GROUND TRUTH BASED SENSOR CALIBRATION

Abstract: Nowadays, we have some difficulties in obtaining the distance that we want to
measure. Even though, measuring tape is an easy option, but this kind of tool will have a
limitation of manual error. Before this, engineers have produced a range finder module but in the
end, they find out the module have many disadvantages like limitation for distance, different
result for different colored obstacles, and need a calibration for every time before starts using it.
Manual distance measuring is always done at the expense of human error. Precise and fix
measurement of low range distance, is the main objective for this project. The report details the
implementation of distance measurement system using the ultrasonic waves. As the human ears
audible perception range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz, it is insensitive to ultrasonic waves, and hence the
ultrasound waves can be used for applications in industries/vehicles without hindering human
activity. The distance can be measured using pulse echo and phase measurement method. Here
the pulse echo method is used. The measurement unit uses a continuous signal in the
transmission frequency range of ultrasonic transducers. When a high signal from IR sensor is
received at that time the signal is transmitted by an ultrasonic transducer, reflected by an obstacle
and received by another transducer where the signal is detected. The time delay of the
transmitted and the received signal corresponds to the distance between the system and the
obstacle. The main aim is to develop a Generic calibration system with the aim of improving the
information quality of the sensor under test and building a Ground truth measurement system &
an Arduino based data Acquisition system have been proposed for extracting the standard
information respectively.
Keyword: ultrasonic sensor, IR sensor, distance measurement, data acquisition system,
Calibration.

CHAPTER:1
INTRODUCTION
There are lots of good sensors these days & many are good enough out of the box for many
non-critical application. But in order to achieve the best possible accuracy, a sensor should be
calibrated in the system where it will be used. All real life transactions and interactions are a
form of measurement. Certain specific instruments, known as Sensors, are required to
measure few particular parameters. A sensors output is permeable to many kinds of errors
and irregularities, owing to different conditions of application and changing environment.
This causes the response of the sensor to be different under different conditions for similar
input stimulus and hence leads to errors in measurement. Also, when sensors are being
manufactured in large volumes, manufacturing defects are bound to creep in. These result in
faulty sensors, which have to be duly identified and removed from the useful lot. Another
situation where explicit corrective measures are required is that, when the characteristics of

the sensor is not available. Only information present is the sensor output for a given set of
inputs and their corresponding ideal outputs i.e. the sensor is a black box. In such cases,
compensation based on functionality correction is not an option. Calibration can be used in
all the above situations which require explicit correction measures for the sensor data in order
to incorporate them effectively into measurement systems. Sample to sample manufacturing
variations means that even two sensors from the same manufacturer production run may
yields different readings. Differences in sensor design mean two different sensors may
respond differently in similar conditions. This is especially true of indirect sensor that
calculate a measurement of some different but related parameters. Some sensors technologies
age & their response will naturally change over time requiring periodic re-calibration.

1.1 Organization of the chapter

The remaining chapter is organized as follows. what is calibration and the importance of
calibration is mentioned in section 1.2 and 1.3. The objective of the project is mentioned in
section 1.4.

1.2 What is Calibration

It is a comparison between a known measurement & the measurement using your
instrument. Typically the accuracy of the standard should be ten times the accuracy of the
measuring device being tested. Calibration of measuring instrument has two objectives. It
checks the accuracy of the instrument & it determines the trace ability of the measurement.
In general use calibration is often regarded is often regarded as including the process of
adjusting the output or indicating on a measurement instrument to agree with value of the
applied standard within a specified accuracy however this is actually two processes:
calibration & adjustment.
In this project, the 1st step is to build an Arduino based DAQ system for device under test &
realizing its standard counterpart using ground truth measurement system. IR sensors and
ultrasonic sensors are used to measure the distance of the target, the output that we get is
compared with the ground truth value. This determines how much accuracy our sensors are.

1.3 Why calibration is important

The accuracy of all measuring device degrade over time. This is typically caused by normal
wear and tear. However, changes in accuracy can also be caused by electric or mechanical
shock or a hazardous manufacturing environment depending on the type of the instrument &
the environment in which it is being used it may degrade very quickly or over a long period
of time. The bottom line is that calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device.
To ensure readings from an instrument are consistent with other measurements.

 To determine the accuracy of the instrument readings.

To establish the reliability of the instrument, that is can be trusted.
Ultimately all measurement are used to help make decision and poor quality
measurements results in poor quality decision. It is a measure of the quality of a
measurement & provides the means to assure & minimize the risk & possible
consequences of poor decision.

1.4 Objective of the Project

1. To build an Arduino based DAQ system for interfacing sensors-under-test to the
computer.
2. To identify & separate faulty sensor from the non-faulty, using DAQ system &ground
truth measurement system is created.
3. To build a prototype from Ground truth measurement system, that can be used for
obtaining standard data for calibration.
4. The project currently deals with calibrating an ultrasonic sensor. This would later be
generalized for a larger set of sensors.

Data Acquisition System has been realized using Arduino Uno R3 board, which
interfaces a wired ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 to the computer. An Arduino-based DAQ is
much cheaper than the Data Acquisition Systems provided by different vendors and at the
time can be configured to give desirable results. Ground Truth Measurement System is
being realized using the principle of IR-based obstacle detection. IR transmitter and IR
receiver are configured to work properly using a driver circuit and the setup is mounted
on a PCB. These PCB modules are now placed equidistantly over a wooden plank, which
has a provision for the target object motion. Whenever the target passes through a IR
detector setup, a high signal is given as an output. If all the modules can be connected to
an Arduino Uno board, a look-up table can be made, where distance of the target object
from one end of the plank can correspond to an integer in the look-up table.
In ultrasonic sensor the TX transmits ultrasonic waves towards the object whose distance
from the sensor ground zero has to be measured and by the same time the echo pulse is
being initiated. The ultrasonic wave gets reflected after hitting an object in its path. That
reflected wave is being collected by the RX. As the RX receives the reflected wave, the
echo pulse gets terminated. Now by using the time of flight by calculating the pulse width
tw and velocity of wave v the distance of the object can be calculated as,
Distance= (tw*v)/ 2

CHAPTER:2

Literature survey
2.1Sensor attributes
Sensors are sophisticated device that are used to detect & respond or optical signals. A sensor
converts the physical parameter (for ex- temperature, blood pressure, humidity, speed etc.) into a
signal which can be measured electrically.
In [1], the author state that ultrasonic sensors are not most commonly used, to maintain the
accuracy of measured distance the separation between transmitter & receiver is very important.
A clear distinction between data and information, in the context of sensor networks, has been
pointed out by Vinay Sachidananda et.al in [2]. A comprehensive analysis about information
types, classifications of QoI (Quality of Information) have been provided in the paper. Data is
any output obtained by monitoring a sensor or sensor network, whereas Information pertains to
aggregated data, classified and properly rendered to meet the requirements of application(s) at
hand. Information from a sensor has many attributes to be looked into before deciding the QoI of
a sensor. The requirements from a sensor differ from application to application. These
requirements are the defining attributes of sensor information.
The authors also talk about different information attributes one has to take into consideration
before analyzing the sensor data for information quality.
The following are the important attributes:
(i)
Accuracy: It determines closeness to the actual (ground) value(s). Usually
determined by the uncertainty in the sensor reading to produce values close to
targets.
(ii)
Throughput: Defines the maximum rate at which information is provided to the user
after raw data collection.
(iii)
Reliability: It is a characteristic of information which ensures the integrity of data
being transferred.
(iv)
Completeness: This represents that all required facts are provided for constructing
the required information from raw data.
(v)
Precision: Represents the degree of reproducibility of measured values with respect
to their closeness to actual values.
(vi)
Affordability: Determines the cost for obtaining either raw data or for data
aggregation and dissemination, in case of sensor networks. Affects the methodologies
used for such processes and also level up to which data accuracy can be obtained

2.2 Information Quality of sensors

A sensors usefulness is characterized by its Information Quality.

Quality of Information has been defined in [2, 3] as: It is a composite metric, made up of a
number of criteria of varying importance, as perceived by the user or a system, taking into

consideration the changing requirements for assessing the performance of the sensing system/
network.
Quality Profile is a record of all required sensor/sensor network parameters required for
constructing a robust, error free setup for measurement. The requirements of different parameters
are very much application specific. Example: for an ultrasonic sensor, quality profile could
include the distance measured by the sensor, ground value, external factors such as temperature
and humidity and other intrinsic sensor quality parameters such as accuracy, hysteresis, nonlinearity etc. Data collected by a sensor is prone to many kinds of errors, such as environmental
errors, user errors, aging, wear and tear, etc. Thus, it is important to keep track of the sensor data
and assess its credibility for using in an application.
Also, quality profile is useful for choosing among different sensors or sensor networks, the
best one, for a particular use.
In order to make a quality profile, one has to know about different parameters that contribute to
the quality measurement of a sensor (network). These parameters/ variables have been described
by the authors in [3] and have stated that such parameters are classified in accordance with their
contribution to quality as follows
Statistical Quality: All the sensor variables that can be modeled using statistical
distributions fall under this category. Ex: aging, wear and tear can be modeled using
standard 3-parameter or 2-parameter Weibull distribution.
Intrinsic Sensor Quality: All the parameters pertaining to sensor itself, such as
repeatability, quantization and resolution, sensitivity, hysteresis, non-linearity etc. These
are usually provided by the manufacturer. These intrinsic parameters are characterized by
the static response curve for the sensor [4]. Dennis S. Bernstein, in [4] has provided an atlength discussion on different sensor characteristics and how static response curve can be
used to characterize all such properties. The article also throws light on different factors
that undermine the static response curve. A static response curve gives sensor output
(usually in terms of voltage or current) as a function of input, conditioned to the intrinsic
sensor parameters. In general, the static response curve is not provided. Instead, an
approximation to it known as static calibration curve is made. Any error, under static
input conditions, between static response curve and static calibration curve is known as
calibration error.
Extrinsic Sensor Quality: These parameters are not related to sensor directly, but affect its
operation as they change. Examples include temperature, pressure, humidity, pH, etc.
Ultrasonic sensor is affected by surrounding temperature as given as [5]
v =331( 1+ T273) /12 m
where, v is the velocity of sound, T is the temperature.
This includes a very large set of such parameters. Modeling for all such possibilities is not
possible. Hence, direct calibration is done in order to compensate for errors caused by
variations of these parameters.

Making a Quality Profile eases and automates the process of sensor selection. Thus, it can be
used for developing generic calibration systems, not just for one sensor but for any number of
sensors as long as quality profile of those sensors are available.

Motivation and Problem Formulation

The while dealing with the ultrasonic sensor following points should be taken care.
1. The ultrasonic sensor has a blind spot below which distance the sensor cannot track the
moving object. The sensor HC-SR04range is (2-400) cm beyond which it should not be
operated.
2. The object should be in direct line of sight of the sensor. The angle of inclination of
positioning towards the object should be minimum.
3. There appears some offset voltage in the output of the infrared detector circuit. That is
because of the offset voltage of the OPAMP LM741.

CHAPTER: 3
System Design and Development

3.1Block diagram

Block diagram of the sensor setup

3.2Ground Truth System

Circuit diagram of IR sensor

Schematic diagram of IR sensor

The above diagram shows the interfacing of IR sensor with Arduino UNO R3. Output pin of the
IR sensor is connected with pin number 7 of Arduino UNO R3. IR sensor Output is acting as a
switch. When IR sensor receiver detects infrared radiations, output will be high, otherwise output
will be low. The output will be displayed on serial monitor of IR sensor.

3.3Micro-Controller based Sensor System

Schematics of ultrasonic sensor

In the above figure the Arduino UNO R3 is interfaced with Ultrasonic sensor. The Echo pin is
connected to the digital pin number 12 of Arduino UNO R3, pin number 11 is connected with
Trig pin of sensor. The Trig pin will be used to send the signal and the Echo pin will be used to
listen for returning signal.

3.4Proposed Idea
Real Data Collection- After interfacing the sensors with the Arduino the datas are collected
Ground truth Measurement System- The Ir sensor are interfaced with Arduino, the Ir
sensor act as a detector circuit which when detects the infrared radiation from obstacle sends a
high voltage.

Sensor data collection- The ultrasonic sensor is interfaced with the Arduino UNO R3. The
sensor is used to measure the distance of the obstacle. The sensor is programmed for distance
measurement of the obstacle. And the result is displayed on serial monitor.

Comparison and error finding both the ultrasonic sensor value and the ground truth
measurement values are compared and the errors are calculated. After that faulty sensors are
removed.

3.5 Data Acquisition and Ground truth Measurement Set Up

3.5.1Generic Ultrasonic sensor

An ultrasonic sensor consists of a transmitter which emits sound waves of frequency much
greater than audible range, typically around 40 kHz. These waves are reflected by a target
and received using a receiver placed adjacent to the transmitter.

Many factors affect the operation of an ultrasonic sensor. Few of them include
(i) Temperature: Transmission rate of ultrasound waves are affected by the environmental
temperature. Velocity of sound (v) and temperature (T) bear the following relation [7]:
( ) = 331.6 + 0.6 /
(ii) Humidity: Humid environment results in large attenuation of the sound waves.
(iii) Composition of target: Sound waves will get reflected from the target at a suitable degree
only if there is a substantial density difference between the environment and the target. For
example, reflection is more prominent for liquids like water and solid surfaces than porous
substances. When density difference is not high, large amount of the projected waves get
absorbed by the target, thereby decreasing the range of operation of sensor.
(iv) Position and placement of target: Targets that are placed perpendicularly to the direction of
ultrasonic waves, produce an echo which can directly be sensed by the receiver. For an otherwise
case, the waves reflect the target surface and tend to either move away from the receiver or their
path towards the receiver suffers an angular displacement, both of which decrease the efficiency
of distance measurement of the ultrasonic sensor.

3.5.2 Distance measurement

Different modes of operation are possible for measuring distance using an ultrasonic waves
(i) Direct measurement mode: This mode of operation consists of a transmitter placed at one
position, and a receiver placed at the location of target. The transmitter emits ultrasound at a
frequency of 40 kHz and the receiver senses the ultrasound obtained after transmission through

the environment. Now, the amount of time the waves take to reach receiver from the transmitter
is known as Time of Flight (tf) and the distance (d) between the transmitter and the target is
given by:
d=vtf

(ii) Echo ranging [11]: Here, the transmitter and receiver are placed at the same position and
distance is measured by sensing the reflection of the transmitted waves, from the target, with
the help of a receiver. If time of flight in this case is tfe, then distance (d) between the point
of measurement and target is given as:
=( ) 2

3.5.3Arduino UNO
It is an open-source single board-based microcontroller. UNO means one in Italian & was chosen
to mark the release of Arduino software(IDE) An Arduino board consists of an Atmel 8-16 or 32
bit AVR microcontroller with complementary components that facilitate programming &
incorporation into other circuits. Some Arduino board are a bit more powerful considering speed,
some other have more memory, some have lot of inputs/outputs. Arduino board exposes most of
the microcontrollers I/O pins for use by other circuits.

The UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital input/output
pins, 6anlog inputs, a 16MHZ quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header &
a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller simply connect it to a
computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

3.5.4 IR sensor

Infrared technology addresses a wide variety of wireless applications. The main areas are sensing
and remote controls. In the electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared portion is divided into three
regions: near infrared region, mid infrared region and far infrared region.
Wavelength -700nm to1mm
Frequency (Hz) - 430THz-300GHz
Photon Energy (eV) 1mm.27meV-1.7eV
Elements of Infrared detection system
1. Infrared sources
All objects above 0K radiate IR energy & hence are infrared sources. Infrared sources
also include black body radiator. For active IR sensors, Infrared laser & LEDs of specific
IR wavelength are used as IR sources.
2. Transmission Medium
The main 3 types of transmission medium used for IR transmission are vacuum, the
atmosphere & optical fiber. The transmission of IR-radiation is affected by presence of
co2, water vapor & others elements in the atmosphere. Due to absorption by molecule of
water co2, ozone etc. The atmosphere highly attenuates most IR wavelength leaving
some Important IR windows in the electromagnetic spectrum.
Medium wave IR
Long wave IR
3. Optical components
Often optical components are required to converge or focus infrared radiations to limit
spectral response etc. To convey/focus radiations optical lenses made of quartz, caF2, Ge
& Si, polythene, Fresnel lenses & mirrors made of Al, Au or similar materials are used.
For limiting spectral response, band pass filters are used. Choppers are used to
pass/interrupt the IR beams.
4. Infrared detectors
Various types of detectors are used in IR sensor. Important specifications of detectors are:
Photosensitivity & Responsibility

It is the o/p voltage/current per watt of incident energy.

Noise Equivalent Power(NEP)

to intrinsic noise level of a detector.

Detectivity(D*)

It is the photosensitivity per unit area of a detector. It is a measure of s/n ratio of a detector. D* is
inversely proportion to NEP. Large D* indicates better sensing element.

In addition, wavelength region or temperature to be measured response time, cooling

mechanism, active area, no. of elements, package, linearity, stability, temp characteristics etc are
important parameter which need attention while selecting IR detectors.
5. Signal processing
Since detectors o/p are typically very small preamplifier with associated ckt are used to
further process the receive signals.

3.5.5. Sensor Arduino UNO PC interface

Ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04 has been interfaced with a computer via an Arduino Uno board.
Arduino Uno R3 board supports ATmega32 microcontroller and provides the sensor with
required 10 microsecond pulse at the Trig terminal through a pin acting as an output port. As
soon as the sensor receives the trigger input, it transmits 8 pulses of 40 kHz and raises the echo
pin value to high. On reflection, the pulses return back to the sensor and the echo pin goes low.
Now, the width of the echo pulse gives information about how far the target is from the point of
measurement. An advantage of using Arduino board over a generic microcontroller is easy
manipulation of different ports present on the microcontroller by using the Arduino IDE.
Arduino IDE is an open source and provides a lot of functions and libraries for easy accessibility
of different functionalities of the controller. It inherently provides few libraries for interfacing the
board with certain sensors and other peripherals. However, an inherent library is not available for
HC-SR04 sensor. New Ping (NewPing_v1.5) is a library that supports the Arduino Uno interface
with HC-SR04 sensor.

CHAPTER: 4

Implementation Details
4.1Data Collection from the Arduino-based DAQ System
HC-SR04 has been deployed and interfaced via an Arduino Uno to a computer. Pin connections
are as follows:
Digital pin 11: connected to Echo pin of the sensor.
Digital pin 12: connected to Trigger pin of the sensor.
A pulse of 10 microseconds is given to the trigger pin of the sensor. The transmitter then
sends eight pulses of 40 kHz frequency. These pulses when reflected from the target are
received by the receiver and the duration for which the ultrasound has travelled is represented
by the pulse width of echo signal received. This duration is given in terms of microseconds
and can be converted suitably, using velocity of sound, to distance. Velocity of sound varies
with the environmental conditions, especially temperature and humidity. Temperature
increases the velocity whereas the increase in humidity attenuates the waves. These problems
in measurement are reflected directly from the observed data.

4.2 Infrared Obstacle Detector Circuitry

Infrared Obstacle detector mounted on PCB

When the object passes through each 20 cm marks, the detector produces some voltage. The
voltage generated is being acquired by the Arduino board.
The detector circuitry consists of
1. Infrared transmitter(IR-TX)
2. Infrared receiver(IR-RX)
3. Resistors 220 , two 10k, 180
4. +5v power supply from SMPS
5. Potentiometer 0-50k
6. Light emitting diode
7. Opamp LM741
IR-TX is connected in series with 220 and IR-RX is connected in series with two 10k.
Both IR-TX and IR-RX circuits placed parallel to each other and connected in parallel to the
SMPS. Infrared light reflected by the passing obstacle is being collected by the receive,
which completes the receiver circuit and voltage drops across the 20k. Potentiometer is
being connected across the detection circuit. The output of the potentiometer is being
compared with the output of the detector circuitry in the opamp LM741. The potentiometer
output is applied to the inverting terminal and the output of the detection circuitry is being
applied to the non-inverting terminal. The potentiometer is being adjusted to a resistance

value so that presence of an obstacle is indicated by a voltage output nearer to 5 volt and
absence by a voltage nearer to 0volt. The presence or absence of the obstacle is being
indicated by led which is connected to the output terminal of the opamp in series with
resistance of 180.

4.3

The ground truth and sensor setup

A wooden structure has been made on which the ultrasonic sensor has to be mounted and by
doing repeated experiments data has to be acquired. The entire system consists of,
1. Wooden prototype with ultrasonic sensor installed on it.
2. The infrared detector circuitry.
WOODEN PROTOTYPE:
As shown in the figure the length of the distance over which the measurement has to be
conducted is 100 cm. Distance has been measured from 10cm to 100cm in the interval of
10cm. For each 10cm, 20 readings have been taken, thus making a total of 200 readings.
For every reading, its corresponding measurement error has been found out and an average
has been made for every 10cm reading. For each 10cm readings there is an infrared
obstacle detector circuitry is installed.

Setup for ground truth measurement system

CHAPTER :5
5.Experimental Results
5.1 Ir sensor voltage values when detects object

5.2 The following table shows the reading taken for the ultrasonic sensor for
measuring the distance of the target from it. During all the data acquisition, target
has been placed perpendicularto the sensors direction of propagation of ultrasonic
waves.
Ground
Truth

10
IR1

20
IR2

30
IR3

40
IR4

50
IR5

60
IR6

70
IR7

80
IR8

90
IR9

100
IR10

S.L.NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

(cm)
10.09
9.74
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.16
10.23
10.16
10.28
10.16
10.16
9.74
10.16
10.11
10.09
9.74
10.09
10.16
10.23
10.16

(cm)
19.99
19.59
19.99
20.36
19.59
19.99
19.99
20.36
19.99
21.18
20.26
20.26
19.99
19.99
19.59
20.76
20.19
20.26
19.92
19.99

(cm)
29.76
29.49
29.62
29.62
30.78
29.49
29.76
29.76
29.49
29.72
29.76
29.76
30.11
30.18
29.49
29.72
30.18
30.18
29.76
30.11

(cm)
40.11
39.62
39.69
39.62
39.62
40.04
39.55
40.04
39.69
39.69
39.62
39.62
40.04
39.69
40.04
40.04
39.62
40.04
40.04
40.47

(cm)
49.68
50.17
50.1
50.17
50.17
50.1
49.75
49.82
49.75
49.68
49.75
49.75
49.68
49.75
49.75
49.75
49.75
49.68
49.75
50.17

(cm)
60.32
60.32
59.75
59.82
59.82
59.75
60.24
60.24
60.32
60.32
59.82
59.82
59.82
60.24
59.82
60.24
59.82
59.89
60.32
59.82

(cm)
69.64
69.64
70.16
70.49
70.56
70.49
70.13
70.63
70.56
69.64
70.16
69.64
70.16
70.13
69.64
69.57
69.71
69.99
70.16
70.16

(cm)
79.11
81.17
80.52
80.24
80.17
79.74
80.17
80.17
80.59
80.17
80.29
79.81
79.74
79.81
80.17
80.29
80.17
80.59
80.73
80.66

(cm)
90.2
90.61
89.98
89.91
89.91
89.84
89.69
89.84
89.91
89.84
89.56
89.69
89.69
89.69
89.84
89.56
89.84
90.34
89.84
89.98

(cm)
100.09
100.09
100.09
100.01
99.66
100.09
100.51
100.16
100.01
100.51
100.01
99.59
100.51
100.58
99.59
99.59
100.64
100.51
100.58
100.5

Average

10.104

20.112

29.837

39.844

49.858

60.025

70.063

80.215

89.888

100.17

Error

-0.104

-0.112

+0.163

+0.156

+0.142

-0.025

+0.063

-0.215

+0.112

-0.08

CHAPTER:6
Future work

A time registration circuitry has to be designed and it has to be interfaced with the
Arduino-board. Thus the data generated have a time tag.
A look up table has to be created for the acquired data whose values are going to be used
for calibration
A graphical user interface has to be developed which can calibrate a number of sensor

online.

Conclusion
This paper presented the use of ultrasonic sensor & infrared sensor for distance measurement of
an obstacle. It can be seen that the object should be placed in direct line of sight of the
ultrasonic sensor, the output characteristic of ultrasonic sensor is linear in nature. After
calibration the sensor gives about 99% of accuracy. The experiment indicates that the low cost
US and IR sensor are able to give reliable distance measurement. More care should be taken
while detecting the object through IR sensor, since small change in angle show very different
readings.

References
[1] Vladimir B Bajic, Jit Biswas, Pang H Hwa, Qui Qiang, Santos k. Das and P.V. Thang,
Quality Enhancement of sensors through Information calibration. Prototype Invention,
Institute of Infocomm Research, 2007.
[2] Abdelmajid Kheil, Neeraj Suri, Vinary Sachidananda, Quality of Information in wireless
Sensor Networks: a survey, in proceedings of 2010 international conference on information
Quality , 2010.
[3] A- star confidential, Singapore, A methodology for using Information Quality of sensor
Selection.
[4] D.S Berstein, Sensor Performance specification, IEEE control system Magazine, August
2001.
[5] SSI technologies, Ultrasonic sensor performance consideration, Application Note AT-9,
Acu- Track ultrasonic Distannce & level sensor, Revision1, March 2007.
[6] "HC-SR04 User Guide"[Online], Available: elecfreaks.com [Accessed: July 2015].
[7] Muqaddas Bin Tahir, Musarat Abdullah, Distance measuring ( hurdle detection system) for Safe
Environment in Vehicles through Ultrasonic Rays, Global journal Inc. (USA), 2012