on dt a ‘+ Afunction ean bethought of asa rule for generating vl- © An equation sich as f(e) = 28 +1 desrbes haw to es Pg naval or the independent variable ire amerclly manila the incoming salable (ere, ) quemly) and revive value for the dapendont ver tag the ott vale fc able frequent), We say that “y isa fetion of." | + Agraph represents function visual My = f(s) then a iattmceate, _atdwite y= J(2)—y eal J of loti ma pons (f(a he plane wl ge a tet The domain of fantom is the sto al allowable wal- pice ofthe fneton. Usual. the independent «enon ast of ordered pir (ep) sothat foreach | west en be plagued in forthe independent arale | eis epmeented horizontally ad the deren a sige be Thedomain ofthe function f(x) =! iallreatmum- | ableverticlly Aga, there nest ot bea singleton ers except fora fanetion deseribd graphy, ba the graph at thecaredanplne snc po tverteine | | ‘ents _ cra line cts the graph ofthe Septem vara. Be The rene f he anton mos one . ty sins isthe st of ll ea numbers beeen and CEES sade te ed inet + Uear Reon The omnton whore ph sane CA isa iovrdin thc y ns Euan, + Atala eps tacking wales (Hs tine of day)and | 73." he neh cet and he auton coveynding cet we (be tre of recto on | no fucn Gm Eco ens Thats yt tn ten | © cane: Rei Tint wi a non soaiin et deeb nen prrnbla fac! hr + cre qunrae ncn SIT ee SE ee con LOGRITHA RULE PaaS « is called the naturel logarithm and ix written Riemer nine lug. = In, The natura tog fle all agar ponents: in the expression a" = Pea isthebawe, nis Tes the exponent ‘Any logrithmie expression canbe writen in terms 1 isa eter, then 0 represents rept mpi ‘fatal logan using the change f base fr ula E ‘A eaton is et of order pas of ales (1) that “together Plted on the Cartesian plane relation ‘any set of points The unit ctl nthe plane is 9 "ealue there is mo moe than one yale, Pot on = (unless ¢=0) og, 1=U forall positive) ota Vii cin brbage | * HC # 1c anf ina! number iy, 02) en ESN logarithms: kg, b= nthe power to which you ise oe Teens ck ane pes or eomee ay k Moca Leni Ovhent = (onde, <0 ETE wen ang a= yi tom, Y= + nat a te leg, b The “canoe ‘ina pes nations naib apron 2:76 ten used ass base ar lagarthns. The logarithm base EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS Sa es leh ss often thought of as the avinte AERTS TITY (oes Seat esponetia funtion. Any exponential function con ANSE VM Cette [Anexponenil uncon has the hase equation fix) =o" bE Teeprensed with base «if fz) a, then, since GRY MMESSE YTD ieee Weak a joareaat es =H wehave f(z) =e". 1la> I,thenthe raphot Two points and the height of the asymptote ae sufclen to «Domain areal numbers Range: all postive numbers, | J(#) =: is dhe graph of f(x} = e* stretched is the 2 Fd the equation of an exponential graph, vnlecant at Areton bya Tator oo very exponential fneton as | If we know asymptote y= A yrinerept an pnt Behavior If hase «> 1, the faction is constantly the same basic shape (ein): The fonction is y= Cat +, where increasing: ft grows extremity fat for pie x, and Cig — Band ae the bse such that a”! — nl oye for ethe Lahegraph of f(z) =a" gowetacertbe per} eiych ie ori wparnnd if 1, then the function y=efla) te srt by a factor of HE e< then y= ef( a) compression bya factor of Horizontal AUstaces remain unchanged + Merizonal stretching, compresing: Ass, for postive «the faction y= f (=) is a hortoetal stretch ofthe om fe-< 1 compression se > 1) bya factor of, Veta stances remain the same igi fae REFLECTIONS OVER THE AXES Reflecting fonction over the ates rates anew fncton hich the same shape and sie as the orignal 1+ Reflection over the axis: The fonction y ~ —f(=) isa refletion ofthe orignal function over the sas. The ew fetion his the same domain athe orignal the range inthe negative of the original range + Reflection over the rons: The function y= f(z) isa efletion ofthe ig ral Sanction over he os, The new feton bas thesamerangeasthe oi inal; the domain is the ative of the orig wtf fla) fi-2). then A 10) called. even i \ Be cone fea een fone \W\ syle = 1-2, (2) calle 8 retin oer the i the fame asa reflection ove the ats Equivalents IM an of 7) rod the og wes J nung ein sana nti + Reflection over the ine yee Smite the re \/\ fond yin the y ‘uation the re V salting relation (Get of pints in atk —_ {he plane) i a fefletion over the line vet nev expression for the refleted ration is ‘funtion the terse funton, Se Belo 2 lfyon 8 EET ‘te function f(=) passes the “orion ine testi its domin={(3); over thes the ‘sue Yale twice—then 172) has unique iwersa f=!(s) whose domain i the range of f(s) and vice ora Poe ner polyoma n-ane varable can be eat the Simm 9.2" = fae ay. The constant het e On ae the coaicents spss sons connected by sea ae called Ym. Two terns are “ik form if thy insolve the sae peer eter can be col ested aelded oer ey sopeter onli the poibnomis, The {ee of te poms he highest omer of of any tem “Hert polsaoalis simple: hatter alle he ade Jngterm and isoetcent sthlaadg coer. Tete: Uh ineles no s the eae EM eT pba abe has degre, keaing tern. ean eee ‘eaten ery + Naot (ora 20} of abso i any nmr suc {hat ((0) ~ 0 Ona gph, this comesponds to tossing the axis 4+ ‘The demain of any polynomial function ial eal num bers. A graph ie acs “smth Kinks ‘+ pom of degre 1 wl have no more tha 1 — 1 um"chmsof dition inthe raph it cathe ass no mone than ines ands havea mst nt) The pom tin 2) = 2" ein eel ise, f(e) = 2" esto for neat and for postive. The range fall ol mbes The ftion srenenthe wade at 0 Wn ie Kee)" goes fff to sx for Aang both po itive negative The neon teal ‘Mtouthes the sant a = 0. [becomes ater near the origin and ter every ese for bo od al ven EEE The seach for roots plays bi coe Sn polynomial Is oct is the way 1+ Factor Theorem: If wat of the polyno), then wean express f(r) = [7 ~a)g(2 orsome other Pbomil (2) nate words. a roti and only it~ wa factor of 2). To we 1. Brey tae you id rat factor ont 2 the polsnomil and continue the hunt for rots on the quotient Whenever a polmonial has ina factor a +b thea 2 isa ost ‘+ Tofind the iver ftion, site the rlesol randy in the equation, eflectvely wing # ~ fy) sve for Fou eu sol for y "eves" then the function has se +b The verse funtion ‘+ Ge Exponential function y = «The inverse function iby =log, NOTE: IF (2) tales the same value more than once, we | esr the domain bore taking the ierse, Be = fn the whole rel tne has no inverse, but the funtion "= on the postive real ony asthe inverse = VF + Graphically, y= f-1(2) has the same shape as the ‘orginal faction, but sefeted ver the slanted Kine ye rBaey = 2 aly Properties of he inverse function 1 Thisa worsted inverse: 1 (f(e)) = = foral.ia the $2) and f(f-4(2)) = for all in the Amaia of JH) "rare nese futons ‘+ Theinveme ofthe inverse function isthe orginal ne sions (7!) @=Je > han OTA 1 gs pvr the rss loved yap oer ass mre song gael a OO cam thee ye —fice) te cron a fn ine Footie aanct eon Oat cb Se theencaeg oer ss rani The Gra Sepa wean marhastioegal Saoonean Rotlonel Roots Theor I the pti with sn ‘osfcent «and constant tr has a etna rot, then the tin the form where x na fat of and isa factor ofa + Tochekforraional mots the fics ofthe ed tng enolic and the facts ofthe ans en ‘Makwal the possbefrrtions= an phgtherm to ‘he lomo check ifthe are ts GENERAL POLYNOMIAL BEHAVIOR FOR LARGE |x| For ay payor fnetion of depres a get very large cither postvely or negatively the leading term will dominate and determin the beasioraf the function odserect Ye Teor {or Plynomiols: I (1) i © pelsnomial, and. for tome wo numbers and ‘we have fa) > 0 and 10) <0 (or ee vera), then the pohmomial fix) I hea rootbetween 2nd, emai ve Tore “hisses belive Totem that pana functions alas lve oot sap, 1+ Descartes’ Rule of Sighs The namr of positive al roots fa polyol f(s) ix to ran even umber les than the mumber og reversal in Real ros ander to Find . NERAL POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS (CONTINUED) fx: The polynomial — 24 452° + thas sign reversals, 0 ha 2 oF positive rat, + Als. thenumber of negative retsof f(s) equal to fr an even mer Iss than the numberof sig reversals in f(z). Be With f(z) ax above, S(-e)= ae? et G28 41a? 42 +8, See ‘ere is 1 sign reversal, f(z) must have exacts 1 ara ees Tint arent 1. Determine the behavior ofthe pmo fr lrg 2. ind al the roots you ca ©. Factor the polyoma as mach ax possible o fin roots and reduce tt erm of smaller degre. be Use the Rational Roots Theorem onthe unfatored ices to find all rtional ros. or each root, Avie out 2 ~ ato rece the degree € Use Descartes Re of Signs of the nermediate ‘Value Theorem to estinute number and leton of real outs 3. Pltall thera ots For each interval betwee the rns ‘ext pint tose ifthe gaps postive or negative on he Jura (A plgomil wl cosa opposed to tu) the -Faalsat rt a only smi ed) 4. Shetch the curve RATIONAL FUNCTIONS Arad sq ftw emis: f=) ‘wha g(2) nt the tw pina The dame fe a ‘on al el mums excep the rot 2) {= Anvanmplote ea line, offen vertical or orzo that a function gee very coe tbat never ite touter—as 4 arn ~~ (often bth) Ratoal anton wil ‘ore fen thin no ave teas one wri sempoe ‘+ On graph an asymptote will usually be mashed as 4 Ahashed ie Arational fenetion M2 wil erst the ras at al the ots ‘of pa) that are not eo rots of 1 "More realy, wil alo hve a ar at ft isa root ‘ofboth andy), but the mui of asa oko (2) rete th thea ofa a a ret of) This notation frequently used to deserbe the "end behay= for of funtion (ie what happens when js approaches c) or ta describe the funtion nenr plats where it ot ened (uch verti ansmpttee. sage: 1F/(2) =", thea f(2) — sear — ie fd, then fz) — In is even, fis) sas Notfion _Meoring Fox 2 erence witout bound Pox 7 decreases without bound | 25 neeases beth postive and negatively ea approaches a" getsclone toa wl staying greater than ¥ appraches from te right 10" pets ose toa while staying ess than approaches rm he let To Function /(2) has a vertical asymptote given bythe ear tion = a when the vale ofthe function increases ith outbound sr appraaes eur y205 ct otonal ncton tahoe 1 twother wor 2 = aa vet anaptte if(e) — 90 or fe) or z+". For rational fanetions f(z) 20 a8. fom bth sides, A rational function 42) ll hae averted asymptote at ves oo of 2) tht nor abo aot oF), 4 More precisely, 2 yl aso have vera asymptote = aie isa root ofboth px) and gz). but the mul ply of eas root of 92) seater than the mi lie of aa rot of 2). ‘+ Determining behavior of f(x) near yerteal asymptote 25 a: check the sign of f(2) (Bo need t compte val- ts ass Eset todo when both ‘numerator and denominator are eompletely factored + Ge The funetion /(2) = has. vera asymptote ¢ =. When = approaches from the le, eam and 2 — 0" De 1<0,243> Vand < 0.Sothesgnof fiz) 20k FThesignof fle) a8 Foor is GIGS Near 0, the — function looks ike the igure at right CES Function f(=) has a horzonal asymptote at bf JU) appreaces—but never reaches~the ine y = fo age ‘Mare precisely y= bis hoizontal asymptote tf) if f(a) — bass — 20 or 2 ~~. Fr rational fine tions, f(2) ~ Base — 30 om both sides 1 82) ie a rational funtion wih pls) and (2) polmomias With leading. terme eo" and bz, then: ou he y= Oisahorion- tal asrmptote Sinem, then y= ie 4 hori onal asymptote, te nom, then ‘ere are no hori- zontal asmptotes. both sides, the ak function behaves | sore and more a The the polyno Membr aie + Rational functions may approach their horizontal asymptote from above oF fom below (or fom bath the and elo) + vention foeton th borbomtal asmplotey Dv agproac but never reach fo ae 2 the anton may ‘rome ie = fore teaches is “appt be ioe sage CIEE WT the deqee of pz) ety eae i Ages of a) the the | ma fasion Bw tee an eaage” ha stove sew) emp: p= tote, + Tofind the tin ofa skew asp, se ong dv Son to expres | = ax +h “where the degree ‘of (a) is less than the degree of g(x). The line y= ar + bis askew asymptote forthe funtion PES {erica asrptotesdisropt the smoothness” of rapt inadrastc way, holes (echnical, removable continu tes") aze gaps where # fiction could have beet ‘wien defined smooth stn the etna ne tion fle) = 522, a {s' rot of bth 7(2) and gz) (with the same multipicy), then-even though fla) ie not defined ioctase denominator aia) =0-the tune: tion passes over the Point without major hitehes, leaving & smal ole ‘+ Note:The function x) = yea haw al the sae salus as gir) = Ly excep at = ~2:f(—2) unde fied, hile (2) Sa 1) ~ ina Suppose fz) — oval behavior: fTfp(z) and (2) have mo rots in common +f) wiles the ans teach rot of (2) + JG) wilt have a erica asymptote at ach root of 4 tf 2) and g(2) havea commen oot i he mut- ley of @ a a root of pas and «the muipity of a sea root of iz) Uf > a then f(2) comes the sania © ter-= shen J(2) has ale a $f < 6 then = a ina vera anymptote, Ed behavior {tf m+ Lethe the faction appre the raph of, J2"-" exyoptoticlyTRIG SUMMARY “rigonometriefunetions ae commonly th Wang angle # defines a point“ PG) onthe wnt ere Ostheanginand- A (0), 4 then Phas mcAOP 8 = “Pigenometc oncions are} defined in terms of = and, * the coordinates of point P. 2. Trigonometre fonctions are nso given by ratios of side lengths fa right triangle with tate angles and = 8. For > 5. apply the right tangle definitions to a refernce angle ii F< 0 ly == 0: i Sere Sot Gael, enh atch a sind | y | PE atten nam 1 ent) | 2 lates} Lt oe SoEAHAOA “Se «Opies Hye Cee ‘Nien one mens et rp i Aer tain nti re tine ice | Allteganometre fanetions are peg with pariod 2 fai, co ane) oe Ca com TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITS ‘Som and aiference formulas Sin( A B) = sin Acs it os A£ B) = con Acon Bsn Asia roe Asin B Doubl-ongle formulas sin(2A) = sin tos A ‘oe(2A) ~ coe A si? eo? A~1 = 1— 2a A Ht ongle formulas in 4 a ftaewd crema 4 a(S Prinogoreen identas state? A=1 tux?AS1=se?A bot A mca Spec wigonomai wales seq Hod sin? wand eo 0 oo 4 a5 1 or 4a one dened PEST Ea Sinutodal functions can be witten in the foom y= asin BG —h) + * isthe mpi. +k is the is the ‘overage value: hia between the foinkmum value of the function ‘+ § isthe peiod. There are cylin every inter. ‘length 2=, so ds the raqueny. +) is phase shit, or hos far the benning of the ‘pees fom the axis POLAR COORDINATES Polar coordinates describe « poin Pe=(r-0) on plan i terms of stance + fom the pole—suay, the , origin and the (counterclockwise) angle thatthe line OP makes withthe polar axially the poitive ass. Cotsion Toldentifya pont, eis xandand to corns, limit r > Dand0< 8-< 2c, although P= (rem. ind) ond Pao + From Cartesian polar r= Vier yr 0 = tan E ‘+ From polr fo Catesin: chan yr ordre salle’ eo. ree bod aa ante abs vee oe Cee a gapel t= 1s ct aioe a © ptt neee cagte mates tere es sme pe (09) ef Os eect poses wih path road nn pa sce Ee « ee aaree aon sinnd aad LUmagons and Cadi: The graphs of equation r= 1 eco and ace ealed magons. When ¢= | cared is “hea” shapes. Assume that is positive eT Tae + tmoginory numbors ar square rots of negative numbers ‘They are expressed as real multiples of (~ y=), + Complex umber areal numbers @ +b were w ad b ae ral Complex numbers areal ums and prods of real and imaginary numbers the limagon i called x + The complex conjugate of «+b is PT = «Bh Aino Wat oth, + The product ofa complex number anditsconjugateisa teal number (0 + Wa — 8) = 02 +b + Addon, subtraction, and muiplefion: Complex num: bers ae added and multiplied Uke polyoma, beeping ‘he eal and the imaginary pat separate: (ordi) a (c+ di) = (are) 2 (bray For multiplication, use 4 (a= ble di) = (ac — bd) + (ad + bei + Division: To divide one complex number by anaher, al ‘ipl top and bottom ofthe fraction by the conte of the denominator and simplify the numerator EI + Complex numbers can be represented as pints ona plane Gust like zeal aur bors ea be represented as palate on fine) The sum ber a + bi ie represented the point (00) +The horiootl axis the rect ela, Ponts on the recs represent real nambers 4+ ‘The vera ans isthe imaginary axis Points onthe yas + The complex conjugate ofa number Is eprsented by the + Theprodut ofa number and its conjuat the square of At aitance from the origin: (+ Ie 1 the limagon sain fer lop. 1f ™ . Sey the lim gon has lng (or Gent) ieee, the os isons comex ike "squashed" di) 1+ sin imagan sor ted up-down. The Jeop ison the bstom + eosine limagon i ent ett The aap se the ei P= 1+ ccondriht +The graphs of 7 ee radbsind and “eeeron Timagons stretched by a factor of [a em 8 ais pe isrevered AONE These ests guarantee symmetry but they are not exhaustive 1 sans symmetry: he equation unchanged when # Is replaced by —0, the grup is symmetric about the ass + pats ymmeny: Ifthe equation unchanged een Placed y+ 2 the graph ism about the ji. 1+ ign symmetry: fhe ston is unchanged when >is replaced by ~r he graph is symmetric about the org: the graph is uncanged when is rotate TN The graph ofthe function » = 8 graph» = /(0) bya counteracts + Thegraphoftie function’ = o/(0) sadiaton ofthe graph ofr = (0) by factor ofa is negative the graph is ako reece through the origin Same as 180" ration). 9) arotation ofthe aa ‘Tiganameticr platform of complex number somes fom ldentithing the points onthe complex plane wth pola coord rates Atuipcation and dissin are simple in hi form ‘tm wigonometie form, 2+ y! = eos + tsnd). Here, r= V2" + 9 inthe modus, or the distance ofthe point from the origin and # = area # i the argument othe angle thatthe ine OP makes eth the positives, Sometimes cos + isin @ ie abbreviated as cis? and this Potton ile“ nao, Par ARN utipiotin im =n) (rcs + in) Tara(catt = 6) +10, +6) notin (en Mra) ~ rial +0) + hin Incisrtation 88 + Delo Tecan to poem (eons fain] rend + fn) Incisnotton (ris) en. + Baracing roots: The complex sumber has exactly complex" roots (Here, isa postive inte- set andr is postive) The roots are yF(cos¢ = ising), Shore g ee esa, BE ‘The » complex roots of ros + isind) are evenly spaced othe cicle of radius YF cantered atthe oii ‘The easiest wa to find the 1 rots of any complex number +6: o covert tt tegonometie form and use this method