Cellular Principles & Radio Propagation Basics: ND Competence Centre

Cellular principles & radio propagation
basics
ND Competence Centre
February 2009
Agenda
1. Cellular Concept
2. Multiple Access Techniques
3. Radio-Propagation
4. Cell Coverage Calculation
5. Cluster Size Calculation
Cellular Concept
All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC
Cellular Concept
Introduction
Fundamental features of a cellular system

Wireless connection (voice / data) to PSTN or PDN for the subscribers in the service
area
Provision of sufficient capacity for offering service to a large number of users on a
large geographical area with a limited spectrum
Call/session continuity when users are moving in the service area
Scalability for capacity and introduction of new services
Second Generation systems

GSM (900 and 1800) / GPRS / EDGE in Europe
D-AMPS / IS-95 / PCS-1900 in US
Third generation systems

UMTS FDD/TDD
CDMA 1xRTT, EV-DO, EV-DV
Cellular Concept
Frequency Reuse
f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6, f7, f8, f9, f10, f11, f12
f1, f2, f3
Serving area
consists in
contiguous cells
f4 , f 5 , f 6
f1, f2, f3
f4, f5, f6
f7, f8, f9 f10, f11, f12 f7, f8, f9 f10, f11, f12
f1, f2, f3
f4 , f 5 , f 6
f1, f2, f3
f4, f5, f6
8 users max / frequency f , f , f f , f , f f , f , f f , f , f

7
8
9
10
11
12
7
8
9
10
11
12
30mErl / subscriber
GoS = 2%
3 frequencies per cell
12 frequencies in the area
3x8=24 circuits per cell
Offered load is 17 Erl per cell
Offered load is 84 Erl in the area
570 subscribers per cell
2 800 subscribers in the area
6 840 subscribers in the area
12x8=96 circuits in the area
Cellular Concept
Cellular Coverage and Cell Dimensions
Cellular Concept
Reuse Factor
Set of available frequencies: f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7

Reuse Factor of 1
All available
frequencies
are used in
each cell
Reuse Factor of 7
f6 f 7
f5 f1 f2
f4 f3
f6 f7
f 5 f 1 f2
f4 f3 f6 f7
f6 f7 f5 f 1 f2
f6 f7 f5 f1 f 2 f4 f 3
f5 f 1 f2 f4 f3 f6 f7
f6 f7
f5 f1 f2
f 4 f3
f4 f3
f6 f 7 f 5 f1 f2
f 5 f1 f2 f 4 f3
f4 f3
Cellular Concept
Cell Cluster
Adjacent cells use different (orthogonal) sets of frequencies
For best spectrum efficiency, a given set of frequency is used repeatedly
A group of cells using all available spectrum is a cluster
Number of cells in a cluster and its shape vary
Smaller the cell, greater the number of cells in a given cluster
Maximum Tx power determines maximum cell size
Co-channel interference performance determines the minimum cell size
Cellular Concept
Omni-directional Macrocells
Serving cell
Reuse Factor = 12 (i=j=2)
One tier of interfering cells
6 interfering cells
Interfering cells
Cellular Concept
Sectorized Macrocells
Serving cell
3 interfering cells
Hexagonal area divided

into 3 sectorized cells
Interfering cells
Multiple Access Techniques

Duplexing
Duplexing = techniques of achieving 2 ways simultaneous communications
TDD: Time Division Multiplexing

Both directions use the same frequency band during different time intervals
FDD: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Separate frequency bands are permanently allocated to each direction of
transmission

Duplexing - FDD
s m it o
n
a
r
t
S
B
BS capable of
full RF duplex
operation
Sub
s
B
T
S
c ri b
er
tra
ns m
n F1
it o
n
TDMA subscribers
operate in RF half
duplex mode
F2

Duplexing - TDD
Temporal guard band
BS transmit to MS
B
T
S
MS transmit to BS
B
T
S
BS transmit to MS
B
T
S
Time

Duplexing vs. Coverage
For cellular communications:

Forward link (or downlink): from BS to MS
Backward link (or uplink): from MS to BS
FDD is the most commonly used technique with FDMA, TDMA and CDMA for large
coverage systems
TDD is advantageously used for short range coverage systems but is also recently
used in macro-cellular systems (UMTS-TDD, WiMAX)

Duplexing - Conclusion
FDD
TDD
UL and DL transmission separated in

time
UL and DL transmissions on different

frequencies
Same frequency for UL and DL

transmission
Mostly used with FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

systems
Mostly used with TDMA
Suitable for large cell systems
Multichannel calls easy to implement

Suitable for small cells apps
Ex. DECT, UMTS-TDD, WiMAX
Ex. GSM, IS-136, IS-95,, UMTS-FDD

Multiplexing
Multiplexing: Technique for dividing the available resources
TDM: Time Division Multiplexing

Allocated bandwidth is shared by different services or coverage zones during
time intervals
FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing

Portions of allocated bandwidth are allocated to different services or coverage
zones for long durations

Multiple Access Schemes (1/2)
Distinction by time:
TDMA
How can multiple users

access the same limited
resource at the same time ?
Distinction by frequency:
FDMA
Distinction by codes:
CDMA

Multiple Access Schemes (2/2)
Multiple Access can be:

Conflict free
A channel is reserved for a connection
Contention based
Data packets are sent on the channel w/o reservation
Conflict free
Static (Frequency, time, time and frequency based)
Dynamic (temporary reservations and token passing)
Contention based
Static or dynamic contention resolutions

Conflict Free Multiple Access Schemes
FDMA
Allocated bandwidth is divided into smaller BW and each
active users get one channel during period of activity
TDMA
Each FDM channel is subdivided in units of time and each
active user gets a time unit and frequency during activity
period
CDMA
Signal spreading codes are used to separate signals of
different users

FDMA
Characteristics and constraints

Transmitter keeps a frequency all along in the call
Frequency guard band required between channels
Easy implementation (no synchronisation required)
Applications
Used in analog systems
Limited system capacity and limited variety of service
Performance
Available number of channels
BT: total available BW

BC: channel BW
a: factor depending on propagation
C/I: required carrier to interference ratio
N C (FDMA)
BT
BC

TDMA (1/2)
Characteristics and constraints

Transmitter user of frequency for a fraction of time
Guard time required between different transmission
Tx-Rx synchronisation needs transmission of system information
Requires power switching during guard time
Applications
Digital systems for speech and data transmission
Useful for power saving and interference reduction
Good overall performance

TDMA (2/2)
Performance
Same formulation as FDMA.
NC is increased in proportion to the TDMA factor if BC is maintained
Trade-off and discussion

Higher C/I <-> lower capacity
Lower carrier BW <-> higher capacity
Lower carrier BW <-> higher required C/I for good system operations
A Compromise between BC and C/I is required
Example:
GSM: BC=200 kHz, N=8, C/I=9 dB
DAMPS: BC=30 kHz, N=3, C/I=18 dB
Radio Mobile Propagation

A Diversity of Applications

A Diversity of Environments
Each system operates in an application specific environment

Different frequency band
Specific channel types
Specific mechanisms to assess required QoS of the application

Designing a Radio-Mobile System
System Constraints
Quality of Service (availability / call quality / throughput)
Frequency band
Environment (type ; coverage...)
Design Parameters (modem physical layer - )

Modulation / Demodulation (spectral efficiency; Signal to Noise ratio ; BER ;
Interference protection ; complexity)
Equalization (correction of channel imperfections)
Channel code (FEC) and interleaving (trade-off channel / service)
Protocol (re-transmission)

Digital Transmission Chain
Information
Channel
Encoder
&
Interleaver
Modulator
Propagation
Channel
De-interleaver
Information
&
Channel
decoder
Equalizer
Demodulator
Good knowledge of the propagation is mandatory for:

Appropriate modem design
Cell coverage estimation

Radio Signal
Radio signal at the receiver comes from different paths with different:
Reflexion ; Diffractions ; Scattering
B
T
S

Received Signal Characterization
Each path is affected by:

Attenuation
Phase rotation
Frequency shift (Doppler effect)
High variation of received signal

Statistical approach is needed
Function of the environment (urban ; rural ; indoor)

Model for Radio Propagation
Superposition of three attenuation types

Path loss
large scale observations (several 100 )
Shadowing effect (attenuation due to obstacles)

medium scale observation (20 to 100 )
Attenuation due to multiple reflections and scattering on local obstacles

short scaleobservation (order of )
Distinct physical phenomena modeled with distinct laws

Large Scale Attenuation (1/2)
Statistical models
Median attenuation values
Standard deviation around 6 dB
Power Attenuation, A
A Kdn
2 < n < 5 for d < 20 km
n=3.8 in urban environment

Large Scale Attenuation (2/2)
Conventional models
HATA
Urban, suburban, rural environments
Frequency range: 150 to 1 500 MHz
COST-231 HATA
Urban, suburban environments
Frequency range: 1 500 to 2 000 MHz
COST-231 WALFISH-IKEGAMI
Metropolitan and urban environments
Frequency range: 800 to 1 500 MHz

Large Scale Attenuation - HATA Model (a)
Application range:
Frequency: 150 to 1 500 MHz
hBase: 30 to 200 m
hMobile: 1 to 10 m
Distance base - mobile: 1 to 20 km
General expression:
Lp A B logd km
B function of hBase :
B 44.9 6.55loghBase(m )
A depends on several environment parameters (f, hBase, hMobile, environment

type)

Large Scale Attenuation - HATA Model (b)
Urban area
A 69.55 26.16logf MHz 13.82loghBase m a hMobile
a(hMobile): correction coefficient (null for h < 1.5m)
Suburban area
f MHz
AS A 2 log
28
Deserted area
5.4
AD A 4.78logf MHz 2 18.33logf MHz 40.94
Rural area
not included in the original document but valid with a 10 dB margin /

AD
AR A 4.78logf MHz
2 18.33logf MHz
30.94

Large Scale Attenuation - COST-231 HATA
Application range:
Frequency: 1 500 to 2 000 MHz
Other parameters similar to HATA model
B: similar to HATA model

A: A 46.3 33.9logf MHz 13.82loghBase m a hMobile C m
Cm equals:
0 for small cities and suburban areas
3 for metropolitan centers

Large Scale Attenuation - COST-231 WALFISH-IKEGAMI
Application range:
Frequency: 800 to 2 000 MHz
hBase: 4 to 50 m (above roof-top)
hMobile: 1 to 3 m
Distance base - mobile: 20 m to 5 km
Very accurate (street dimensions and angle of arrival of received signal are
accounted for)

Large Scale Attenuation - Micro-cellular Models (an example)
Valid when antennas are below roof-top
Pr
n1 (2.6)
Tx
n2 (4)
- 20 dB
dbkpt
n3 (4)
2 hbhm
dbkpt
dcorner
Example: hb=3m ; hm=1.5m ; f=900MHz dbkpt=85m

hb=6m ; hm=1.5m ; f=900MHz dbkpt=170m
hb=3m ; hm=1.5m ; f=1800MHz
dbkpt=170m

Medium Scale Attenuation (1/2)
When averaging the received power on 20 to 100 , along a circular path

centered on the BS, a Gaussian distribution of PR is observed

Medium Scale Attenuation (2/2)
The received signal is affected by multiple random attenuation (addition in

dB). Central limit theorem gives the normal law: log-normal attenuation
(normal law with values in dB).
Large scale models median attenuation, amoy
Probability that actual attenuation is less than A0:
P A A0
A0
a amoy 2
1
exp
da
2
2
2
Used for cell dimensioning

Typical values for : 2 to 8 dB

Short Scale Attenuation (1/5)
Due to mobile movements, fast local signal level variations are observed
(interference fringes)
Function of radio wavelength,
Function of mobile speed
One fading every /2
Signal phase is uniformly distributed on [0 ; 2]
Two models:
mobile and BS are not in line-of-sight
Rayleigh distribution for the signal envelop
mobile and BS are in line-of-sight

Rice distribution for the signal envelop

Rayleigh:
p r
r 2
exp
2
2 2
s2: averaged received signal power
2
2
A
Rice:

I0 rA
p r 2 exp
2
2
A: peak signal power in line-of-sight
I0: modified Bessel function
(a) A0
(b) A1
(c) A+

In the frequency domain, a signal frequency band widening is observed (multiplication by A(f)) :
A f
2fd
f
1
fd
fd: Doppler frequency
fd
Spectral widening due to Doppler shift


Time dispersion (due to reflections)

Average delay spread:
R.M.S. delay spread:
ak2 k
ak2
~2
~2
avec
Coherence bandwidth (bandwidth for which channel is flat):
Bc
1
pour 0.9
50
Bc
1
pour 0.5
5
Time evolution of the channel (Doppler spread)

Coherence time:
TC
1
fdmax
ak2 k2
ak2

Short scale fading

(relative to delay spread)
Flat fading
Frequency selective fading
1. BSignal < BChannel

2. Delay spread < TS
1. BSignal > BChannel

2. Delay spread > TS
Short scale fading

(relative to Doppler spread)
Fast fading
1. High Doppler shift
2. TC < TS
3. Channel variations > base
band signal variations
Slow fading
1. Small Doppler shift
2. TC > TS
3. Channel variations < base
band signal variations

Short Scale Attenuation - Example of GSM channel
Typical GSM channels consists in several taps (different delay and attenuations)
Example TU profile:
Tap
Relative
delay (s)
0.0
0.2
-3.0
0.0
0.5
-2.0
1.6
-6.0
2.3
-8.0
5.0
-10
Relative
amplitude
(dB)
Cell Coverage Calculation

Objective
To determine the coverage area where the QoS is guaranteed

Depends on:
Application
speech
data
System features
modulation / demodulation algorithms
channel error codes
vocoder
Margins
Indoor penetration, interference, in-car penetration

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) (1/3)
Quality constraints can be expressed by a maximum bit error error (BER) or

Frame Error Rate (FER)
Maximum BER is obtained for a minimum Eb/No:

Channel type (Rice, Rayleigh)
environment (Urban, Suburban, Rural, ...)
Mobile speed

BER is determined in specific conditions defined by the standard:

GSM: EB/No = 9 dB (7 dB + 2 dB margin)
[1 channel / 25 kHz]
Tetra: EB/No = 16 dB (14 dB + 2 dB margin)

[1 channel / 6.25 kHz]
BER is evaluated by simulations or on real hardware

Link between ES/No and SNR

ES: energy per symbol
P: signal power: P=ES x Symbol Rate
GSM: symbol rate = 271 ksymb/s
No: spectral density of thermal noise

No=kT=-174 dBm/Hz for normal temperatures)
Noise power = (noise spectral density) x (equivalent bandwidth of channel filter)

GSM channel filter BW = 200 kHz
SNR = ES/No

Link Budget
Objectives
Estimate the acceptable path loss
Estimate impacts of some chain elements (gain and attenuation)
Balanced link (UL and DL)
Dimensioning of power amplifiers
Constraints
MS Transmission power
Noise factor in the receiver

Link Budget: Reference Points
A
C
O
U
P
L
E
R

Link Budget: Receiver Side

Link Budget: Transmitter Side
Acceptable power attenuation
EIRP (Tx) - Path loss = Receiver sensitivity (Rx)
33 dBm - X (dB) = -113 dBm
X = 146 dB
EIRP: Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power

Link Budget: Receiver (MS and BS)

Link Budget: Transmitter (BS & MS)
Balanced link (path loss UL = path loss DL)

Coverage Area
Propagation model
Superposition of 2 types of attenuation
Path loss
shadowing effect ( from 2 to 12 dB)
Path loss
Different model depending on environment
Hata, COST 231, Ikegami-Walfish
Statistical models (median values)

Coverage Area: Path Loss Example
Hata Model
Suburban environment
BS antenna height: 40 m
MS antenna height: 1.5 m
Frequency: 900 MHz
Attenuation = 146 dB is obtained for d=9.3 km

Along the circle, 50% Eb/No < 9dB !!!
A margin is required

Coverage Area: Margin for Shadowing
Shadowing effect (log-normal distribution)
ES ES
Pr

N
N
0 0
Min

ES ES
N N
1
0 0
exp
2 ES
2 2
N0
For a better coverage, a margin, M, is taken:
ES
N
Important parameter is: 0
Example:
moy
E
S
N0
d ES
N 0
moy
M
min
M
0.7 Pr
ES
E
S
N0
N0
0.8
min

Coverage Area: Eb/No vs. Margin
Pr
ES
E
S
N0
N0
min

Coverage Area: Eb/No Averaged on the Cell (1/2)
Attenuation is average on the cell area

Better quality is achieved near the BS
QoS criterion: 90% of cell area > 9 dB
margin of 7 dB for path loss d-3.8 and = 10 dB
Remark: for achieving 99 % coverage, 25 to 30 dB margin is required !!!!

Coverage Area: Eb/No Averaged on the Cell (2/2)
Pr
ES ES
N
N
0 0
min Cell
= 10 dB
Cluster Size Calculation

Reuse Factor (1/2)
Set of available frequencies: f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7

Reuse Factor of 1
All available
frequencies
are used in
each cell
Reuse Factor of 7
f6 f7
f5 f 1 f2
f4 f3
f6 f 7
f5 f1 f2
f 4 f3 f6 f7
f 6 f7 f 5 f1 f2
f6 f7 f5 f 1 f2 f 4 f3
f 5 f1 f2 f4 f3 f6 f7
f6 f7
f5 f 1 f2
f 4 f3
f 4 f3
f6 f7 f5 f1 f2
f5 f1 f 2 f4 f3
f4 f 3

Reuse Factor (2/2)
Reuse Factor = 7 (i=2 / j=1)
Reuse Factor (K=i+ij+j):

number of cells using different frequencies
Reuse Distance (D= 3K r):
distance between 2 co-channel cells
i
i
Cluster of 7 cells
Some Reuse Factors:
j
j
2r
2D
First tier of
interfering cells
1
3
4
7
9
12
13
16
19
21
25
27
1
1
2
2
3
2
3
4
3
4
5
3
0
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
3
1.7 d
3.0 d
3.5 d
4.6 d
5.2 d
6.0 d
6.2 d
6.9 d
7.5 d
7.9 d
8.7 d
9.0 d

Omni-directional Macrocells
Serving cell
6 interfering cells
Interfering cells

Omni-directional Macrocells - Reuse Distance
I 6 PeD
C PeR
I6
I1
I5
R
I2
C 1 D 1

I 6 R
6
3K
I4
I3
If C/I is fixed, K can be derived

A.N. : (g= 3.5)
C/I = 9 dBK = 4
C/I = 18 dB
K = 12
When R and K are determined, D can be derived !

Omni-directional Macrocells - C/I distribution
Same Tx power
P(C/I < x dB)
No PC
K=1
K=3
K=12
K=27
K=21
DL interference analysis
Path loss model: d-3.5
s = 7 dB
95 % of cell area > 9 dB
X dB

Sectorized Macrocells - C/I distribution (1/2)
Serving cell
3 interfering cells
Hexagonal area divided

into 3 sectorized cells
Interfering cells

Sectorized Macrocells - C/I distribution (2/2)
Same Tx power
P(C/I < x dB)
No PC
K=1
K=3
K=12
K=27
K=21
DL interference analysis
Path loss model: d-3.5
s = 7 dB
3 dB beam width = 120
95 % of cell area > 9 dB
X dB

Performance Parameters
Coverage Probability
ES
ES
PCoverage Pr
N
o N o Threshold
Interference Probability
C C
PInterference Pr
I Threshold
I
Outage Probability
POutage Pr BER BERThreshold
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Cellular principles & radio propagation

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Fundamental features of a cellular system

Second Generation systems

Third generation systems

8 users max / frequency f , f , f f , f , f f , f , f f , f , f

12 frequencies in the area

3x8=24 circuits per cell

Offered load is 17 Erl per cell

Offered load is 84 Erl in the area

570 subscribers per cell

2 800 subscribers in the area

6 840 subscribers in the area

12x8=96 circuits in the area

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Set of available frequencies: f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Adjacent cells use different (orthogonal) sets of frequencies

For best spectrum efficiency, a given set of frequency is used repeatedly

A group of cells using all available spectrum is a cluster

Number of cells in a cluster and its shape vary

Smaller the cell, greater the number of cells in a given cluster

Maximum Tx power determines maximum cell size

Co-channel interference performance determines the minimum cell size

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Reuse Factor = 12 (i=j=2)

One tier of interfering cells

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

One tier of interfering cells

Hexagonal area divided

Multiple Access Techniques

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

Duplexing = techniques of achieving 2 ways simultaneous communications

TDD: Time Division Multiplexing

FDD: Frequency Division Multiplexing

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

Temporal guard band

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

For cellular communications:

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

UL and DL transmission separated in

UL and DL transmissions on different

Same frequency for UL and DL

Mostly used with FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

Mostly used with TDMA

Suitable for large cell systems

Multichannel calls easy to implement

Ex. DECT, UMTS-TDD, WiMAX

Ex. GSM, IS-136, IS-95,, UMTS-FDD

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques

Multiplexing: Technique for dividing the available resources

TDM: Time Division Multiplexing

FDM: Frequency Division Multiplexing

All Rights Reserved Alcatel-Lucent 2009, ND CC

Multiple Access Techniques