the
jurisdiction of the courts. Before the The fourth big change made by
Charter, Parliament and the provincial
legislatures, “within the limits of
subject and area” prescribed by the
4 the Constitution Act, 1982, gives the
provinces wide powers over their
natural resources. Each province is
Constitution Act, 1867, enjoyed “authority now able to control the export, to any
as plenary and as ample as the Imperial other part of Canada, of the primary
Parliament in the plenitude of its production from its mines, oil wells,
power possessed and could bestow.” In gas wells, forests and electric power
other words, within those limits, plants, provided it does not discriminate
they could do anything. They were against other parts of Canada in
sovereign. The Charter ends that. It prices or supplies. But the national
imposes new limits. Parliament is still able to legislate on
these matters, and if provincial and
Section 1 of the Charter itself provides federal laws conflict, the federal will
some leeway for Parliament and the prevail. The provinces are also able to
legislatures. It says that the rights the levy indirect taxes on their mines, oil
Charter guarantees are “subject only to wells, gas wells, forests and electric
such reasonable limits prescribed by power plants and primary production
law as can be demonstrably justified in a from these sources. But such taxes must
free and democratic society.” The courts be the same for products exported to
decide the meaning of “reasonable” and other parts of Canada and products not
“demonstrably justified” and “a free and so exported.
democratic society.” Their decisions
have restricted how Parliament and the These four big changes, especially the
legislatures may use the powers they amending formulas and the Charter,
had before the Charter came into effect, are immensely important. But they leave
and the jurisprudence is still evolving. the main structure of government, and
A Federal State

almost the whole of the division of


The Charter also contains a provision powers between the national Parliament
that Parliament, or a provincial and the provincial legislatures, just
legislature, can override some important what they were before.
parts of the Charter by inserting in an
Act that would otherwise violate those Incidentally, they leave the provincial
18 provisions, a plain declaration that the legislatures their power to confiscate
How Canadians Govern Themselves

very few legislatures would dare to


try it, save in most extraordinary
circumstances: the Members who voted
for it would be too much afraid of being
defeated in the next election.

The Constitution Act, 1982, makes other


changes and one of these looks very
significant. The BNA Act gave the
national Parliament exclusive authority
over “Indians, and lands reserved for
the Indians,” and the courts have ruled
that “Indians” includes the Inuit. Until
1982, that was all the Constitution said
about the native peoples.

The Constitution now has three


provisions on the subject.
First, it says that the Charter’s
1 guarantee of certain rights and
freedoms “shall not be construed so as
to abrogate or derogate from any
Delivery of health services is the
responsibility of provincial and
aboriginal, treaty or other rights or
territorial governments, except in freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal
the case of those groups that fall peoples of Canada,“ including rights or
under federal jurisdiction, such as freedoms recognized by the Royal
aboriginal peoples, the Canadian Proclamation of 1763, and any rights or
forces and veterans. freedoms acquired by way of land
claims settlement.
the property of any individual or
Second, “The existing aboriginal
corporation and give it to someone else,
with not a penny of compensation to 2 and treaty rights of the aboriginal
peoples of Canada are hereby recognized
the original owner. In two cases,
Ontario and Nova Scotia did just that, and affirmed,” and the aboriginal
and the Ontario Court of Appeal ruled: peoples are defined as including the
Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples.
A Federal State

“The prohibition ’Thou shalt not steal’


has no legal force upon the sovereign
Third, in 1983, the amending formula
body. And there would be no necessity
for compensation to be given.” The
3 was used for the first time to add
to the aboriginal and treaty rights of
Charter does not change this. The only
Canada’s native peoples, rights or
security against it is the federal power
freedoms that already existed by way
of disallowance (exercised in the Nova
Scotia case) and the fact that today
of land claims agreements or that might 19
How Canadians Govern Themselves

be so acquired, and to guarantee all the Finally, the Act provides for English
rights equally to men and women. and French versions of the whole written
The amendment also provided that constitution, from the Act of 1867 to the
there would be no amendments to Act of 1982, which would make both
the constitutional provisions relating versions equally authoritative.
to Indians and Indian reserves, or
the aboriginal rights and freedoms
guaranteed by the Canadian Charter of
Rights and Freedoms, without discussions
at a conference of First Ministers with
representatives of the native peoples.
The amendment came into force on
June 21, 1984.

The Constitution Act, 1982, also contains


a section on equalization and regional
disparities. This proclaims: (1) that the
national government and Parliament
and the provincial governments and
legislatures “are committed to promoting
equal opportunities for the well-being
of Canadians, furthering economic
development to reduce disparities in
opportunities, and providing essential
public services of reasonable quality
to all Canadians”; and (2) that the
government and Parliament of Canada
“are committed to the principle of
making equalization payments to
ensure that provincial governments
have sufficient revenues to provide
reasonably comparable levels of public
services at reasonably comparable levels
of taxation.”

The 1982 Act also provides that the


guarantees for the English and French
A Federal State

languages do not abrogate or derogate


from any legal or customary right
or privilege enjoyed by any other
language, and that the Charter shall be
interpreted “in a manner consistent
with the preservation and enhancement
20 of the multicultural heritage of Canada.”
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Powers of the
National and Provincial
Governments
The national Parliament has power “to licences for provincial and municipal
make laws for the peace, order and revenue purposes, local works and
good government of Canada,” except undertakings (with certain exceptions),
for “subjects assigned exclusively to incorporation of provincial companies,
the legislatures of the provinces.” The solemnization of marriage, property and
provincial legislatures have power over civil rights in the province, the creation
direct taxation in the province for of courts and the administration of
provincial purposes, natural resources, justice, fines and penalties for breaking
prisons (except penitentiaries), charitable provincial laws, matters of a merely
institutions, hospitals (except marine local or private nature in the province,
hospitals), municipal institutions, and education (subject to certain rights

Powers of the National and Provincial Governments

The provincial legislatures have the constitutional right of direct taxation


for areas under provincial jurisdiction, such as education. 21
How Canadians Govern Themselves

of the Protestant and Roman Catholic By virtue of the Constitution Act, 1867,
minorities in some provinces). everything not mentioned as belonging
to the provincial legislatures comes
Subject to the limitations imposed by under the national Parliament.
the Constitution Act, 1982, the provinces
can amend their own constitutions by This looks like an immensely wide
an ordinary Act of the legislature. They power. It is not, in fact, as wide as
cannot touch the office of Lieutenant- it looks, because the courts have
Governor; they cannot restrict the interpreted the provincial powers,
franchise or qualifications for members especially “property and civil rights,” as
of the legislatures or prolong the lives covering a very wide field. As a result,
of their legislatures except as provided all labour legislation (maximum hours,
for in the Canadian Charter of Rights minimum wages, safety, workers’
and Freedoms. compensation, industrial relations)
comes under provincial law, except for
Of course the power to amend provincial certain industries such as banking,
constitutions is restricted to changes in broadcasting, air navigation, atomic
the internal machinery of the provincial energy, shipping, interprovincial and
government. Provincial legislatures are international railways, telephones,
limited to the powers explicitly given to telegraphs, pipelines, grain elevators,
them by the written constitution. So no enterprises owned by the national
provincial legislature can take over government, and works declared by
powers belonging to the Parliament of Parliament to be for the general
Powers of the National and Provincial Governments

Canada. Nor could any provincial advantage of Canada or of two or more


legislature pass an Act taking the of the provinces.
province out of Canada. No such power
is to be found in the written constitution, Social security (except for employment
so no such power exists. insurance, which is purely national,
and the shared power over pensions)
Similarly, of course, Parliament cannot comes under the provinces. However,
take over any power of a provincial the national Parliament, in effect,
legislature. established nation-wide systems of
hospital insurance and medical care by
Parliament and the provincial legislatures making grants to the provinces (or, for
both have power over agriculture and Quebec, yielding some of its field of
immigration, and over certain aspects taxes) on condition that their plans
of natural resources; but if their laws reach certain standards.
conflict, the national law prevails.
The courts’ interpretation of provincial
Parliament and the provincial legislatures and national powers has put
also have power over old age, disability broadcasting and air navigation under
and survivors’ pensions; but if their Parliament’s general power to make
laws conflict, the provincial power laws for the “peace, order and good
22 prevails. government of Canada,” but otherwise
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Courtesy of the Canadian Forces/MCpl Michel Durand


national powers: taxation, direct and
indirect; regulation of trade and
commerce (the courts have interpreted
this to mean interprovincial and
international trade and commerce);
“the public debt and property” (this
enables Parliament to make grants to
individuals — such as family allowances
— or to provinces: hospital insurance
and medicare, higher education, public
assistance to the needy, and equalization
grants to bring the standards of health,
education and general welfare in the
poorer provinces up to an average
national standard); the post office; the
census and statistics; defence; beacons,
buoys, lighthouses and Sable Island;*
navigation and shipping; quarantine;
marine hospitals; the fisheries;
interprovincial and international ferries,
shipping, railways, telegraphs, and other
such international or interprovincial
The constitution gives the federal “works and undertakings” — which the
Parliament exclusive power over

Powers of the National and Provincial Governments


national defence.
courts have interpreted to cover
pipelines and telephones; money and
banking; interest; bills of exchange and
has reduced it to not much more than an promissory notes; bankruptcy; weights
emergency power for wartime or grave and measures; patents; copyrights;
national crises like nation-wide famine, Indians and Indian lands (the courts
epidemics, or massive inflation (though have interpreted this to cover Inuit as
some recent cases go beyond this). well); naturalization and aliens; the
criminal law and procedure in criminal
However, the Fathers of Confederation, cases; the general law of marriage and
not content with giving Parliament divorce; and local works declared
what they thought an ample general by Parliament to be “for the general
power, added, “for greater certainty,” a advantage of Canada or of two or more
long list of examples of exclusive of the provinces” (this has been used

* The Fathers of Confederation evidently felt that Sable Island, “the graveyard of the Atlantic,” was such a
menace to shipping that it must be under the absolute control of the national government, just like lighthouses.
So they placed it under the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the national Parliament (by section 91, head 9, of
the Constitution Act of 1867). They also (by the third schedule of that Act) transferred the actual ownership
from the Province of Nova Scotia to the Dominion of Canada, just as they did with the Nova Scotia lighthouses. 23
How Canadians Govern Themselves

many times, notably to bring atomic


energy and the grain trade under exclu-
sive national jurisdiction). A 1940 con-
stitutional amendment gave Parliament
exclusive power over unemployment
insurance and a specific section of the
Act of 1867 gives it power to establish
courts “for the better administration of
the laws of Canada.” This has enabled
Parliament to set up the Supreme Court
of Canada and the Federal Court.

As already noted, the national


Parliament can amend the Constitution
in relation to the executive government
of Canada and the Senate and the
House of Commons, except that it
cannot touch the office of the Queen or
the Governor General, nor those
aspects of the Senate and the Supreme
Court of Canada entrenched by the
amending formulas.
Powers of the National and Provincial Governments

Though Parliament cannot transfer any


of its powers to a provincial legislature,
nor a provincial legislature any of its
powers to Parliament, Parliament can
delegate the administration of a federal
Act to provincial agencies (as it has done
with the regulation of interprovincial
and international highway traffic); and
a provincial legislature can delegate the
administration of a provincial Act to
a federal agency. This “administrative
delegation” is an important aspect of
the flexibility of our constitution.

24
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Canadian and
American Government
But under the Constitution, every
province except Quebec, New Brunswick
and Manitoba is absolutely free to have
as many official languages as it
pleases, and they need not include
either English or French. For example,
Nova Scotia could make Gaelic its sole
official language, or one of two,
three or a dozen official languages
Canada and the United States are in that province. Alberta could make
both democracies. They are also both Ukrainian its sole official language, or
federal states. But there are important Ukrainian, Polish and classical Greek
differences in the way Canadians and its three official languages. Quebec,
Americans govern themselves. New Brunswick and Manitoba also are
free to have as many official languages
One fundamental difference is that the
as they please, but they must include
United States is a country of one basic
English and French.
language and culture. Canada is a
country of two basic languages. The A second basic difference between our
Fathers of Confederation deliberately constitution and the American is, of
chose to make it so.

Canadian and American Government


course, that we are a constitutional
monarchy and they are a republic. That
Our official recognition of bilingualism
looks like only a formal difference. It
is limited, but expanding. For example,
is very much more, for we have
it was at the specific request of the
parliamentary-cabinet government,
New Brunswick government that the
while the Americans have presidential-
adoption of French and English as the
congressional.
official languages of that province was
enshrined in the constitution. Ontario,
which has the largest number What does that mean?
of French-speaking people outside What difference does it make?
Quebec, has provided French schools First, in the United States the head of
and an increasing range of services in state and the head of the government are
French for Franco-Ontarians. Several one and the same. The President is both
other provinces have taken steps in the
same direction.
at once. Here, the Queen, ordinarily
25
How Canadians Govern Themselves

represented by the Governor General, House of Congress. Neither can any of


is the head of state, and the Prime the members of his or her Cabinet.
Minister is the head of the Government. Neither the President nor any member
Does that make any real difference? of the Cabinet can appear in Congress
Yes: in Canada, the head of state can, in to introduce a bill, or defend it, or
exceptional circumstances, protect answer questions, or rebut attacks on
Parliament and the people against a policies. No member of either House
Prime Minister and Ministers who may can be President or a member of
forget that “minister” means “servant,” the Cabinet.
and may try to make themselves
masters. For example, the head of state Parliamentary-cabinet government is
could refuse to let a Cabinet dissolve a based on a concentration of powers.
newly elected House of Commons The Prime Minister and every other
before it could even meet, or could Minister must by custom (though not
refuse to let Ministers bludgeon the by law) be a member of one House or
people into submission by a continuous the other, or get a seat in one House or
series of general elections. The American the other within a short time of
head of state cannot restrain the appointment. All government bills
American head of government because must be introduced by a Minister or
they are the same person. someone speaking on his or her behalf,
and Ministers must appear in
For another thing, presidential- Parliament to defend government bills,
congressional government is based on a answer daily questions on government
separation of powers. The American actions or policies, and rebut attacks on
President cannot be a member of either such actions or policies.

Photo: Dianne Brydon


Canadian and American Government

26 Congress meets in the Capitol, in Washington, D.C.


How Canadians Govern Themselves

In the United States, the President and A President, accordingly, may have a
every member of both Houses is elected coherent program to present to
for a fixed term: the President for four Congress, and may get Senators and
years, the Senators for six (one-third of Representatives to introduce the bills
the Senate seats being contested every he or she wants passed. But each
two years), the members of the House House can add to each of the bills, or
of Representatives for two. The only take things out of them, or reject them
way to get rid of a President before the outright, and what emerges from the
end of the four-year term is for tussle may bear little or no resemblance
Congress to impeach and try him or to what the President wanted. The
her, which is very hard to do. It has majority in either House may have a
never been done, and has only been coherent program on this or that
three times even attempted. subject; but the other House can add to
it, or take things out of it, or throw the
As the President, the Senators and the whole thing out; and again, what (if
Representatives are elected for different anything) emerges may bear little or no
periods, it can happen, and often does, resemblance to the original. Even if the
that the President belongs to one party two Houses agree on something, the
while the opposing party has a majority President can, and often does, veto the
in either the Senate or the House of bill. The veto can be overridden only by
Representatives or both. So for years a two-thirds majority in both Houses.
on end, the President may find his or
her legislation and policies blocked by So when an election comes,
an adverse majority in one or both the President, the Senator, the
Houses. The President cannot appeal Representative, reproached with not
to the people by dissolving either having carried out his or her promises
House, or both: he or she has no can always say: “Don’t blame me! I sent
such power, and the two Houses are the bill to Congress, and the Senate (or
there for their fixed terms, come what the Representatives, or both) threw it

Canadian and American Government


may, until the constitutionally fixed out, or mangled it beyond recognition”;
hour strikes. “I introduced the bill I’d promised
in the Senate, but the House of
And even when the elections for Representatives threw it out or reduced
the presidency, the House of it to shreds and tatters (or the President
Representatives, and one-third of the vetoed it)”; “I introduced my bill in the
Senate take place on the same day (as House of Representatives, but the
they do every four years), the result Senate rejected it or made mincemeat
may be a Republican President, a of it (or the President vetoed it). Don’t
Democratic Senate and a Republican blame me!”
House of Representatives or various
other mixtures.

27
How Canadians Govern Themselves

So it ends up that nobody — not the Our Canadian system is very different.
President, not the Senators, not the Nobody is elected for a fixed term. All
Representatives — can be held really important legislation is introduced by
responsible for anything done or not the Government, and all bills to spend
done. Everybody concerned can honestly public funds or impose taxes must be
and legitimately say, “Don’t blame me!” introduced by the Government and
neither House can raise the amounts
True, a dissatisfied voter can vote of money involved. As long as the
against a President, a Representative or Government can keep the support of a
a Senator. But no matter what the voters majority in the House of Commons, it
do, the situation remains essentially the can pass any legislation it sees fit unless
same. The President is there for four an adverse majority in the Senate refuses
years and remains there no matter how to pass the bill (which very rarely
often either House produces an adverse happens nowadays). If it loses its
majority. If, halfway through the majority support in the House of
President’s four-year term, the elections Commons, it must either make way for
for the House and Senate return a government of another party or call a
adverse majorities, the President still fresh election. If it simply makes way
stays in office for the remaining two for a government of a different party,
years with enormous powers. And he then that government, as long as it
or she cannot get rid of an adverse holds its majority in the House of
House of Representatives or Senate by Commons, can pass any legislation it
ordering a new election. The adverse sees fit, and if it loses that majority,
majority in one or both Houses can then it, in its turn, must either make
block many things the President may way for a new government or call a
want to do, but it cannot force him or fresh election. In the United States,
her out of office. The President can President and Congress can be locked
veto bills passed by both Houses. But in fruitless combat for years on end. In
Congress can override this veto by a
Canadian and American Government

Canada, the Government and the


two-thirds majority in both Houses. House of Commons cannot be at odds
The House of Representatives can for more than a few weeks at a time.
impeach the President, and the Senate If they differ on any matter of
then tries him or her, and, if it so importance, then, promptly, there is
decides, by a two-thirds majority, either a new government or a new
removes him or her. No President has House of Commons.
ever been removed, and there have
been only three attempts to do it. In Presidential-congressional government
one, the Senate majority was too small; is neither responsible nor responsive.
in the second, the President resigned No matter how often either House
before any vote on impeachment took votes against the President’s measures,
place in the House of Representatives, there he or she stays. The President can
and in the third, although the President veto bills passed by both Houses, but
was impeached, he was acquitted by cannot appeal to the people by calling
28 the Senate. an election to give him or her a
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Library of Parliament/Tom Littlemore

The Senate and the House of Commons meet in the Parliament Buildings.

Congress that will support him or her. A third basic difference between our
Parliamentary-cabinet government, by system and the Americans’ is that
contrast, is both responsible and custom, usage, practice and “convention”
responsive. If the House of Commons play a far larger part in our constitution
votes want of confidence in a Cabinet, than in theirs. For example, the

Canadian and American Government


that Cabinet must step down and make President of the United States is
way for a new government formed by included in the written constitution:
an opposition party (normally the his or her qualifications for the position,
Official Opposition), or call an election the method of election, the method of
right away so the people can decide removal — all the essential powers of
which party will govern. office, in black and white, unchangeable
except by formal constitutional
An American President can be blocked amendment.
by one House or both for years on end.
A Canadian Prime Minister, blocked by The Canadian Prime Minister did not
the House of Commons, must either appear in the written constitution until
make way for a new Prime Minister, or 1982. The Constitution Act of that year
allow the people to elect a new House empowered the Prime Minister to call a
of Commons that will settle the matter, constitutional conference within one
one way or another, within two or three year, consisting of him- or herself and
months. That is real responsibility. the provincial Premiers and (for limited 29
How Canadians Govern Themselves

purposes) elected representatives of the the American Civil War, decided that
Yukon Territory and the Northwest “states’ rights” were precisely what
Territories, and another conference had caused it, and acted accordingly.
with the Premiers within 15 years.
“Here,” said Sir John A. Macdonald,
Our written constitution still contains “we have adopted a different system.
not one syllable on prime ministerial We have expressly declared that all
qualifications, the method of election or subjects of general interest not distinctly
removal, or (except for the calling of the and exclusively conferred upon the
constitutional conferences) the Prime local governments and legislatures
Minister’s powers. Nor is there anything shall be conferred upon the general
on any of these matters in any Act of government and legislature. We have
Parliament, except for provision of a thus avoided that great source of
salary, pension and residence for the weakness that has been the disruption
person holding the recognized position of the United States. We hereby
of first minister. Everything else is strengthen the central Parliament, and
a matter of established usage, of make the Confederation one people
“convention.” There is nothing in any and one government, instead of five
law requiring the Prime Minister or any peoples and five governments, with
other Minister to have a seat in merely a point of authority connecting
Parliament; there is just a custom that us to a limited and insufficient extent.”
he or she must have a seat, or get one
within a reasonable time. There is The Fathers also, as we have seen, gave
nothing in any law to say that a a long list of specific examples of
government that loses its majority in exclusive national powers. They further
the House of Commons on a matter of provided that the members of the
confidence must either resign (making Senate, and all judges from county
way for a different government in courts up (except judges of probate in
the same House) or ask for a fresh Nova Scotia and New Brunswick)
Canadian and American Government

general election. should be appointed by the national


government, and that all Lieutenant-
A fourth basic difference between the Governors of the provinces should be
American and Canadian systems is in appointed, instructed and removable
the type of federalism they embody. by the national government. They gave
The American system was originally the national government and Parliament
highly decentralized. The federal certain specific powers to protect the
Congress was given a short list of educational rights of the Protestant and
specific powers; everything not Roman Catholic minorities of the
mentioned in that list belonged to the Queen’s subjects. They gave the national
states “or to the people” (that is, was government power to disallow (wipe
not within the power of either Congress off the statute book) any Acts of
or any state legislature). “States’ rights” provincial legislatures, within one year
were fundamental. The Fathers of of their passage.
30 Confederation, gazing with horror at
How Canadians Govern Themselves

In both the United States and Canada,


however, the precise meaning of the
written constitution is settled by the
courts. In the United States the courts
have, in general, so interpreted their
constitution as to widen federal and
narrow state powers. In Canada, the
courts (notably the judicial committee
of the British Privy Council, which, till
1949, was our highest court) have in
general so interpreted the Constitution
Act, 1867, as to narrow federal power
and widen provincial power. The
result is that the United States is, in
actual fact, now a much more highly
centralized federation than Canada,
and Canada has become, perhaps, the
most decentralized federation in the
world. Nonetheless, the fact that under
our constitution the powers not
specifically mentioned come under
the national Parliament gives the
central authority enough strength and
leeway to meet many of the changed
and changing conditions the years
have brought.

Canadian and American Government

31
How Canadians Govern Themselves

The Rule of Law and


the Courts
Responsible government and federalism What keeps the various authorities
are two cornerstones of our system of from getting above the law, doing
government. There is a third, without things the law forbids, exercising powers
which neither of the first two would be the law has not given them?
safe: the rule of law.
The courts. If they try anything of the
sort, they will be brought up short by
What does the rule of law mean?
the courts.
It means that everyone is subject to the
law; that no one, no matter how
But what’s to prevent them from
important or powerful, is above the
law — not the government; not the
bending the courts to their will?
Prime Minister, or any other Minister; The great principle of the independence
not the Queen or the Governor General of the judiciary, which is even
or any Lieutenant-Governor; not the older than responsible government.
most powerful bureaucrat; not the Responsible government goes back
armed forces; not Parliament itself, or only about 200 years. The independence
any provincial legislature. None of of the judiciary goes back over 300 years
these has any powers except those to the English Act of Settlement, 1701,
given to it by law: by the Constitution which resulted from the English
Act, 1867, or its amendments; by a law Revolution of 1688. That Act provided
passed by Parliament or a provincial that the judges, though appointed by
The Rule of Law and the Courts

legislature; or by the common law of the King (nowadays, of course, on the


England, which we inherited, and advice of a responsible Cabinet), could
which, though enormously modified be removed only if both Houses of
by our own Parliament or provincial Parliament, by a formal address to the
legislatures, remains the basis of our Crown, asked for their removal. If a
constitutional law and our criminal judge gave a decision the government
law, and the civil law (property and disliked, it could not touch him or her,
civil rights) of the whole country except unless both Houses agreed. In the
Quebec (which has its own civil code). almost three centuries that have
followed, only one judge in the United
If anyone were above the law, none of Kingdom has been so removed, and
our liberties would be safe. none since 1830.
32
How Canadians Govern Themselves

The Constitution provides that almost With the inclusion of the Canadian
all our courts shall be provincial, that is, Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the role
created by the provincial legislatures. of the courts has become even more
But it also provides that the judges of important, since they have the tasks of
all these courts from county courts up enforcing the rights and of making the
(except courts of probate in Nova Scotia freedoms effective.
and New Brunswick) shall be appointed
by the federal government. What is Judges of the county courts can be
more, it provides that judges of the removed only if one or more judges of
provincial superior courts, which have the Supreme Court of Canada, or the
various names, and of the provincial Federal Court, or any provincial superior
courts of appeal shall be removable court, report after inquiry that they
only on address to the Governor have been guilty of misbehaviour, or
General by both Houses of Parliament. have shown inability or incapacity to
The Acts setting up the Supreme Court perform their duties.
of Canada and the Federal Court have
the same provision. No judge of any The Supreme Court of Canada,
Canadian superior court has ever been established by an Act of the national
so removed. All of them are perfectly Parliament in 1875, consists of nine
safe in their positions, no matter how judges, three of whom must come
much the Government may dislike any from the Quebec Bar. The judges are
of their decisions. The independence of appointed by the Governor General on
the judiciary is even more important in the advice of the national Cabinet, and
Canada than in Britain, because in hold office until they reach age 75. The
Canada the Supreme Court interprets Supreme Court has the final decision
the written constitution, and so defines not only on constitutional questions but
the limits of federal and provincial also on defined classes of important
powers. cases of civil and criminal law. It deals
also with appeals from decisions of the
provincial courts of appeal.

The Rule of Law and the Courts


Photo: Supreme Court of Canada /Philippe Landreville

The Supreme Court of Canada Building. 33


How Canadians Govern Themselves

The Institutions of Our


Federal Government
By the Constitution Act, 1867, “the Acts, but the assent is usually given by
executive government of and over the Governor General or a deputy, and
Canada is declared to continue and to provincial Acts by the Lieutenant-
be vested in the Queen.” She acts, Governor or an administrator.
ordinarily through the Governor
General, whom she appoints, on the The Governor General and the
advice of the Canadian Prime Minister. Lieutenant-Governors have the right to
The Governor General normally holds be consulted by their Ministers, and the
office for five years, though the tenure right to encourage or warn them. But
may be extended for a year or so. they almost invariably must act on their
Ministers’ advice, though there may be
Parliament consists of the Queen, the very rare occasions when they must, or
Senate and the House of Commons. may, act without advice or even against
the advice of the Ministers in office.

T HE Q U E E N
The Queen is the formal head of the T HE S E N A T E
The Institutions of Our Federal Government

Canadian state. She is represented The Senate usually has 105 members:
federally by the Governor General, 24 from the Maritime provinces (10
and provincially by the Lieutenant- from Nova Scotia, 10 from New
Governors. Federal Acts begin: “Her Brunswick, four from Prince Edward
Majesty, by and with the advice and Island); 24 from Quebec; 24 from
consent of the Senate and the House of Ontario; 24 from the Western provinces
Commons, enacts as follows”; Acts in (6 each from Manitoba, Saskatchewan,
most provinces begin with similar Alberta and British Columbia); 6 from
words. Parliament (or the provincial Newfoundland and Labrador; and 1
legislature) meets only at the royal each from the Yukon Territory, the
summons; no House of Parliament Northwest Territories and Nunavut.
(or legislature) is equipped with a There is provision also for 4 or 8 extra
self-starter. No federal or provincial Senators: 1 — or 2 — from the Maritime
bill becomes law without the Royal region, Quebec, Ontario and the West;
Assent. The monarch has, on occasion, but this has been used only once,
given the assent personally to federal in 1990.

34
How Canadians Govern Themselves

CANADA ’S SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT


PARLIAMENT
Queen
Represented in Canada by the Governor General
Executive
Branch
Senate Legislative
Appointed on the Prime Minister’s
Branch
recommendation
Prime Minister
and Cabinet House of Commons
Elected by voters
Government Opposition
Members Members

JUDICIARY
Supreme Court of Canada
Nine judges appointed by the Governor General

The Institutions of Our Federal Government


Federal Court Provincial
of Canada courts

The Senators are appointed by or have their property qualification,


the Governor General on the in the particular one of Quebec’s
recommendation of the Prime Minister. 24 senatorial districts for which they
They hold office until age 75 unless are appointed.
they miss two consecutive sessions
of Parliament. Till 1965, they held The Senate can initiate any bills except
office for life. Senators must be at least bills providing for the expenditure of
30 years old, and must have real estate public money or imposing taxes. It can
worth $4,000 net, and total net assets of amend or reject any bill whatsoever. It
at least $4,000. They must reside in the can reject any bill as often as it sees fit.
province or territory for which they are No bill can become law unless it has
appointed; in Quebec, they must reside, been passed by the Senate.
35
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Library of Parliament/Paul Couvrette


The Senate in session.

In theory these powers are formidable. individuals who would be affected by


The Institutions of Our Federal Government

But the Senate rarely rejects a bill the particular bill under review. This
passed by the House of Commons, committee work is especially effective
and has very rarely insisted on an because the Senate has many members
amendment that the House of with specialized knowledge and
Commons rejected. In other cases, the long years of legal, business or
Senate has not adopted bills before the administrative experience. Their ranks
end of a session, thereby effectively include ex-Ministers, ex-Premiers of
stopping them from becoming law. provinces, ex-mayors, eminent lawyers
and experienced farmers.
Most of the amendments the Senate
makes to bills passed by the In recent decades, the Senate has taken
Commons are clarifying or simplifying on the task of investigating important
amendments, and are almost always public concerns such as health care,
accepted by the House of Commons. national security and defence, aboriginal
The Senate’s main work is done in its affairs, fisheries, and human rights.
committees, where it goes over bills These investigations have produced
clause by clause and hears evidence, valuable reports, which have often led
36 often voluminous, from groups and to changes in legislation or government
How Canadians Govern Themselves

policy. The Senate usually does this kind constitution and the Electoral Boundaries
of work far more cheaply than royal Readjustment Act that allot parliamentary
commissions or task forces because its seats roughly on the basis of population.
members are paid already and it has a Every province must have at least as
permanent staff at its disposal. many Members in the Commons as
it had in the Senate before 1982. The
constituencies vary somewhat in size,
T HE H O U S E OF within prescribed limits.

COMMONS
The House of Commons is the major POLITICAL PARTIES
law-making body. In each of the Our system could not work without
country’s 308 constituencies, or ridings, political parties. Our major and minor
the candidate who gets the largest federal parties were not created by any
number of votes is elected to the House law, though they are now recognized
of Commons, even if his or her vote is by the law. We, the people, have created
less than half the total. The number of them ourselves. They are voluntary
constituencies may be changed after associations of people who hold broadly
every general census, pursuant to the similar opinions on public questions.
Photo: Library of Parliament/Roy Grogan

The Institutions of Our Federal Government

The House of Commons in session. 37


How Canadians Govern Themselves

The party that wins the largest number Opposition and its leader becomes the
of seats in a general election ordinarily person holding the recognized position
forms the Government. Its leader is of Leader of the Opposition. The Leader
asked by the Governor General of the Opposition gets the same salary
to become Prime Minister. If the as a Minister. The leader of any party
government in office before an election that has at least 12 seats also gets a
comes out of the election without a higher salary than an ordinary Member
clear majority, it has the right to meet of the House of Commons. These parties
the new House of Commons and see also get public money for research.
whether it can get enough support from
the minor parties to give it a majority. Why? Because we want criticism, we
This happened in 1925-26, 1962 and 1972. want watchfulness, we want the
possibility of an effective alternative
The second largest party (or the largest government if we are displeased with
party in the instance when the the one we have. The party system
government in office does not win the reflects the waves of opinion as they
highest number of seats but is able to rise and wash through the country.
form a government with the support of There is much froth, but deep swells
minor parties) becomes the Official move beneath them, and they set the
course of the ship.

Area Seats T HE P R I M E M I N I S T E R
As we have already noted, the prime
Ontario ............................................. 106
ministership (premiership), like the
Quebec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75 parties, is not created by law, though it
The Institutions of Our Federal Government

British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 is recognized by the law. The Prime


Minister is normally a Member of the
Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
House of Commons (there have been
Manitoba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 two from the Senate, from 1891 to 1892
Saskatchewan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 and from 1894 to 1896). A non-Member
can hold the office but, by custom, must
Nova Scotia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 seek election to a seat very soon. A
New Brunswick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Prime Minister may lose his or her seat
in an election, but can remain in office
Newfoundland and Labrador ........... 7
as long as the party has sufficient
Prince Edward Island ......................... 4 support in the House of Commons to
Northwest Territories ......................... 1 be able to govern, though again, he or
she must, by custom, win a seat very
Nunavut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
promptly. The traditional way of
Yukon Territory .................................... 1 arranging this is to have a Member of
the party resign, thereby creating a
Total 308
38 vacancy, which gives the defeated
Prime Minister the opportunity to run
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: ©NCC/CCN

The Prime Minister lives at 24 Sussex Drive, a home originally named Gorffwysfa,
Welsh for “a place of peace.”

in a by-election. (This arrangement is Prime Minister can advise the Governor


also generally followed when the General to remove that Minister and
Leader of the Opposition or other party the advice would invariably be followed.
leader is not a Member.) Cabinet decisions do not necessarily go
by majority vote. A strong Prime
The Prime Minister is appointed by Minister, having listened to everyone’s
the Governor General. Ordinarily, the opinion, may simply announce that his

The Institutions of Our Federal Government


appointment is automatic. If the or her view is the policy of the
Opposition wins more than half the Government, even if most, or all, the
seats in an election, or if the other Ministers are opposed. Unless the
Government is defeated in the House of dissenting Ministers are prepared to
Commons and resigns, the Governor resign, they must bow to the decision.
General must call on the Leader of the
Opposition to form a new government.

The Prime Minister used to be


T HE C A B I N E T
described as “the first among equals” in As mentioned, the Prime Minister
the Cabinet, or as “a moon among chooses the members of the Cabinet. All
minor stars.” This is no longer so. He of them must be or become members of
or she is now incomparably more the Queen’s Privy Council for Canada.
powerful than any colleague. The Prime Privy Councillors are appointed by the
Minister chooses the Ministers in the Governor General on the advice of the
first place, and can also ask any of them Prime Minister, and membership is for
life, unless a member is dismissed by
to resign; if the Minister refuses, the
39
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Library of Parliament/Doug Millar


Cabinet meets around this oval table.

the Governor General on the same Confederation, on occasion, people


advice. All Cabinet Ministers and former who were not members of either House
Cabinet Ministers are always members, have been appointed to the Cabinet,
as are the Chief Justice of Canada and but they had to get seats in the House
former chief justices and, usually, or the Senate within a reasonable time,
ex-Speakers of the House of Commons. or resign from the Cabinet. General
Various other prominent citizens can be McNaughton was Minister of National
made members simply as a mark of Defence for nine months without a seat
honour. The whole Privy Council as in either House, but after he had twice
The Institutions of Our Federal Government

such has never met. Only the Ministers failed to get elected to the Commons,
and a handful of non-Ministers attend he had to resign. Senators can be
the rare ceremonial occasions when the members of the Cabinet; the first
Privy Council is called together, such as Cabinet, of 13 members, had five
the accession of a new King or Queen. Senators. But since 1911, usually there
The Cabinet, “the Committee of the Privy has been only one Cabinet Minister in
Council,” is the Council’s operative the Senate, and that one without
body. portfolio, the leader of the Government
in the Senate.* (The Speaker of the
By custom, almost all the members of Senate does have the rank of Cabinet
the Cabinet must be Members of the Minister and is a member of the Privy
House of Commons, or, if not already Council.) Of course, no Senator can sit
Members, must win seats. Since in the House of Commons, and no

* Twice between 1979 and 1984, there were three or four Senators in the Cabinet. The Conservatives, in 1979,
elected very few MPs from Quebec, and the Liberals, in 1980, elected only two from the four Western

40 provinces. So both parties had to eke out the necessary Cabinet representation for the respective provinces by
appointing more Senators to the Cabinet.
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Member of the House of Commons can Quebec, normally from New Brunswick
sit in the Senate. But a Minister from the or Ontario, or both. It also used to be
House of Commons may, by invitation necessary to have at least one English-
of the Senate, come to that chamber and speaking (usually Irish) Roman Catholic
speak (though not vote). The same Minister. In recent years women have
opportunities are available to a Senator. won increased recognition and
Canada’s multicultural nature has been
By custom, every province must, if reflected in Cabinet representation from
possible, have at least one Cabinet Jewish and non-English, non-French,
Minister. Of course, if a province does ethnocultural minorities.
not elect any government supporters,
this becomes difficult. In that case, the
Prime Minister may put a Senator from T HE S P E A K E R S
that province into the Cabinet, or get
The Speaker of the Senate is appointed
some Member from another province
by the Governor General on the
to resign his or her seat and then try to
recommendation of the Prime Minister.
get a person from the “missing”
province elected there. In 1921, the The Speaker of the House of Commons
Liberals did not elect a single Member is elected by secret ballot by the House
from Alberta. The Prime Minister, itself after each general election. He or
Mr. King, solved the problem of Alberta she must be a Member of the House.
representation in the Cabinet by getting The Speaker is its presiding officer,
the Hon. Charles Stewart, Liberal decides all questions of procedure and
ex-Premier of Alberta, nominated in the order, controls the House of Commons
Quebec constituency of Argenteuil and staff, and is expected to be impartial,
then elected. Whether Mr. King’s ploy non-partisan and as firm in enforcing

The Institutions of Our Federal Government


would work now is quite another the rules against the Prime Minister
question. The voters of today do not as against the humblest opposition
always look with favour upon outside backbencher.
candidates being “parachuted” into
their ridings. The smallest province, Until recently, the Commons’ Speaker
Prince Edward Island, has often gone was, by custom, chosen from among
unrepresented in the Cabinet for years the Members of the party in power,
at a stretch. though there were cases (the most
recent in 1979) where a Speaker of one
By custom also, Ontario and Quebec party carried on after a change of
have 10 or 12 Ministers each, provided government, and one (1957) where the
each province has elected enough Government was ready to support a
government supporters to warrant Member from one of the minor parties.
such a number. Historically, at least A Speaker sometimes drops his or her
one Minister from Quebec was an membership in a party, and runs in the
English-speaking Protestant, and there next general election as an independent,
was at least one Minister from the
French-speaking minorities outside
although this has not recently been
the case.
41
How Canadians Govern Themselves

In 1985, the Commons adopted a new the Speaker is English-speaking, the


system whereby any Member, except Deputy Speaker must be French-
Ministers of the Crown, party leaders speaking, and vice versa. The Deputy
and anyone holding an office within has occasionally been chosen from
the House, may stand for election as the Opposition.
Speaker, and the election itself is
conducted by secret ballot in the
Commons Chamber. The system goes a
further step toward securing the
Speaker against any lingering suspicion
that he or she is the Government’s
choice and that the speakership is simply
one of a number of prime ministerial
appointments.

This new procedure also interrupts


the custom of an alternating French-
and English-speaking Speaker in the
Commons. This tradition in the Senate
has also been interrupted, for different
reasons. In the House of Commons, if

Photo: Canadian Heritage


The Institutions of Our Federal Government

42 The Queen performs many ceremonial duties when visiting Canada.


How Canadians Govern Themselves

What Goes On in
Parliament

Photo: Library of Parliament/McElligott Photography


OPENING OF A SESSION
If the opening of a session also marks
the beginning of a newly elected
Parliament, you will find the Members
of the House of Commons milling
about in their chamber, a body without
a head. On a signal, the great doors of
the Chamber are slammed shut. They
are opened again after three knocks,
and the Usher of the Black Rod arrives
from the Senate. He or she has been
sent by the deputy of the Governor
General, who is not allowed to enter “Evil to the one who thinks evil,” motto
the Commons, to announce that the of the Order of the Garter, is inscribed
Governor General desires the immediate on the Black Rod. It is used to knock
attendance of Honourable Members in on the door of the House of Commons
when it is summoned to the Senate.
the Chamber of the Honourable the
Senate. The Members then proceed to
the Senate Chamber, where the Speaker troop up again to stand at the bar of the
of the Senate says: “I have it in command Upper House. The Speaker of the House
to let you know that His Excellency of Commons then informs the Governor
[Her Excellency] the Governor General General of his or her election, and asks

What Goes On in Parliament


does not see fit to declare the causes of for the Crown’s confirmation of all the
his [her] summoning the present traditional rights and privileges of the
Parliament of Canada until the Speaker Commons. The Speaker of the Senate
of the House of Commons shall have delivers that confirmation, and the
been chosen according to law.” The Governor General delivers the Speech
Members then return to their own from the Throne, partly in English,
chamber and elect their Speaker. partly in French.

Once the Governor General arrives in The speech, which is written by the
the Senate, the Usher of the Black Rod Cabinet, sets forth the Government’s
is again dispatched to summon the view of the condition of the country
House of Commons, and the Members and the policies it will follow, and the 43
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: courtesy of Government House


Rideau Hall is the residence of the Governor General.

bills it will introduce to deal with that action by Parliament. So the moment
condition. The Members of the House the House came back from the Senate
of Commons then return to their own Chamber, the Prime Minister introduced
chamber, where, normally, the Prime Bill C-1, but this time no dummy; this
Minister immediately introduces a Bill time a bill to end the strike and send the
Respecting the Administration of Oaths railway workers back to work, and it
of Office. This is a dummy bill, never was put through all its stages, passed
heard of again till the opening of the by both Houses, and received Royal
next session. It is introduced to reassert Assent before either House considered
the House of Commons’ right to dis- the Speech from the Throne at all. Had
cuss any business it sees fit before con- it not been for the traditional assertion
What Goes On in Parliament

sidering the Speech from the Throne. of the right of the Commons to do
This right was first asserted by the anything it saw fit before considering
English House of Commons more than the speech, this essential emergency
300 years ago, and is reasserted there legislation would have been seriously
every session by a similar pro forma delayed.
bill.
The address in reply to the Speech from
This formal reassertion of an ancient the Throne is, however, normally the
right of the Commons has been of very first real business of each session (a
great practical use in Canada more than “sitting” of the House usually lasts a
once. In 1950, for example, a nation-wide day; a “session” lasts for months, or
44 railway strike demanded immediate even years, though there must be at
How Canadians Govern Themselves

least one sitting per year). A government record of decisions of the House. At
supporter moves, and another desks in the wide space between
government supporter seconds, a Government and opposition sit the
motion for an address of thanks to the proceedings monitors, English and
Governor General for the gracious French, who identify each speaker and
speech. The opposition parties move the person being addressed. This
amendments critical of the Government information complements the electronic
and its policies, and expressing want of recording of proceedings, which are
confidence in the Government. Debate published the next day. There is
on this address and the amendments is simultaneous translation, English and
limited to seven days, and ranges over French, for all speeches, and all the
the whole field of the nation’s business. proceedings are televised and recorded.

After certain routine proceedings, the


A W O R K I N G D AY IN House considers Government Orders
on most days. Every day the House sits
THE COMMONS there is a Question Period, when
At the beginning of each sitting of the Members (chiefly opposition) question
House, the Speaker takes the chair, the Ministers on government actions and
Sergeant-at-Arms lays the Mace (a policies. This is usually a very lively
gold-plated war club, symbol of the 45 minutes, and is a most important
House’s authority) on the long table in part of the process of keeping the
front of the Speaker, and the Speaker Government responsible and responsive.
reads the daily prayer. Government
supporters sit to the Speaker’s right, Most of the rest of the day is taken up
Members of opposition parties to the with bills, which are in fact proposed
left. The first few rows of desks on the laws. Any Member can introduce a bill,
government side, near the centre, are but most of the time is reserved for bills
occupied by the Prime Minister and the introduced by the Government.
Cabinet. Opposite them sit the Leader
One hour of each day is reserved for the
of the Official Opposition and the chief
consideration of any business sponsored
Members of his or her party.

What Goes On in Parliament


by a private Member, that is, by any
Depending on the number of Members
Member who is not part of the Cabinet.
elected from each political party,
government Members may be seated A Cabinet Minister or backbench
on the opposite side of the Chamber Member proposing a bill first moves for
with opposition members, or vice the House’s “leave” to introduce it. This
versa. The leaders of the other major is given automatically and without
opposition parties sit in the front row debate or vote. Next comes the motion
farther down the Chamber, at the that the bill be read a first time and
opposite end from the Speaker. At the printed. This also is automatic and
long table sit the Clerk of the House, without debate or vote. On a later day
and the Deputy Clerk, and the other
Table Officers, who keep the official
comes the motion for second reading. 45
How Canadians Govern Themselves

This is the stage at which Members passed. Any member of the committee
debate the principle of the bill. If it can move amendments. When all the
passes second reading, it goes to a clauses have been dealt with, the
committee of the House, usually a chairperson reports the bill to the
standing committee. Each such House with any amendments that have
committee may hear witnesses, and been adopted.
considers the bill, clause by clause,
before reporting it (with or without When a committee has reported the bill
amendments) back to the House. The to the House, Members at this “report
size of these committees varies from stage” may move amendments to the
parliament to parliament, but the various clauses (usually, amendments
parties are represented in proportion they have not had the opportunity to
to their strength in the House itself. propose in committee). When these
Some bills, such as appropriation bills have been passed, or rejected, the bill
(based on the Estimates), which seek to goes to third reading. If the motion for
withdraw money from the third reading carries, the bill goes to the
Consolidated Revenue Fund, are dealt Senate, where it goes through much the
with by the whole House acting as a same process. Bills initiated in the
committee. Senate and passed there come to the
Commons, and go through the same
Committees, sitting under less formal stages as Commons bills. No bill can
rules than the House, examine bills become law (become an Act) unless it
clause by clause. Each clause has to be has been passed in identical form by

Photo: Canadian Tourism Commission


What Goes On in Parliament

Both Senate and House of Commons committees discuss


46 issues around agriculture and agri-food.
How Canadians Govern Themselves

both Houses and has been assented to, examination of particular subjects,
in the Queen’s name, by the Governor including legislative committees whose
General or a deputy of the Governor mandate is solely to examine a particular
General (usually a Supreme Court piece of legislation. It also establishes,
judge). Assent has never been refused with the Senate, joint committees of the
to a federal bill, and our first Prime two Houses.
Minister declared roundly that refusal
was obsolete and had become
unconstitutional. In Britain, Royal E ND OF A SESSION
Assent has never been refused since 1707. When both Houses have finished a
session’s business, Parliament is
There are about 20 standing committees
“prorogued” until the next session,
(Agriculture and Agri-food, Canadian
which must, by law, come within a year.
Heritage, Transport, and so on) whose
members are appointed at the beginning
of each session or in September of each
year, to oversee the work of government
departments, to review particular areas
of federal policy, to exercise procedural
and administrative responsibilities
related to Parliament, to consider matters
referred to them by the House, and to
report their findings and proposals to
the House for its consideration.

Included in the work of standing


committees is the consideration of the
government’s spending estimates. The
Standing Orders provide for these
estimates to be sent to the committees
for review.

What Goes On in Parliament


Finally, standing committees are
designated as having certain matters
permanently referred to them (such as
reports tabled in the House pursuant to
a statute, and the annual report of
certain Crown corporations). Each of
these automatic Orders of Reference is
permanently before the committees,
and may be considered and reported on
as the committees deem appropriate.

The House of Commons can, and does,


set up special committees for the
47
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Provinces and
Municipalities
Every province has a legislative constituencies established by the
assembly (there are no Upper Houses) legislature roughly in proportion to
that is very similar to the House of population, and whichever candidate
Commons and transacts its business in gets the largest number of votes is
much the same way. All bills must go elected, even if his or her vote is less
through three readings and receive than half the total.
Royal Assent by the Lieutenant-
Governor. In the provinces, assent has Municipal governments — cities, towns,
been refused 28 times, the last in 1945, villages, counties, districts, metropolitan
in Prince Edward Island. Members of regions — are set up by the provincial
the legislature are elected from legislatures, and have such powers as
the legislatures see fit to give them.
Mayors, reeves and councillors are
elected on a basis that the provincial
legislature prescribes.

There are now roughly 4,000 municipal


governments in the country. They
provide us with such services as water
supply, sewage and garbage disposal,
roads, sidewalks, street lighting, building
codes, parks, playgrounds, libraries
and so forth. Schools are generally
Provinces and Municipalities

looked after by school boards or


commissions elected under provincial
education Acts.

Municipal governments take care


48 of city parks.
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Living Government
We are apt to think of government as We are concerned with the relations
something static; as a machine that was between French-speaking and English-
built and finished long ago. Actually, speaking Canadians, and with the
since our democratic government is division of powers between the federal
really only the sum of ourselves, it and provincial governments. We always
grows and changes as we do. have been. But the search for areas of
agreement and the making of new
Canada today is not the Canada of adjustments has been a continual
1867, and neither is the Act that made process from the beginning. The
it. It has been changed by many recognition of the French fact, which was
amendments, all originated by us, the limited in 1867, now embraces, in greater
people of Canada. How we govern or lesser degree, the whole of Canada.
ourselves has also been changed by All federal services must be available
judicial interpretation of the written where required in either language.
constitution, by custom and usage, and Federal, Quebec and Manitoba courts
by arrangements between the national have always had to be bilingual. New
and provincial legislatures and Brunswick is now constitutionally
governments as to how they would use bilingual. Criminal justice must now be
their respective powers. These other bilingual wherever the facilities exist or
ways in which our system has changed, can be made available.
and is changing, give it great flexibility,
and make possible a multitude of special The country’s resources grow; the
arrangements for particular provinces provinces’ and territories’ needs
or regions within the existing written change. Some are rich, others less well
constitution, without the danger of off. Federalism makes possible a pool-
“freezing” some special arrangement ing of financial resources and reduction
that might not have worked out well of such disparities. Yet there are always
in practice. areas of dispute, new adjustments
required, and special problems to be
There may still be many changes. Some met. Federal-provincial conferences,
Living Government

are already in process, some have been bringing together all the heads of
slowly evolving since 1867, and some government, are fairly new in our
are only glimmerings along the horizon. history. But they are now very frequent,
They will come, as they always do in and a major force in evolving new
the parliamentary process, at the hands solutions. Indeed, the Constitution Act,
of many governments, with the clash of 1982, required that the Prime Minister
loud debate, and with the ultimate convene such a conference within
agreement of the majority who cast
their votes.
15 years to review the procedure for
constitutional amendment.
49
How Canadians Govern Themselves

Photo: Elections Canada


in just and peaceful sharing, but how is
that to be achieved? We have gained for
ourselves a certain measure of
security for the aged and sick and
helpless, yet poverty is still with us. So
are regional disparities.

These are all problems of government,


and therefore your problems. They all
concern millions of people and are
therefore difficult to solve. Parliaments
and parties, like life, have no instant
remedies, but they have one common
aim. It is to get closer to you, to
determine your real will, and to
endeavour to give it form and thrust for
Voting is one way of participating action. That is the work you chose them
directly in our democracy. for, and it can be done in the end only
with your help. When you take an
interest in your community, when you
Historically, Canada is a nation founded form an opinion in politics, and when
by the British and the French. Yet it is you go to cast your vote, you are part
now a great amalgam of many peoples. of government.
They have common rights and needs,
and their own particular requirements
within the general frame of the law. All
these must be recognized. We are far
yet from realizing many of our ideals,
but we have made progress.

As a country we have grown richer, but


we have paid a price in terms of
environmental pollution. We are leaving
the farms and bushlands and crowding
into the cities. Ours is becoming a
computerized, industrialized, urbanized,
Living Government

and ever more multicultural society,


and we face the difficulties of adapting
ourselves and our institutions to
new lifestyles.

These changes have produced a new


concern for an environment that our
50 forebears took for granted. We believe
How Canadians Govern Themselves

A list of Governors General can be found at:


www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/people/key/gg/index.asp?lang=E&param=1

A list of Prime Ministers of Canada since 1867 can be found at:


www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/people/key/pm/index.asp?lang=E&param=ab

Or contact the Library of Parliament Information Service (see Preface, Page i).

51
Photo: Jean-Marc Carisse

Senator Eugene Forsey wanted us to


know how government works in Canada
for one very simple reason — there is
nothing Canadians do in any given day
that is not affected by how we govern
ourselves. As he says inside this booklet:
"We cannot work or eat or drink; we
cannot buy or sell or own anything; we
cannot go to a ball game or a hockey
game or watch TV without feeling the
effects of government. We cannot marry
or educate our children, cannot be sick,
born or buried without the hand of
government somewhere intervening."

Through this lively and readable


booklet, Senator Forsey has helped
tens of thousands of students, teachers,
legislators and ordinary citizens in
Canada and around the world
understand the Canadian system
of government.

Produced by
Library of Parliament, Canada

Printed in Canada

Library Bibliothèque
of Parliament du Parlement

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