Grammar I

LV/UB

Graciela Palacio
2012-(revised 2015)

LESSON 6:
SUBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS
There is a universal principle called the Extended Projection Principle (EPP), which
states that every verb must have a subject, explicit or implicit. Now if every verb must have a
subject, the subject does not help us to distinguish different types of verbs. What helps us to
distinguish different types of verb are the elements that follow the verb and which are
lexically required by it. Those elements we will call complements. Subject and complement
are syntactic notions.
VERB COMPLEMENTS
A verb such as sneeze, which takes only one argument, will have no complements. A
verb such as kill, which takes two arguments, will have one complement. Verbs such as give
and tell, which take three arguments, will have two complements. A verb such as put, which
takes three arguments, will also have two complements. Notice that the number of
complements that a verb takes is generally the number of arguments minus one.
Notice that in the case of the lexical category verb, complement can be defined in two ways:
1. the element that follows the predicator (in this case the verb) and which creates a
subcategory within the category, in the sense that it allows us to distinguish
different types of verb. In this sense the subject is never a complement. If every
verb must have a subject, the subject doesnt help us to distinguish different types
of verb.
2. an element that is lexically required by the meaning of the verb.
We will later discuss another type of category, the functional categories, in which case the
complement is the element that follows the category but which is not an argument of that
category.
The complements that a verb takes are represented by means of a frame (cf. in Spanish: un
marco) which is called subcategorization frame (cf. in Spanish: marco de
subcategorizacin). The subcategorization frame includes information about:
1. the number of complements that a predicator takes and
2. the type of complements (i.e. the category of the complements) that a predicator
takes.
The subject is an argument but it is never a complement so it is never part of the
subcategorization frame (Haegeman 1994: 45). The following are examples of
subcategorization frames:
John sneezed.
Subcategorization frame of sneeze: V [

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The V that is outside the square brackets states the category of the predicator. Sneeze is a
verb. Within the brackets, the line indicates the position of the verb. Sneeze has no
complements so it not followed by anything.
John killed the bear.
DP1]

Subcategorization frame of kill: V [

The verb kill has two arguments but only one complement, the determiner phrase (DP) the
bear.
John gave the boy the book./ John gave the book to the boy.
Subcategorization frame of give: V [

DP DP] or V [

DP PP]

The verb give has two frames. In both frames, give takes two complements but in the first
frame the two complements are determiner phrases (DP DP). In the second frame one of the
complements is a determiner phrase and the other complement is a prepositional phrase (DP
PP)
John put the book on the table.
Subcategorization frame of put: V [

DP PP]

The verb put takes two complements, a determiner phrase and a prepositional phrase. Put has
only one subcategorization frame.
The other lexical categories that we have discussed so far (adjectives, nouns and prepositions)
can also take complements. The complement to these other categories will still be defined as
an element that is lexically required by the meaning of the word. The complements to
adjectives, prepositions and nouns will also help us to create subcategories with the category.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS
John is tall.
Subcategorization frame of tall: A [

The adjective tall takes only one argument and no complements.

John is fond of Mary.
Subcategorization frame of fond : A [

PP]

The adjective fond takes two arguments and only one complement, the prepositional phrase
of Mary (PP).
PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENTS
1

DP stands for determiner phrase, a phrase whose head is the determiner the. Determiners and determiner
phrases will be discussed presently when the functional categories are introduced.

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John is in the kitchen.

Subcategorization frame of in: P [

DP]

The preposition in takes two arguments but only one complement, a determiner phrase (DP).
NOUN COMPLEMENTS
In the following sentence:
The enemy destroyed the city.
the verb destroy takes two arguments (the enemy and the city) and one complement (the city).
If the sentence is transformed into a phrase, it can become part of a larger sentence as in:
The enemys destruction of the city occurred at dawn.
The noun destruction inherits the arguments of the verb destroy, so that it will also have two
arguments (the enemy and the city) and one complement (the city). Notice that the main
predicator of the sentence is occurred. What we are doing is analysing the phrase the enemys
destruction of the city internally. The subcategorization frame of destruction would be as
follows:
Subcategorization frame of destruction: N [

PP]

ADJUNCTS
Consider the following sentences:
John killed Bill in Central Park yesterday.
The verb kill is a two-place verb, it takes two arguments (John and Bill) and one complement
(Bill). In Central Park and yesterday are not required by the meaning of kill. In Central Park
gives us the location of the whole event of killing and yesterday the time at which the event
occurred. It would also be possible to add to the previous sentence an adjunct of reason
(because he hated him).
These elements that modify the whole event are called adverbial adjuncts. The label
adjunct is a syntactic label. Adjuncts are in opposition to complements. Adjuncts will not
be part of subcategorization frames.
The following is a list of adverbial adjuncts. It is not an exhaustive list, though:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Adverbial adjunct of time: I havent seen John since Monday.

Adverbial adjunct of place: John killed Bill in Central Park.
Adverbial adjunct of manner or speed: She buttered the bread slowly.
Adverbial adjunct of reason or cause: She was late because she overslept.
Adverbial adjunct of company: She went to the cinema with her boyfriend.
Adverbial adjunct of purpose: The thief wore gloves so that he would leave no
fingerprints.

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7. Adverbial adjunct of result: The thief wore gloves so that he left no fingerprints.
8. Adverbial adjunct of condition: If he comes, tell him that Im out.
9. Adverbial adjunct of concession: The match was played in spite of the rain.
10. Adverbial adjunct of frequency: She reads the newspaper every day.
11. Adverbial adjunct of instrument2: She cut the bread with a knife.
POSTMODIFIERS TO NOUNS
In the same way that we have to make a distinction between complements and adjuncts, we
will also have to make a distinction between complements to nouns and postmodifiers to
nouns. In the phrase:
a student of physics
of physics is a complement to the noun student because a student of physics is somebody who
studies physics. But in:
a student with long hair
with long hair is a postmodifier. A student with long hair is not somebody who studies long
hair, it is somebody who studies something and who happens to have long hair. Notice that
complements to nouns and postmodifiers to nouns may coexist as in:
a student of physics with long hair
If both appear the complement must come first because it has a closer relationship with the
noun.
Some authors use the label adnominal adjunct for postmodifiers to nouns. Again the
important thing is that postmodifiers to nouns or adnominal adjuncts are in opposition to
complements.
Lesson 6 Activity 1:
Be ready to answer the following questions in class:
1. What does the Extended Projection Principle state?
2. How can we define a complement?
3. Why isnt the subject a complement?
4. What kind of information does a subcategorization frame include?
5. What is an adjunct?
Lesson 6 Activity 2: (to be discussed in class)
State the subcategorization frame of the following predicators:
1. Laura told the children a very strange story.
2. My mother keeps the sugar in the fridge.
3. The students knowledge of Latin was quite good.
4. The student was good at Latin.
5. The mobile cast a shadow on the wall.
2

It is debatable whether the instrument is really an adjunct or a complement.

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Lesson 6 Activity 3: (to be discussed in class)

Do the following sentences contain any adverbial adjuncts? If so, what type are they?
1. Lucy keeps the money in a box.
2. He did it because of her insistence.
3. She kissed her mother on the platform.
4. I have often told them to relax.
5. Although he is poor, he is happy.
6. He is poor but he is happy.
7. The match will be played in spite of the rain.
8. The match will be played although it is raining.
Lesson 6 Activity 4: (to be handed in as Assignment 6)
State the subcategorization frame of the following predicators:
1. Laura placed the book on a shelf.
2. The boy ate the sandwich.
3. The child was very innocent. (= nave)
4. The man was innocent of any crime. (= not guilty of any crime)
5. John is at the office.
References:
Haegeman, L. (1994) Introduction to Government & Binding Theory, second edition.
Blackwell.

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