Culture of Africa

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An Ethiopian woman preparing Ethiopian coffee at a traditional ceremony. She roasts, crushes and brews the
coffee on the spot.

The culture of Africa is varied and manifold, consisting of a mixture of tribes that each have their
own unique characteristics. It is a product of the diverse populations that today inhabit the continent
of Africa and the African Diaspora. African culture is expressed in its arts and crafts, folklore and
religion, clothing, cuisine, music and languages.[1] Africa is so full of culture, with it not only changing
from one country to another, but within a single country, many cultures can be discovered. Even
though African cultures are widely diverse, it is also, when closely studied, seen to have many
similarities. For example, the morals they uphold, their love and respect for their culture as well as
the strong respect they hold for the aged and the important i.e Kings and Chiefs.
Africa has influenced and been influenced by other countries. This can be portrayed in the
willingness to adapt to the ever changing modern world rather than staying rooted to their static
culture. The Westernized few, persuaded by European culture and Christianity, first denied African
traditional culture, but with the increase of Africannationalism, a cultural recovery occurred. The
governments of most African nations encourage national dance and music groups, museums, and to
a lower degree, artists and writers.
Contents
[hide]

1Historical overview

2African arts and crafts

3Folklore and religion

4Clothing

5Cuisine

6African music

7Languages

8See also

9References

10External links

Historical overview[edit]

Sample of the Egyptian Book of the Dead of the scribe Nebqed, c.1300 BC.

Africa is divided into a great number of ethnic cultures.[2][3][4] The continent's cultural regeneration has
also been an integral aspect of post-independence nation-building on the continent, with a
recognition of the need to harness the cultural resources of Africa to enrich the process of education,
requiring the creation of an enabling environment in a number of ways. In recent times, the call for a
much greater emphasis on the cultural dimension in all aspects of development has become
increasingly vocal.[5] During the Roman colonization of North Africa,(parts of Algeria, Libya, Egypt and
the whole of Tunisia) provinces such as Tripolitania became major producers of food for the republic
and the empire, this generated much wealth in these places for their 400 years of occupation.
[6]
During colonialism in Africa, Europeans possessed attitudes of superiority and a sense of mission.
The French were able to accept an African as French if that person gave up their African culture and
adopted French ways. Knowledge of the Portuguese language and culture and abandonment of
traditional African ways defined one as civilized.[7] Kenyan social commentator Mwiti Mugambi argues
that the future of Africa can only be forged from accepting and mending the sociocultural present.
For Mugambi, colonial cultural hangovers, pervasive Western cultural inundation, and aid-giving
arm-twisting donors are, he argues, here to stay and no amount of looking into Africa's past will
make them go away. However, Maulana Karenga states:
Our culture provides us with an ethos we must honor in both thought and practice. By ethos, we
mean a people's self-understanding as well as its self-presentation in the world through its thought
and practice in the other six areas of culture. It is above all a cultural challenge. For culture is here
defined as the totality of thought and practice by which a people creates itself, celebrates, sustains
and develops itself and introduces itself to history and humanity
Maulana Karenga, African Culture and the Ongoing Quest for Excellence [8]

African arts and crafts[edit]

Main article: African art

SUDAN basket -tray, tabar of weaved natural plant fibre, coloured in different colours

A Yombe sculpture (Louvre, Paris).

Africa has a rich tradition of arts and crafts. African arts and crafts find expression in a variety
of woodcarvings, brass and leather art works. African arts and crafts also
include sculpture, paintings, pottery, ceremonial and religious headgear and dress.Maulana
Karenga states that in African art, the object was not as important as the soul force behind the
creation of the object. He also states that All art must be revolutionary and in being revolutionary it
must be collective, committing, and functional.[citation needed]

BaKongo voodoo masks from theKongo Central region

Certain African cultures has always placed emphasis on personal appearance andjewelry has
remained an important personalaccessory. Many pieces of such jewelry are made ofcowry shells
and similar materials. Similarly, masks are made with elaborate designs and are an important part of
some cultures in Africa. Masks are used in various ceremonies depicting ancestors and spirits,
mythological characters and deities.
In many traditional arts and craft traditions in Africa, certain themes significant to those particular
cultures recur, including a couple, a woman with a child, a male with a weapon or animal, and an

outsider or a stranger. Couples may represent ancestors, community founder, married couple or
twins. The couple theme rarely exhibit intimacy of men and women. The mother with the child or
children reveals intense desire of the women to have children. The theme is also representative of
mother mars and the people as her children. The man with the weapon or animal theme symbolizes
honor and power. A stranger may be from some other tribe or someone from a different country, and
more distorted portrayal of the stranger indicates proportionately greater gap from the stranger.

Folklore and religion[edit]

See also: African traditional religions and Religion in Africa

Central mosque in Nouakchott,Mauritania.

Like all human cultures, African folklore and religion represents a variety of social facets of the
various cultures in Africa.[citation needed] Like almost all civilizations and cultures, flood myths have been
circulating in different parts of Africa. Culture and religion share space and are deeply intertwined in
African cultures. In Ethiopia, Christianity and Islam form the core aspects of Ethiopian culture and
inform dietary customs as well as rituals and rites.[9] According to a Pygmy myth, Chameleon,
hearing a strange noise in a tree, cut open its trunk and water came out in a great flood that spread
all over the land.

Kenyan boys and girls performing a traditional folklore dance.

Folktales also play an important role in many African cultures. Stories reflect a group cultural identity
and preserving the stories of Africa will help preserve an entire culture. Storytelling affirms pride and
identity in a culture. In Africa, stories are created by and for the ethnic group telling them. Different
ethnic groups in Africa have different rituals or ceremonies for storytelling, which creates a sense of
belonging to a cultural group. To outsiders hearing an ethnic group's stories, it provides an insight
into the community's beliefs, views, and customs. For people within the community, it allows them to
encompass their group's uniqueness. They show the human desires and fears of a group, such as
love, marriage, and death. Folktales are also seen as a tool for education and entertainment. They
provide a way for children to understand the material and social environment. Every story has a
moral to teach people, such as good will prevail over evil. For entertainment, stories are set in

fantastic, non-human worlds. Often, the main character of the story would be a talking animal or
something unnatural would happen to human character. Even though folktales are for entertainment,
they bring a sense of belonging and pride to communities in Africa. [10]
There are different types of African stories: animal tales and day-to-day tales. Animal tales more
oriented towards entertainment, but still have morals and lessons to them. Animal tales are normally
divided into trickster tales and ogre tales. In the animal tales, a certain animal would always have the
same character or role in each story so the audience does not have to worry about characterization.
The Hare was always the trickster, clever and cunning, while the Hyena was always being tricked by
the Hare. Ogres are always cruel, greedy monsters. The messengers in all the stories were the
Birds. Day-to-Day tales are the most serious tales, never including humor, that explained the
everyday life and struggles of an African community. These tales take on matters such as famine,
escape from death, courtship, and family matters, using a song form when the climax of the story
was being told.
African stories all have a certain structure to them. Villagers would gather around a common meeting
place at the end of the day to listen and tell their stories. Storytellers had certain commands to start
and end the stories, "Ugai Itha" to get the audience's attention and begin the story, and "Rukirika" to
signal the end of a tale. Each scene of a story is depicted with two characters at a time, so the
audience does not get overwhelmed. In each story, victims are able to overcome their predators and
take justice out on the culprit. Certain tools were used in African folktales. For example, idiophones,
such as drums, were used to make the sounds of different animals. Repetition and call-back
techniques in the form of prose or poem were also used to get the audience involved in the stories. [11]
[12]

Clothing[edit]
Main article: Clothing in Africa

Ashanti Kente clothpatterns.

A woman in Kenya wearing kanga

Women's traditional clothes in Ethiopia are made fromcloth called shemma and are used to
make habesha kemis. The latter garment is basically cotton cloth, about 90 cm wide, woven in long
strips which are then sewn together. Sometimes shiny threads are woven into the fabric for an
elegant effect. Men wear pants and a knee-length shirt with a white collar, and perhaps a sweater.
Men often wear knee-high socks, while women might not wear socks at all. Men as well as women
wear shawls, the netela.

Maasai wearing traditional clothes named Matavuvale while performingAdumu, a traditional dance

Zulus wear a variety of attire, both traditional for ceremonial or culturally celebratory occasions, and
modern westernised clothing for everyday use. Traditional male clothing is usually light, consisting of
a two-part apron (similar to a loincloth) used to cover the genitals and buttocks. The front piece is
called theumutsha (pronounced Zulu pronunciation: [umtifash]), and is usually made of springbokor
other animal hide twisted into different bands which cover the genitals. The rear piece, called
the ibheshu [ibeu], is made of a single piece of springbok or cattlehide, and its length is usually
used as an indicator of age and social position; longer amabheshu (plural of ibheshu) are worn by
older men. Married men will usually also wear a headband, called the umqhele [umle], which is
usually also made of springbok hide, or leopard hide by men of higher social status, such as chiefs.
Zulu men will also wear cow tails as bracelets and anklets called imishokobezi[imioozi] during
ceremonies and rituals, such as weddings or dances.
In the Muslim parts of Africa, daily attire also often reflects Islamic tradition. [citation needed]

Cuisine[edit]
Main article: African cuisine

Fufu (right) is a staple meal in West Africa and Central Africa. It is served here with some peanut soup.

The various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal
grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the
traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd and wheyproducts. In much of tropical Africa,
however, cow's milk is rare and cannot be produced locally (owing to various diseases that affect
livestock). The continent's diverse demographic makeup is reflected in the many different eating and
drinking habits, dishes, and preparation techniques of its manifold populations. [13]
In Central Africa, the basic ingredients are plantains and cassava. Fufu-like starchy foods (usually
made from fermented cassava roots) are served with grilled meat and sauces. A variety of local
ingredients are used while preparing other dishes likespinach stew, cooked with tomato, peppers,
chillis, onions, and peanut butter. Cassava plants are also consumed as cooked greens. Groundnut
(peanut) stew is also prepared, containing chicken, okra, ginger, and other spices. Another favorite is
Bambara, a porridge of rice, peanut butter and sugar. Beef and chicken are favorite meat dishes, but
game meat preparations containing crocodile, monkey,antelope and warthog are also served
occasionally.

Fresh Moroccan couscous with vegetables and chickpeas.

The cuisine of the African Great Lakes region varies from area to area. In the inland savannah, the
traditional cuisine of cattle-keeping peoples is distinctive in that meat products are generally
absent. Cattle, sheep and goats were regarded as a form ofcurrency and a store of wealth, and are
not generally consumed as food. In some areas, traditional peoples consume the milk and blood of
cattle, but rarely the meat. Elsewhere, other peoples are farmers who grow a variety of grains and
vegetables.Maize (corn) is the basis of ugali, the East African version of West Africa's fufu. Ugali is a
starch dish eaten with meats or stews. In Uganda, steamed, green bananascalled matoke provide
the starch filler of many meals.
In the Horn of Africa, the main traditional dishes in Ethiopian cuisine and Eritrean
cuisine are tsebhis (stews) served with injera[14] (flatbread made from teff,[14] wheat, or sorghum),

and hilbet (paste made from legumes, mainly lentil, faba beans). Eritrean and Ethiopian
cuisine (especially in the northern half) are very similar, given the shared history of the two countries.
The related Somalian cuisine consists of an exotic fusion of diverse culinary influences. Varieties
of bariis (rice), the most popular probably being basmati, usually serve as the main
dish. Xalwo (halwo) or halva is a popular confection served during special occasions such
as Eid celebrations or wedding receptions.[15] After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed
using frankincense (lubaan) or incense (cuunsi), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred
to as a dabqaad. All food is served halal.

Potjiekos is a traditionalAfrikaner stew made with meat and vegetables and cooked over coals in cast-iron pots.

The roots of North African cuisine can be traced back to the ancient empires of North Africa,
particularly in Egypt where many of the country's dishes and culinary traditions date back to ancient
Egypt. Over several centuries traders, travelers, invaders, migrants and immigrants all have
influenced the cuisine of North Africa. Most of the North African countries today have several similar
dishes, sometimes almost the same dish with a different name (the Moroccan tangia and the
Tunisian coucha are both essentially the same dish: a meat stew prepared in an urn and cooked
overnight in a public oven), sometimes with a slight change in ingredients and cooking style. To add
to the confusion, two completely different dishes may also share the same name (for example, a
"tajine" dish is a slow-cooked stew in Morocco, whereas the Tunisian "tajine" is a
bakedomelette/quiche-like dish). There are noticeable differences between the cooking styles of
different nations there's the sophisticated, full-bodied flavours of Moroccan palace cookery, the
fiery dishes of Tunisian cuisine, and the humbler, simpler cuisines of Egyptand Algeria.[16]
The cooking of Southern Africa is sometimes called 'rainbow cuisine', as the food in this region is a
blend of many culinary traditions, including those of
the Khoisan, Bantu,European and Asian populations. Basic ingredients include seafood, meat
products (including wild game), poultry, as well as grains, fresh fruits and vegetables. Fruits
include apples, grapes, mangoes, bananas and papayas, avocado, oranges,peaches and apricots.
Desserts may simply be fruit. However, there are some more western style puddings, such as the
Angolan Cocada amarela, which was inspired by Portuguese cuisine. Meat products include lamb,
as well as game likevenison, ostrich, and impala. The seafood includes a wide variety such
as crayfish, prawns, tuna, mussels, oysters, calamari, mackerel, and lobster. There are also several
types of traditional and modern alcoholic beverages including many European-style beers.
A typical West African meal is heavy with starchy items, meat, spices and flavors. A wide array of
staples are eaten across the region, including those of Fufu, Banku and Kenkey (originating
from Ghana), Foutou, Couscous, T, and Garri, which are served alongside soups and stews. Fufu
is often made from starchy root vegetables such as yams, cocoyams, orcassava, but also from

cereal grains like millet, sorghum or plantains. The staple grain or starch varies region to region and
ethnic group to ethnic group, although corn has gained significant ground as it is cheap, swells to
greater volumes and creates a beautiful white final product that is greatly desired. Banku and
Kenkey are maize dough staples, and Gari is made from dried grated cassavas. Rice-dishes are
also widely eaten in the region, especially in the dry Sahel belt inland. Examples of these
include Benachin from The Gambia and Jollof rice, a pan-West African rice dish similar to
Arab kabsah.

African music[edit]
See also: African popular music and Music of Africa

Yoruba drummers at celebration in Ojumo Oro, Kwara State, Nigeria.

Traditional Sub-Saharan African music is as diverse as the region's various populations. The
common perception of Sub-Saharan African music is that it is rhythmic music centered on the drums,
and indeed, a large part of Sub-Saharan music, mainly among speakers of NigerCongo and NiloSaharan languages, is rhythmic and centered on the drum. Sub-Saharan music is polyrhythmic,
usually consisting of multiple rhythms in one composition. Dance involves moving multiple body
parts. These aspects of Sub-Saharan music were transferred to the new world by enslaved SubSaharan Africans and can be seen in its influence on music forms as Samba, Jazz, Rhythm and
Blues, Rock & Roll, Salsa, and Rap music.[17]
Other African musical traditions also involve strings, horns, and very little poly-rhythms. Music from
the eastern Sahel and along the Nile, among the Nilo-Saharan, made extensive use of strings and
horns in ancient times. Dancing involve swaying body movements and footwork.Among
the Khoisans extensive use of string instruments with emphasis on footwork.[18]
Modern Sub-Saharan African music has been influenced by music from the New World (Jazz, Salsa,
Rhythm and Blues etc.). Popular styles
include Mbalax inSenegal and Gambia, Highlife in Ghana, Zoblazo in Cte
d'Ivoire, Makossa inCameroon, Soukous in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kizomba in Angola,
andMbaqanga in South Africa. New World styles like Salsa, R&B/Rap, Reggae, and Zouk also have
widespread popularity.

Like the musical genres of the Nile Valley and the Horn of Africa,[19] North African music has close ties
with Middle Eastern music and utilizes similar melodic modes (maqamat).[20] It has a considerable
range, from the music of ancient Egypt to theBerber and the Tuareg music of the desert nomads.
The region's art music has for centuries followed the outline of Arabicand Andalusian classical
music. Its popular contemporary genres include the Algerian Ra. Somali music is
typicallypentatonic, using five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such
as the major scale.[19] InEthiopia, the music of the highlands uses a fundamental modal system
called qenet, of which there are four main modes:tezeta, bati, ambassel, and anchihoy.[21] Three
additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor.[22] Some songs
take the name of their qenet, such as tizita, a song of reminiscence.[21]

Languages[edit]
Main article: Languages of Africa
The main ethno-linguistic divisions in Africa are Afro-Asiatic (North Africa, Horn of Africa), Niger
Congo (including speakers from the Bantu branch) in most of Sub-Saharan Africa, Nilo-Saharan in
parts of the Sahara and the Sahel and parts ofEastern Africa, and Khoisan (indigenous minorities
of Southern Africa).[23] The continent of Africa speaks hundreds of languages, and if dialects spoken
by various ethnic groups are also included, the number is much higher. These languages and
dialects do not have the same importance: some are spoken by only few hundred people, others are
spoken by millions. Among the most prominent languages spoken are Arabic, Swahili and Hausa.
Very few countries of Africa use any single language and for this reason several official languages
coexist, African and European. Some Africans speak various European languages such as English,
Spanish, French, and Dutch.

A LAMAT NG P ILIPINAS
NOONG

UNANG PANAHON AY WALA PANG BUAHAY SA DAIGDIG.

WALANG

MGA TAO, WALANG MGA

HALAMAN, WALANG MGA PUNO, WALANG TUBIG, WALANG BUNDOK, WALANG PAPAWIRIN AT WALA RING MGA
HAYOP.

DAHIL

HARING PINAGMULAAN. IBIG

SA GAYON AY GINUGOL NIYA ANG MARAMING
GAWIN. HANGGANG BIGLA SIYANG MAPANGITI. MAY

WALANG NAKIKITA AT WALANG MAKAUSAP AY NAGING MALUNGKUTIN SI

NIYANG MAALIW NGUNIT WALA NAMANG MAPAGLIBANGAN.

ORAS SA PAG-IISIP KUNG ANO ANG DAPAT NIYANG
NAISIP KASI SIYANG PARAAN KUNG PAANO SASAYA.

NANG

ORAS DING IYON AY NILALANG NIYA ANG DAIGIDG.

PANSAMANTALA

NAPAIYAK
KANYANG

ANG

HARING PINAGMULAN. PERO

AY NALIBANG SI

KASIYAHANG IYON.

DAMANG-DAMA

HARING PINAGMULAN
LUHA SA PAPAWIRIN.
SI

HINDI NAGING PANGMATAGALAN ANG

PARIN NIYA ANG LUNGKOT DAHIL SA PAG-IISA.

DAHIL SA TINDI NG LUNGKOT.

DALAWANG PATAK NG LUHA AY NAGING MGA IBON.

PUMATAK

NAPANGITI

ANG DALAWANG PATAK NG

SI HARING

PINAGMULAN

HABANG

PINAGMAMAS-DAN ANG MGA IBON SA PAGLIPAD.

WALANG

TIGIL SA PAGLIPAD ANG MGA IBON KAHIT PAGOD NA PAGOD.

WALA

KASI SILANG MADAPUAN.

NAAWA

HARING PINAGMULAN
MAKAPAGPAHINGA ANG MGA ITO.
NANG

SI

SA MGA IBON.

NAISIP

NIYANG LIKHAIN ANG LUPA AT ANG GUBAT UPANG

MAKAKITA NG MGA KAKA-YUHAN AY DUMAPO SA MGA ITO ANG DALAWANG IBON.

MAKARAANG

MAKA-

BAWI NG LAKAS AY MULING LUMIPAD ANG MGA ITO.

WALANG

TIGIL SA PAGLIPAD ANG MGA IBON.

NAIS

NILANG MALAMAN ANG LAWAK NG KALUPAANG

KINAROROONAN.

MINSAN

AY NAPANSIN NILANG ANG ISANG KAWAYANAN.

MAKARINIG NG MGA TINIG MULA SA LOOB NG MALAKING

TINUKTOK

DUMAPO
BIYAS.

NANG TINUKTOK NG DALAWANG IBON ANG BIYAS.

DITO ANG DALAWA.

NAPAGOD

NAGTAKA

SILA NANG

SILA SA KATUTUKTOK PERO HINDI

TUMIGIL HANGGANG SA MABIYAK IYON.

MULA

SA MALAKING BIYAS NG KAWAYAN AY LUMABAS SI

NAKARINIG
TINUKTOK

SILALAK,

ANG UNANG LALAKI.

MULI NG TINIG MULA SA ISA PANG MALAKING BIYAS NG KAWAYAN ANG MGA IBON.

NILA ITO NANG TINUKTOK.

NILIKHA ANG LUMABAS.

SINA SILALAK

AT

SIYA

SIBABAY

SI

NANG MABIYAK ANG KAWAYAN

SIBABAY, ANG UNANG BABAE.

ANG PINAGMULAN NG ATING LAHI.

AT

AY ISANG NAMANG NAPAKAGANDANG

ANG

PILIPINAS

ANG PULO KUNG SAAN

SUMIHOL ANG PINAGMULAN NILANG MGA BIYAS NG KAWAYAN.

Alamat
Mula sa Wikipediang Tagalog, ang malayang ensiklopedya

Ang alamat ay isang uri ng kwentong bayan at panitikan na nagkukuwento tungkol sa mga
pinagmulan ng mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig. Karaniwang nagsasalaysay ang mga ito ng mga
pangyayari hinggil sa tunay na mga tao at pook, at mayroong pinagbatayan sa kasaysayan.Kaugnay
ang alamat ng mga mito at kuwentong-bayan. Ang salitang alamat ay panumbas sa salitang
"legend" ng ingles.

Kayarian[baguhin | baguhin ang batayan]

Hinggil sa mga kuwento ng mga bayani, kalimitang may ginaganapang importanteng tungkulin at
bahagi ang mga diyos, at iba pang mga itinuturing na banal na mga nilalang. Maaaring
ipinananggalang nila o kaya sinasaktan ang bayani ng alamat. Katulad na lamang ng sa paglalakbay
ni Odysseus sa Ang Odyssey, tinulungan siya ng diyosang si Athena at sinasaktan ng diyos na
si Poseidon. Kung minsan, ang bayani ang siya mismong inkarnasyon, o nasa kaanyuhang tao, ng
isang diyos. Maaari ring anak o ampon ng isang diyos ang isang bayaning pang-alamat, na
kalimitang may namanang mga katangian mula sa isang magulang, karaniwang mula sa ama.

Epiko
Mula sa Wikipediang Tagalog, ang malayang ensiklopedya

Ang epiko[1] ay uri ng panitikan na tumatalakay sa mga kabayanihan at pakikipagtunggali ng isang

tao o mga tao laban sa mga kaaway na halos hindi mapaniwalaan dahil may mga tagpuang
makababalaghan at di-kapani-paniwala. Kuwento ito ng kabayanihan na punung-puno ng mga
kagila-gilalas na mga pangyayari. Bawat pangkatin ng mga Pilipino ay may maipagmamalaking
epiko.
Sa mahigpit na kahulugang pampanitikan, ang epiko (may titik o sa huli, isang pandiwa)[1] ay isang
paglalahad namakabayani o bumabayani.

Tuwaang (Epiko ng mga Bagobo)

Ang Tuwaang, epiko ng mga Bagobo, ay isang mahabang tula na nagsasalaysay ng mga
kabayanihan ni Tuwaang. Si Tuwaang ay siyang puno ng Kuaman. Balita siya sa
katapangan, lakas at kakisigan. Isang araw tumanggap si Tuwaang ng balita na may isang
dilag na nagmula sa kalangitan ng Buhong na nakarating sa kaharian ni Batooy upang
humingi ng tulong. Tinawagan ni Batooy si Tuwaang. Nagpaalam si Tuwaang sa kapatid
niyang babae na kinagigiliwan iyong tawaging Bai, ibig niyang tulungan ang nasabing
dalaga. Ayaw mang pumayag ni Bai sapagkat ang gagawin ni Tuwaang ay lubhang
mapanganib, hindi rin napigil si Tuwaang sa gagawin niyang pagsaklolo. Sumakay si
Tuwaang sa kidlat. Ang karaniwan niyang sasakyan ay hangin. Ngunit sa pagkakataong ito'y
humingi siya ng pasintabi sa hangin sa hindi ito ang gamiting sasakyan sapagkat siya'y
nagmamadali.
Dumaan muna si Tuwaang sa lupain ng Binata ng Pangavukad. Dinulutan si Tuwaang ng
itso (ikmo at bunga). Ang pagdudulot ng itso sa panauhin ay kaugalian ng mga Muslim.
Pumunta si Tuwaang at ang Binata ng Pangavukad sa lupain ni Batooy. Pagdating nila roon,
dahil sa kagandahang lalaki ni Tuwaang ay halos hinimatay ang mga tao sa laki ng paghanga
sa binata ng Kuaman. Pumanhik si Tuwaang at sa laki ng pagod dahil sa paglalakbay ay
nakatulog siya sa pagkakaupo sa tabi ng dalagang may lambong ng kadiliman, ang dalaga ng
Buhong. Nang magising si Tuwaang, dinulutan ang dalawa ng itso at sila'y ngumanga. Mula
pa ng dumating sa lupain ni Batooy ay walang nais kausapin ang dalagang may lambong ng
kadiliman. Hinintay niya si Tuwaang upang dito sabihin ang kanyang malaking suliranin.
Nagkagusto ang binata ng Pangumanon sa dalaga. Malaki naman ang pag-ayaw ng dlaga,
subalit nais kunin ng Binata ng Pangumanon ang dalaga sa dahas. Kaya napilitan siyang
humingi ng saklolo kay Tuwaang at kay Batooy.
Hindi pa gaanong natatagalan ang pag-uusap ni Tuwaang at ng dalaga ng Buhong ay
dumating naman ang Binata ng Pangumanon. Walang taros na pinagtataga ng Binata ng
Pangumanon ang tauhan ni Batooy. Para lamang tumatabas ng puno sa isang tubuhan at sa
ilang saglit nakabulagta nang lahat ang mga kawal at tauhan ni Batooy.
Nanaog si Tuwaang at nagharap ang dalawang malakas at makapangyarihang lalaki.
Ginamit ni Tuwaang ang kanyang kampilan. Sa lakas ng pagtatagaan ay naputol ito.

Itinapon ni Tuwaang ang puluhan nito at kaagad na tumulong ang punong malivutu. Gayon
din ang nangyari sa binata ng Pangumanon. Ginamit naman ni Tuwaang ang iba pang
sandata niyang palihuma, gayon din ang balaraw hanggang nabali rin sa puluhan ang mga
ito. At sabay na nagtapon ng baling puluhan ang dalawa at ito'y naging punong maunlapay.
Nang magkaubusan na sila ng mga armas, sinunggaban ng Binata ng Pangumanon si
Tuwaang at ibig durugin sa kanyang binti. Hindi nasaktan si Tuwaang. Sinunggaban naman
ni Tuwaang ang Binata ng Pangumanon at tinangkang ihampas sa malaking bato. Nang
sasayad na ang katawan, ang bato ay naging alabok. Tinawagan ng Binata ng Pangumanon
ang kanyang patung. Ito'y isang dangkal na bakal na ipinulupot kay Tuwaang. Ang patung
ay bumuga ng apoy. Inunat ni Tuwaang ang kamay at namatay ang apoy. Tinawagan naman
ni Tuwaang ang kanyang patung at nagliyab ang binata ng Pangumanon at namatay.
Ngumanga si Tuwaang at ibinuga ang tabug ng nganga sa mga tauhan ni Batooy at sila'y
nabuhay na lahat. Iniuwi ni Tuwaang ang dalaga sa Kuanan. Pagdating nila sa Kuaman ay
may ligalig na nagaganap. Pagkatapos na magapi ni Tuwaang ang kalaban, minabuti niyang
doon na sila sa bayan ng Katu-san manirahang lahat. Inilulan ni Tuwaang sa sinalimba,
isang ginituang sasakyang lumilipad ang lahat niyang tauhan. Pinasan ni Tuwaang sa
magkabila niyang balikat ang dalagang Buhong at ang kapatid na si Bai at pumunta rin sila
sa Katu-san, ang lupaing walang kamatayan.
Alim (Epiko ng mga Ifugao)
Ang epikong Alim ng mga Ifugao ay nagsasalaysay ng isang panahong ang lupain ay
saganang-sagana. Maging ang mga ilog at dagat ay sagana sa isda. Ang mga kagubatan ay
maraming mga hayop na madaling hulihin. Walang suliranin ang mga tao tungkol sa
pagkain. Pag ibig nilang kumain, wala silang gagawin kundi pumutol ng biyas na kawayan at
naroroon na ang bigas na isasaing. Ang biyas ng kawayan ay siya ring pagsasaingan. Noon,
ang daigdig ay patag na patag maliban sa dalawang bundok : ang Bundok ng Amuyaw at ang
Bundok ng Kalawitan.
Dumating ang panahong hindi pumatak ang ulan. Natuyo ang mga ilog. Namatay ang mga
tao. Humukay ang ilang natitirang tao ng ilog. Ang tubig ay bumalong. Natuwa ang mga tao
at sila ay nagdiwang. Subalit bumuhos ang malakas na ulan, umapaw ang mga ilog. Tumaas
nang tumaas ang tubig. Nagsipagtakbo ang mga tao sa dalawang bundok subalit inabot din
sila ng baha. Nalunod na lahat ang mga tao maliban sa magkapatid na sina Bugan at Wigan.
Nang bumaba na ang baha, nagpaningas ng apoy si Bugan sa bundok ng Kalawitan. Nakita
ito ni Wigan sa kanyang kinaroroonan sa bundok ng Amuyaw. Pumunta si Wigan kay
Bugan. Nalaman nilang silang dalawa lamang magkapatid ang natirang tao sa daigdig.

Nagtayo ng bahay si Wigan na tinirahan nila ni Bugan. Pagkaraan ng ilang panahon, si

Bugan ay nagdalantao. Dahil sa malaking kahihiyan tinangka ni Bugan na magpakamatay.
Pinigil siya ng isang matanda. Ito'y bathala ng mga Ifugao, si Makanungan. Ikinasal ni
Makanungan si Wigan at si Bugan. Nagkaroon sila ng siyam na anak, limang lalaki at apat
na babae. Nang dumating sila sa hustong gulang, ang apat na lalaki ay ikinasal sa apat na
babae. Ang bunsong lalaki na si Igon ang natirang walang asawa. Namuhay silang
masagana.
Paglipas ng ilang panahon, nakaranas sila ng tagtuyot. Wala silang ani. Naalala ni Wigan at
ni Bugan si Makanungan. Sila'y nanawagan dito at hinandugan nila ng alay na daga. Patuloy
pa rin ang tagtuyot. Naisipan nilang si Igon ang patayin at siyang ihandog sa Bathala.
Natapos ang pagsasalat at tuyot.
Subalit nagalit si Makanungan sa ginawa nilang pagpatay at paghahandog ng buhay ni Igon.
Isinumpa niya ang mga anak nina Wigan at Bugan. Sinabi niyang maghihiwa-hiwalay ang
magkakapatid - sa timog, sa hilaga, sa kanluran, sa silangan. Kapag sila'y nagkita-kita, sila'y
mag-aaway at magpapatayan. Kaya't ang mga tribong ito ng mga tao sa kabundukan,
magpahangga ngayon ay naglalaban at nagpapatayan.
I know I've mentioned the role that blood plays in your body at some point. To recap, blood is the fuel that keeps you
going! Oxygenated blood is brought to organs and tissues via the arteries, while veins bring deoxygenated blood
back to the heart to be replenished. The point is, without the respiratory system your blood would be useless.
The circulatory and respiratory systems work together to circulate blood and oxygen throughout the body. Air moves
in and out of the lungs through the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles. Blood moves in and out of the lungs through
the pulmonary arteries and veins that connect to the heart.
The pulmonary vessels operate backwards from the rest of the body's vasculature: The pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs, and the pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the heart to
be distributed to the body.