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NOTES ON
UNIT 4 - VIBRATION CONTROL
UNIT 5 - EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Specification of Vibration Limits Vibration severity standardsVibration as condition Monitoring tool-Vibration Isolation methods-Dynamic Vibration Absorber, Torsional and Pendulum Type
Absorber- Damped Vibration absorbers-Static and Dynamic
Balancing-Balancing machines-Fieldbalancing Vibration Control by
Design Modification- - Active Vibration Control
CONTENTS
PAGE NO
11
15
23
31
7.
33
8.
37
9.
Balancing machines.
41
10.
Field balancing
66
11.
67
12.
70
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
PART-A
PART-B
76
76
1.1
Note that by squaring the signal, its sign is eliminated and essentially the energy
level of the signal is used. The period T over which the squared signal is
averaged will depend on the problem and the nature of the signal. For a periodic
signal, one period is adequate for averaging. For transient signals, several time
constants (typically four times the largest time constant) of the vibrating system
will be sufficient. For random signals, a value that is as large as feasible should
be used.
In the method of rms value specification, the rms value of the acceleration
response (typically, acceleration in gs) is computed using equation (1.1) and is
then compared with the specified value.
In this method, instantaneous bursts of vibration do not have a significant effect
because they are filtered out as a result of the integration. It is the average
4
furthermore, the response of the system to the vibration excitations will depend
on its frequency transfer function, which determines its resonances and damping
characteristics. Under these circumstances, it is desirable to provide
5
and one form of motion can be easily converted into one of the remaining two
motion representations. In each of the forms, assuming that the two axes of the
nomograph are graduated in a logarithmic scale, the constant displacement,
constant velocity, and constant acceleration lines are straight lines.
Consider a simple specification of machinery vibration limits as given by the
following values:
Mounting
Drive
Category
Mounting
Drive
Category
Rigid Mounting
Rigid Drive
Rigid Mounting
Rigid Drive
II
Flex Drive
II
Flex Drive
III
Rigid Drive
II
Rigid Drive
III
Flexible
Mounting
Flexible
Mounting
Fle
ISO 10816 was released in August 2000, establishes the general conditions and
procedures for measurement and evaluation of vibrations using measurements
made on the non-rotating parts of machines. It also provides general evaluation
criteria related to both operational monitoring and acceptance testing
established primarily with regard to securing reliable long term operation of the
machine.
9
10
The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called Vibration
analysis.
Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with seismic or piezoelectric transducers.
To measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical
machines, with eddy-current transducers that directly observe the rotating
shafts to measure the radial (and axial) vibration of the shaft.
The level of vibration can be compared with historical baseline values such as
former startups and shutdowns, and in some cases established standards
such as load changes, to assess the severity.
One commonly employed technique is to examine the individual frequencies
present in the signal.
These frequencies correspond to certain mechanical components (for example,
the various pieces that make up a rolling-element bearing) or certain
malfunctions (such as shaft unbalance or misalignment). By examining these
frequencies and their harmonics, the analyst can often identify the
location and type of problem, and sometimes the root cause as well.
For example, high vibration at the frequency corresponding to the speed of
rotation is most often due to residual imbalance and is corrected by balancing
the machine. Beside all sensors and data analysis it is important to keep in
mind that more than 80% of all complex mechanical equipment fail
accidentally and without any relation to their life-cycle period.
signals, are used in pneumatic and hydraulic control applications and in ink-jet
printers. Miniature stepper motors based on the reverse piezoelectric
action are available.
Consider a piezoelectric crystal in the form of a disc with two electrodes plated
on the twoopposite faces. Because the crystal is a dielectric medium, this device
is essentially a capacitor thatcan be modeled by a capacitance C, as in equation
C=kA/x
13
Fig3.2 Shows Eddy current proximity sensor: (a) schematic diagram, and (b) impedance bridge.
16
While
/n = r
r= Frequency ratio
17
18
19
20
21
22
24
Now we are ready to plot the results. First,we will evaluate the effect of an
undamped dynamic absorber with the absorber tuned to the main system natural
frequency, so that the tuning ratio f = 1(damping ratio = 0). These results are
shown in Figure 3.
It is notable how the dynamic absorber cancels vibration at the resonance
frequency.
Instead, it creates two new natural frequencies, one below and one above the
original natural frequency. This happens because with the absorber the system
has two degrees of freedom and hence two corresponding natural frequencies.
25
The width between the two new natural frequencies depends on the mass ratio
. Figure 3 shows the response with two different mass ratios.
With a larger absorber mass the natural frequencies sit wider apart, so a wider
safe operating range around the original resonant frequency can be achieved.
However, the large absorber mass very quickly becomes impractical, especially
for large machinery. Figure 4 shows the two new natural frequencies in relation
to the mass ratio of the absorber.
By changing the tuning ratio of the absorber, the position of the two new natural
frequencies and a usable operating speed range between them can be further
adjusted. Figure 5 shows the effect of tuning on the natural frequencies of the
combined system with an undamped absorber (damping ratio = 0).
Two curves represent two absorber systems: one with the standard tuning ratio
f = 1 (blue lines), and the other one with the tuning ratio f = 1.4, representing
an over tuned absorber system (magenta lines). The over tuned absorber creates
a slightly higher low natural frequency, but significantly extends the range into
the area of high frequencies. Figure 6 shows the two natural frequencies of the
combined system in relation to the tuning ratio. By varying tuning and mass
ratios, a necessary operating speed range free of natural frequencies can be
achieved with an undamped DVA.
27
PROBLEMS:28
1.
29
2.
30
31
Lash: Lash in a drive train can cause torsional vibrations if the direction
of rotation is changed
The energy received by the absorber must be dissipated gradually and, hence,
some damping should be present in the absorber. Furthermore, as one will
notice in the following development, the two resonances created by adding the
absorber have an infinite magnitude in the absence of damping. Hence, damping
has the added benefit of lowering these resonant peaks as well.
The analysis of a vibratory system with a damped absorber is as straightforward
as, but bsomewhat more complex than, that involving an undamped absorber.
Furthermore, an extra design parameter the damping ratio of the absorber
enters into the scene. Consider the model shown in above Fig the transfer
function of vibration control can be taken as either ya /f or fs /f, the latter being
simply kp times the former.
Hence, one can consider the dimensionless case of fs /f, but the results are
equally valid for yp/f,except that the responses must be converted from force to
displacement by dividing by kp. There is no need to derive the transfer function
anew for the damped system. Simply replace ka in equation (12.101) by the
complex stiffness ka + jba, which incorporates the viscous damping
constant ba and the excitation frequency . Hence, the transfer function of the
damped system is
From 1 we get 2
1.
By solving above 2 eqns we get
& 2.
34
12.108
35
Fig shows
36
STATIC BALANCING
37
Static Balancing simply means the insurance of mass distribution about the
axis of rotation of the rotating mechanical part in the radial directions, without
consideration of that distribution in the axial (longitudinal) direction.
Consider a circular disk of perfect mass distribution, with the points A and B are
at two opposite positions on the circumference of the disk, but each is on one
of the faces of the disk, and suppose that a point mass with the same value is
fixed at each of the two points A and B.
CONDITIONS
The net dynamic forces acting on a shaft is equal to zero.
It deals only with the balancing of dynamic forces.
38
39
DYNAMIC BALANCING
Dynamic Balancing differs from static balancing in that the mass distribution of
the part is detected in all directions, and not only about the central axis; and so,
not only the magnitude of the unbalanced mass and its distance from the axis of
rotation are to be determined, but also its position in the axial (longitudinal)
direction of the rotational part
40
consider a disk rotating with an angular speed , with different out of balance
masses mi, each witheccentricity ei from the axis of rotation. These masses are
not expected to be in the same plane, but in different locations along the disks
axial direction; in addition, each mass will produce a centrifugal force making
an angle i with the reference horizontal direction in its own plane.
Choosing any plane as the reference for the otherplanes containing the eccentric
masses, such that each one of them is at distance ai from that reference plane.
And for simplicity, choose plane-1 as the reference plane, where a1 becomes
zero.
The dynamic balancing of a system to be achieved,then:
The resultant force of all centrifugal forces caused by the out of balance
masses should be zero (as in static balancing).
And so, after choosing a reference plane, translate all the centrifugal forces in
the other planes to that plane as forces (miei2) and moments (aimiei2), and
there you can apply the vector summation of forces and moments separately to
satisfy the requirements of dynamic balancing mentioned in eqns-1 & 3.
9.BALANCING MACHINES
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE OF BALANCING
The experimental procedure for determining the balancing masses and locations
for a rotating system should be clear from the analytical developments and
examples given above. The basic steps are: (1) determine the magnitude and the
41
phase angle of accelerometer signals at the bearings with and without trial
masses at the bearing planes; (2) using this data, compute the necessary
balancing masses (magnitude and location) at the bearing planes; (3) place the
balancing masses and (4) check whether the system is balanced. If not, repeat
the balancing cycle.
A laboratory experimental setup for two-plane balancing is schematically shown
in below Figure 9.1A view of the system is shown in Figure 9.2 The two disks
rigidly mounted on the shaft, are driven by a DC motor. The drive speed of the
motor is adjusted by the manual speed controller.
The shaft bearings (two) are located very close to the disks, as shown in Figure
9.1. Twoaccelerometers are mounted on the top of the bearing housing so that
the resulting vertical accelerations can be measured. The accelerometer signals
are conditioned using the two-channel charge amplifier, and read and displayed
through two channels of the digital oscilloscope. The output of the stroboscope
(tachometer) is used as the reference signal with respect to which the phase
anglesof the accelerometer signals are measured.
In Figure 9.2 , the items of equipment are seen, from left to right, as follows.
The first item is the two-channel digital oscilloscope. Next is the manual speed
controller, with control knob, for the DC motor. The pair of charge amplifiers
for the accelerometers is situated next. The strobelight unit (strobe-tacho) is
placed on top of the common housing of the charge-amplifier pair. The two-disk
rotor system with the drive motor is shown as the last item to the right. Also,
note the two accelerometers (seen as small vertical projections) mounted on the
bearing frame of the shaft, directly above the two bearings.
reference must always be fixed, prior to reading the oscilloscope data, the
strobe-tacho should be synchronized with the disk rotation with respect to
both frequency and phase. This is achieved as follows. Note that all the
readings are taken with the same rotating speed, which is adjusted by the
manual speed controller.
Fig 9.2 Shows A view of the experimental setup for two-plane balancing. (Courtesy of the University of
British Colombia. With permission
Make a physical mark (e.g., black spot in a white background) on one of the
disks. Aim the strobe flash at this disk. As the motor speed is adjusted to the
required fixed value, the strobe flash is synchronized such that the mark on the
disk appears stationary at the same location (e.g., at the uppermost location of
the circle of rotation). This ensures not only that the strobe frequency is equal to
the rotating speed of the disk, but also that the same phase angle reference is
used for all readings of accelerometer signals.
The two disks have slots at locations for which the radius is known and for
which the angular positions with respect to a body reference line (a radius
representing the 0 reference line) are clearly marked. Known masses (typically
bolts and nuts of known mass) can be securely mounted in these slots. Readings
obtained through the oscilloscope are:
1. Amplitude of each accelerometer signal
2. Phase lead of the accelerometer signal with respect to the synchronized and
referencefixed
43
strobe signal (Note: a phase lag should be represented by a negative sign in the
data.
TYPES
1. SINGLE PLANE BALANCING.
2. TWO PLANE BALANCING.
9. 1 SINGLE PLANE BALANCING
PROCEDURE
44
45
46
to install a trial weight we are ready to complete the remaining steps. For a
single plane balance the following steps are required to collect the necessary
data to perform the rotor balance.
other factors may be affecting the rotor. Perform a full analysis and perform
necessary inspection before adding additional weight.
49
50
51
52
Fig shows
53
9.3
54
9.3.1
55
9.3.2
56
57
9.3.4
58
59
60
61
62
Problem
10 FIELD BALANCING
63
Fig A Shows the access requirements for field balancing eliminate many machines
Fig B depicts an end view of a rotor
Fig C depicts the trial weight run.
Fig D shows the correction and result
Balancing in its most basic form is a problem of ratios. To simplify, we will use
a one plane example and eliminate the angle calculations by assuming we know
exactly where the heavy spot is located on a rotor. Figure 2 depicts an end view
of a rotor. The amount of vibration is measured and indicates 10-mil of
vibration 90-deg from the 0 angle reference. No weight has been added at this
point and the measurement represents the as found condition.
Trial weights provide a method to calibrate the rotor system. A known trial
weight, placed in a known position, will influence the vibration a specific
amount that will permit correcting the measured imbalance.
In this example, we have placed one gram of weight at270-deg. The resulting
vibration was reduced from 10-mil to 5-mil and the angle did not change. This
means we placed the trial weight exactly opposite the heavy spot on the rotor.
Now we can apply the ratio:
64
As can be seen from the ratio, if one gram reduced the vibration from 10mil to 5-mil, then two grams placed at the same location should reduce the
vibration to 0-mil.
65
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
66
The basic design steps for a vibration isolator, in force isolation, are
as follows:
1. The required level of isolation (1 T) and the lowest frequency of
operation (0) are specified. The mass of the vibration source (m) is
known.
2. Use equation (12.11) with = 0 to compute the required stiffness k of
the isolator.
3. If the resulting component k is not satisfactory, increase m by
67
68
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEM
69
70
71
72
73
2 MARKS
PART-B
1. Explain specification of vibration limits. (8M)
74
PART -A
Next we summarize vibration analysis and describe five other technologies that
can be utilized to determine the
health of rotating machinery, and other key assets such as switchgear, insulators,
compressed air systems, and
others. These topics are summarized in order to give the attendee a working
knowledge of each technology.
Acoustic emission (ultrasound):
What is acoustic emission?
What can it tell you about rotating machinery?
How to you detect leaks and electrical faults?
How can it be used to detect bearing faults?
We use a simulator to demonstrate visually and audibly how acoustic
emission tests are performed.
Thermography:
What is thermography?
How can it be used to detect faults in mechanical and electrical equipment?
What is emissivity, and how does it affect the accuracy of the measurements?
What are the key qualities of thermal imaging cameras?
In addition to lots of thermal images, we have a number of Flash simulations
that clarify the effect
of emissivity and environmental conditions on the test results.
Oil analysis:
How can it be used to check if the machine has a fault condition,
How can you test if the lubricant is fit for purpose?
What do viscosity, cleanliness, particle count, and other tests tell you?
Wear particle analysis:
How are the tests performed?
How can you learn about the nature of wear?
How can you determine which components are wearing?
How does it differ from conventional oil analysis?
Motor testing:
What are the most common types of faults?
What can motor current analysis tell you?
76
What other test types tell you about the condition of the rotor, stator, and
insulation
UNIT- V
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
77
UNIT 5:
S.NO
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN
VIBRATION ANALYSIS
CONTENTS
PAGE NO
1.
82
2.
85
3.
87
4.
Selection of Sensors
106
5.
Accelerometer Mountings
117
6.
Vibration Exciters
126
6A.
Mechanical
132
6B
Hydraulic
134
6C
135
143
8.
145
9.
147
UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS
78
PART-A
PART-B
150
150
80
81
82
83
85
TRANSDUCERS
Device that transforms values ofphysical variables into equivalent electrical
signals
Types
Variable resistance transducer
Piezoelectric transducers
Linear Variable Differential transformer Transducer
In this m/cal motion produces change in electrical resistance in the o/p volatge
It consists of fine wire(Cu-Ni alloy known as advance) whose resistance
changes during vib.
Fine wire is sandwiched b/w 2 thin paper sheet.
Bonded to surface where the strain is to be measured.
If surface undergoes a normal strain(), the strain gage also undergoes same
strain and the change in resistance is
Wheatstone bridge
given by
Initially R1R3=R2R4
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER
89
APPLICATIONS
Vibrometer are used in a variety of scientific, industrial and medical fields. Here
are some examples:
Hard Drives - Vibromter have been for the study of hard drives,
especially in the positioning of the read head , are used.
Find Landmines - Vibrometer have shown that they can detect buried
landmines. A noise source, such as a speaker, stimulate the floor for minimal
overshoot. These vibrations are detected by the vibrometer. The soil over a
buried landmine shows another oscillating behavior as a floor without a land
mine. Mine detection with single-beam vibrometers, an array of
vibrometers, and multi-beam vibrometers [13] has been carried out
successfully.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
A vibrometer is generally a two beam laser interferometer that measures
the frequency (or phase) difference between an internal reference beam and a
test beam. The most common type of laser in an LDV is the helium-neon laser,
although laser diodes, fiber lasers, and Nd:YAG lasers are also used. The test
beam is directed to the target, and scattered light from the target is collected and
interfered with the reference beam on a photodetector, typically a photodiode.
Most commercial vibrometers work in a heterodyne regime by adding a known
frequency shift (typically 3040 MHz) to one of the beams. This frequency shift
is usually generated by a Bragg cell, or acousto-optic modulator.
A schematic of a typical laser vibrometer is shown above. The beam from the
laser, which has a frequency fo, is divided into a reference beam and a test beam
with a beamsplitter. The test beam then passes through the Bragg cell, which
adds a frequency shift fb. This frequency shifted beam then is directed to the
target. The motion of the target adds a Doppler shift to the beam given by fd =
2*v(t)*cos()/, where v(t) is the velocity of the target as a function of time, is
the angle between the laser beam and the velocity vector, and is the
wavelength of the light.
Light scatters from the target in all directions, but some portion of the light is
collected by the LDV and reflected by the beamsplitter to the photodetector.
This light has a frequency equal to fo + fb+ fd. This scattered light is combined
with the reference beam at the photo-detector. The initial frequency of the laser
is very high (> 1014 Hz), which is higher than the response of the detector. The
detector does respond, however, to the beat frequency between the two beams,
which is at fb + fd (typically in the tens of MHz range).
The output of the photodetector is a standard frequency modulated (FM) signal,
with the Bragg cell frequency as the carrier frequency, and the Doppler shift as
the modulation frequency. This signal can be demodulated to derive the velocity
vs. time of the vibrating target.
APPLICATIONS
LDVs are used in a wide variety of scientific, industrial, and medical
applications. Some examples are provided below:
92
The operating principle is based on the laser Doppler vibrometer: From the
back-scattered from a vibrating structure laser light velocity and displacement
can be determined.
<----3D Scanning
Vibrometer
94
95
APPLICATIONS
Engineering
Accelerometers can be used to measure vehicle acceleration. They allow for
evaluation of overall vehicle performance and response. This information can
then be used to make adjustments to various vehicle subsystems as needed.
Accelerometers can be used to measure vibration on cars, machines, buildings,
process control systems and safety installations. They can also be used to
measure seismic activity, inclination, machine vibration, dynamic distance and
speed with or without the influence of gravity. Applications for accelerometers
that measure gravity, wherein an accelerometer is specifically configured for use
in gravimetry, are called gravimeters.
96
97
Accelerometers are used to measure the motion and vibration of a structure that
is exposed to dynamic loads. Dynamic loads originate from a variety of sources
including:
Human activities walking, running, dancing or skipping
Working machines inside a building or in the surrounding area
Construction work driving piles, demolition, drilling and excavating
Moving loads on bridges
Vehicle collisions
Impact loads falling debris
Concussion loads internal and external explosions
Collapse of structural elements
Wind loads and wind gusts
Air blast pressure
Loss of support because of ground failure
Earthquakes and aftershocks
Measuring and recording how a structure responds to these inputs is critical for
assessing the safety and viability of a structure. This type of monitoring is called
Dynamic Monitoring.
Medical applications
Zoll's AED Plus uses CPR-D padz which contain an accelerometer to measure
the depth of CPR chest compressions.
Within the last several years, Nike, Polar and other companies have produced
and marketed sports watches for runners that include footpods, containing
accelerometers to help determine the speed and distance for the runner wearing
the unit.
In Belgium, accelerometer-based step counters are promoted by the government
to encourage people to walk a few thousand steps each day.
98
Tilting trains use accelerometers and gyroscopes to calculate the required tilt.
Volcanology
Modern electronic accelerometers are used in remote sensing devices intended
for the monitoring of active volcanoes to detect the motion of magma.
TYPES OF ACCELEROMETER
1Bulk micromachined capacitive
2.Bulk micromachined piezoelectric resistive
3.Capacitive spring mass base
4.DC response
5.Electromechanical servo (Servo Force Balance)
6.High gravity
7.High temperature
8.Laser accelerometer
9.Low frequency
10.Magnetic induction
11.Modally tuned impact hammers
12.Null-balance
13.Optical
14.Pendulous integrating gyroscopic accelerometer (PIGA)
15.Piezoelectric accelerometer
16.Resonance
17.Seat pad accelerometers
18.Shear mode accelerometer
19.Strain gauge
100
2. PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER
A piezoelectric accelerometer that utilizes the piezoelectric effect of certain
materials to measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables. (e.g.
acceleration, vibration, and mechanical shock)
101
Piezoelectric materials used for the purpose of accelerometers can also fall into
two categories. The first, and more widely used, is single-crystal materials
(usually quartz). Though these materials do offer a long life span in terms of
sensitivity, their disadvantage is that they are generally less sensitive than some
piezoelectric ceramics. In addition to having a higher piezoelectric constant
(sensitivity) than single-crystal materials, ceramics are more inexpensive to
102
produce. The other category is ceramic material. That uses barium titanate, leadzirconate-lead-titanate, lead metaniobate, and other materials whose
composition is considered proprietary by the company responsible for their
development. The disadvantage of piezoelectric ceramics, however, is that their
sensitivity degrades with time making the longevity of the device less than that
of single-crystal materials.
In applications when low sensitivity piezoelectrics are used, two or more
crystals can be connected together for output multiplication. The proper material
can be chosen for particular applications based on the sensitivity, frequency
response, bulk-resistivity, and thermal response. Due to the low output signal
and high output impedance that piezoelectric accelerometers possess, there is a
need for amplification and impedance conversion of the signal produced. In the
past this problem has been solved using a separate
(external) amplifier/impedance converter. This method, however, is generally
impractical due to the noise that is introduced as well as the physical and
environmental constraints posed on the system as a result.
Today IC amplifiers/impedance converters are commercially available and are
generally packaged within the case of the accelerometer itself.
103
4. SELECTION OF SENSORS
The three parameters representing motion detected by vibration monitors are
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. These parameters can be measured by
a variety of motion sensors and are mathematically related (displacement is the
first derivative of velocity and velocity is the first derivative of acceleration).
Selection of a sensor proportional to displacement, velocity or acceleration
depends on the frequencies of interest and the signal levels involved.
The range of vibration sensors offered is wide, as a vibration sensor has many
different characteristics that may vary, including measurement related factors
such as frequency response, sensitivity and accuracy. Physical characteristics
such as temperature rating, size and connector orientation are also
considerations.
The following is a guide to experience in sensor use in the most common
industrial sectors that employ vibration monitoring.
For each industry, the top four features required of a quality vibration sensor are
stated and explained. Industrial sensor choices are graded as follows:
104
Good - A general purpose choice that has adequate measurement and physical
characteristics for condition monitoring programmes, where data is trended for
change and absolute precision is not so important.
Better - A general purpose choice that has adequate measurement and physical
characteristics for condition monitoring programmes, but adds a specific feature
such as an extended temperature range or mounting orientation better suited to
the application.
Best - A premium choice that has optimum measurement and physical
characteristics, but also offers the longest history as evidence of reliability.
These are particularly suited to critical machinery applications where the sensor
may be used in safety-related functions such as machinery protection.
The high temperature problems for systems using accelerometers can also be
solved by splitting sensor and electronics (charge amplifiers). The sensor can
have high temperature ranges up to +1,112F (+600C).Some methods of
investigating bearing defects and gear problems may require a higher frequency
range and because the signals are generated by impact, the sensitivity should be
lower.
106
The basic acceleration sensor has a good signal to noise ratio over a wide
dynamic range. They are useful for measuring low to very high frequencies and
are available in a wide variety of general purpose and application specific
designs. The piezoelectric sensor is versatile, reliable and the most popular
vibration sensor for machinery monitoring.
3.PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
Accelerometers operate on the piezoelectric principal: a crystal generates
a low voltage or charge when stressed as for example during compression. (The
Greek root wordpiezein means to squeeze.) Motion in the axial direction
stresses the crystal due to the inertial force of the mass and produces a signal
proportional to acceleration of that mass. This small acceleration signal can be
amplified for acceleration measurements or converted (electronically integrated)
within the sensor into a velocity or displacement signal. This is commonly
referred as the ICP (Integrated Circuit Piezoelectric) type sensor. The
piezoelectric velocity sensor is more rugged than a coil and magnet sensor, has a
wider frequency range, and can perform accurate phase measurements. Most
industrial piezoelectric sensors used in vibration monitoring today contain
internal amplifiers.
107
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111
112
Corrosion precautions
Cleaning fluid and chemical attack
Integral cable or IP 68 connector/cable
Frequent hose-down environment.
3. OIL AND GAS, REFINING, PETROCHEMICALS
Following are the top features required of a quality vibration sensor in the oil
and gas, refining and petrochemicals industries:
ATEX/NEC certification
Hazardous area
Minimum 10 Hz to 10 kHz frequency response
For turbines, blades and gears
5% sensitivity precision
May be used for API 670 machine trip
High EMI/RFI shielding
May be used for API 670 machine trip.
4. POWER GENERATION (FOSSIL FUEL, NUCLEAR, HYDRO)
Following are the top features required of a quality vibration sensor
in the power generation (fossil fuel, nuclear and hydro) industry:
Velocity and/or acceleration
For absolute shaft vibration
High temperature, 120 C ( 250 F)
For steam leaks
5% sensitivity precision
May be used for API 670 machine trip
High EMI/RFI shielding
High voltage environment.
5.METALWORKING
Following are the top features required of a quality vibration sensor
in the metalworking industry, along with the reasons why:
Low frequency response 1,0 Hz
For low rotational speed of machines
Physically robust
Misuse, abuse and flying debris
Corrosion precautions
Hot, dusty and corrosive environment
Good signal-to-noise ratio
For bearing defect detection.
5. ACCELEROMETER MOUNTINGS
114
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121
122
Adhesive by bee wax, cyanoacrylate (e.g. the gel-like Loctite 454) or epoxy glue
123
6.VIBRATION EXCITERS
A vibration exciter is a machine which produces the mechanical motion to
which the best object is subjected. The exciter may be designed to produce a
given range of harmonic or time dependent excitation force and or displacement
through a given range of frequencies. These machines can be mechanical,
Electro dynamic or hydraulic in nature.
Vibration experimentation may require an external exciter to generate the
necessary vibration. This is the case in controlled experiments such as product
testing where a specified level of vibration is applied to the test object and the
resulting response is monitored. A variety of vibration exciters are available,
with different capabilities and principles of operation.
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Signal Conditioning:
Filters Amplifiers
Modulators/demodulators ADC/DAC.
Sensors:
Motion (displacement, velocity, acceleration)
Force (strain, torque).
x = scost
x = s2 sint
An idealized performance curve of a shaker has a constant displacementamplitude region, a constant velocity-amplitude region, and a constant
acceleration-amplitude region for low, intermediate, and high frequencies,
respectively, in the operating frequency range. Such an ideal performance
curve is shown in Figure (a) on a frequencyvelocity plane. Logarithmic axes
are used.
performance curves, they usually are defined at the rated load of the shaker. A
performance curve in the frequencyvelocity plane can be converted to a curve
in the frequencyacceleration plane simply by increasing the slope of the curve
by a unit magnitude (i.e., 20 dBdecade1).
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6B HYDRAULIC EXCITERS
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USES
Uses piston-cylinder arrangement and the movement is controlled by fluid
pressure
Since the fluid pr can be controlled, widerange of force can be obtained
Can generate low frequencies
Used for testing civil engg structures
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SIMPLE PROCEDURE
When current passes thro a coil passed placed ina magnetic field, force F
proportional to current I and magnetic flux density D is produced which
the accelerates the object on the shaker F=DIL (L-length of coil)
Magnitude of accel. depends max. current & massof object & moving element
of the shaker
If a.c current is used, forces varies harmonically
If d.c current is used, const.forces is generated
Exciter has 2 freq. one corresp. to nat freq of
flexible support an other corresp. To nat. freq. of
moving element
Operating freq of exciter lies b/w these two freq.
Used to generate forces upto 30,000N,
displacement 25 mm, Freq -5 Hz to 20 KHz
ADVANTAGES
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Every exciter has resonances and some of them can unfortunately lie
very close to some frequency of interest. Irregularities in the frequency response
function can appear due to resonance of the mass-spring system or of the
suspension system. Most electrodynamic exciters that use flat-spring
suspensions suffer of many internal resonances,which manufacturers try to
dampen out by gluing layers of rubber to the springs. Air bearing exciters that
use O-ring suspensions are also subjected to resonances that can impose
difficulties to the calibration.
Piezoelectric exciters can be used at high frequencies, usually above 3 kHz.
They have the advantages of being very stiff and to easily maintain the optical
alignment. However some care is needed because high voltages are usually
employed. These exciters normally present very low damping and, below
resonance, their ascending frequency response can maximize the effect of the
upper harmonics of the driving frequency, contributing to signal distortion.
Strong signal distortions can also occur if a good impedance match is not
achieved between the power amplifier and the exciter (Jingfeng and Tianxiang,
2004). Stacked piezoelectric exciters that incorporate layers of damping
material present a better behavior since a flatter frequency response is obtained
(Jones et al, 1969).
Resonances are a design problem, which is very difficult to overcome duringthe
calibration stage. Therefore, it is better to avoid resonance frequencies at all.
Depending on the system, sometimes it is possible to change suspensions or
add some loading mass to avoid a specific resonance frequency. Since this is not
always feasible, there is a tendency in accelerometer calibration the use of
different types of exciters to cover specific sub-ranges of the frequency range of
interest.
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Advantages
1.No contact with vibrating body.
2. Measure lowest freq.
SIGNAL ANALYSIS
To det the freq response of system under known excitation
Signal analysis is done by
-Spectrum analyzer
-Octave and 1/3rd octave filters
-Bandpass filter (for sequential analysis)
-Real time analysis (for transient signal analysis )
SPECTRUM ANALYZERS
Device that analyzes a signal in the frequency domain by separating the
energy of the signal into various frequency bands
Separation is done by filters
In recent days digital analyzers are popular
Used for machine condition monitoring
RESPONSE OF A FILTER
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2 MARKS
PART- B
1.Explain the construction & working of various types of vibration excitors?
(16M)
2.Explain
(4X4=16M)
(i) Accelerometer mountings
(ii) Selection of sensors
(iii) Measurement of frequency
(iv) System identification
3. Procedures involved in selection of sensors ?
(8M)
4. Constuction & working of Electrodynamic & Hydraulic excitors? (8M)
5. What is Gaussian random process ? Why it is frquently used in vibration
analysis?
(8M)
6. Different tpes of accelerometer mounting? With neat sketch.
(8M)
7. Brief notes on
(8X2=16M)
(i) Free vibration test
(ii) Frequency measuring instruments
8. Describe different types of sensors used for vibration measurement (8M)
9. Constuction & working principle & sketch of Mechanical vibration exciter?
(8M)
6. Lumped mass system (2M)
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