STRESS

Critical section

P
t ,c , s =
A
My
b =
I
Ty
=
J
(a) Normal, tensile (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear;
(d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined
3/17/2015

Elementary equations. No discontinuity in cross-section.

Holes, shoulders, keyways, etc.

A
B

High concentration
of elements are
required to
estimate stress
level.

Finite element model to calculate

stresses
3/17/2015

Stress Concentration
Axial Load on Plate with Hole

avg

P
=
(b d ) h

Plate with cross-sectional plane

Stress concentration factor

max
Kt =
avg
Half of plate with stress distribution.
3/17/2015

Geometric discontinuity increases the

stress. Stress concentration is a
highly localized effect.
3/17/2015

EX: A 50mm wide and

5mm high rectangular
plate has a 5mm
diameter central hole.
Allowable stress is 300
MPa. Find the max.
tensile force that can be
applied.
Ans: d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7
A = (50-5)5
P = 25 kN

Stress concentration factor for rectangular

plate with central hole.

3/17/2015

EX: Assume
H=45mm,
h=25mm, and
fillet radius
r=5mm. Find
stress
concentration
factor.
Ans: ~1.8

Stress concentration factor under axial load for

rectangular plate with fillet
3/17/2015

Stress concentration factor under axial load for rectangular

plate with groove
3/17/2015

Stress concentration factor under

axial load for round bar with fillet
3/17/2015

Gap between lines

decrease with
increase in r/d ratio.
8

Stress concentration factor for round bar with groove

3/17/2015

Ex: Assuming 80 MPa as allowable strength of

plate material, determine the plate thickness
Maximum stress
near fillet
5000 300
=
b
30 b

fillet = 1.8

Maximum stress
near hole
hole

Kt=1.8

Kt=2.1

5000 700
=
= 2.1
b
(30 15)b

Allowable
3/17/2015

allowable = 80

b=8.75 mm

10

EX: Assume
H=45mm,
h=25mm, and
fillet radius
r=5mm. Find
stress
concentration
factor.
Ans: ~1.5

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular

plate with fillet
3/17/2015

11

Concentration factor for

thick plate with central
hole is higher compared
to thin plate with same
size hole.

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular plate

with central hole
3/17/2015

12

Stress concentration factor under

bending for rectangular plate with groove
3/17/2015

Decrease in Kt for r/h

> 0.25 is negligible.
13

Stress concentration factor under bending for round bar with fillet
3/17/2015

14

Stress concentration factor under bending for round bar with groove
3/17/2015

15

Ex:

Assuming 100MPa as allowable

stress, determine the shaft dia, d.
Due to symmetry,
reaction force at
each bearing =
1250 N.
Stress
concentration will
occur at the fillet.
Kt=1.6
max = 1.6 avg =
3/17/2015

51.2 (1250 350)

(d )

avg =
= 100

32 M 32 (1250 350)
=
3
d
(d )3

Diameter d=41.5 mm
16

Stress concentration
under torsion
loading is relatively
low.

Stress concentration factor under torsion for round bar with fillet
3/17/2015

17

Stress concentration factor under torsion for round bar with groove
3/17/2015

18

Notch Sensitivity

q=

K f 1
Kt 1

Metals can accommodate stress

concentration by deforming & redistributing
load more evenly.
Some materials are not fully sensitive to
the presence of geometrical irregularities
(notch) and hence for those materials a
reduced value of Kt can be used.
Notch sensitivity

parameter q = 0
means stress
concentration
(Kf ) factor = 1;
and q=1 means
Kf = Kt.

3/17/2015

19

Notch Sensitivity

1
q = notch senstivity =
1+ a

In case of loading/unloading .
Materials show better sensitivity
(lesser q)..
K f 1
q=
Kt 1
1 K K
f

If notch sensitivity data is not

available, it is conservative to use Kt
in fatigue calculations.
3/17/2015

20

Neubers constant for steels

Sut (ksi)
50

.13

55

.118

60

.108

70

.093

80

.08

90

.07

100

.062

110

.055

120

.049

130

.044

140

.039

160

.031

180

.024

200

.018

220

.013

240

.009

(in0.5)

Kf is commonly used for

fatigue loading cases.

Neubers constant for Annealed

Aluminum
1 ksi =
6.895
MPa

Sut (ksi)

15

.341

20

.264

25

.217

30

.18

35

.152

40

.126

45

.111

(in0.5)

Notch senstivity for steel step bar (having fillet

radius = 0.25 inch and ultimate strength = 100 ksi)
1
1
q=
=
= 0.89
a 1 + 0.062 / .25
1+
r
Cast irons have a very low q ( 0.2) value. For
such materials 'Fracture Mechanics' techniques

Material selection for a plate having central

hole and is subjected to Tensile force
EX: A 50mm wide (b) and h mm high rectangular plate has a
5mm diameter central hole. Length of plate is equivalent to
100mm. Select a lightest but strong material which bear tensile
force P = 25 kN.
Ans: Mass = (50-5) h 100*10-9 ; A = (50-5) h

P
25000
1500
d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7;
= Kt
MPa
= 2.7
=
(b d ) h
(50 5) h h
1500
-6
or, M = 4.500 *10

or, M = 6750 *10

3/17/2015

M
log10
= log10

0.00675

22


M
log10
= log10 log M = log ( ) log ( )
10
10
10

0.00675
0
.
00675

0.00675
3/17/2015
log10 ( ) = log10 ( ) + log10
M < 0.025 kg=> -0.57 23
M

1500
=
= 1.89e3 h = 0.8 mm
h
3/17/2015

24

Avg. density = 1645 kg/m3

Mass = 0.0059 kg

Mass reduction ????

Commonly available. Economic.

Stress concentration ???

3/17/2015

25

Factor of Safety

Is design of
element/assembly safe?
FoS < 1 ?

FOS is a ratio of two quantities that

have same units:

Strength/stress
Critical load/applied load
Load to fail part/expected service load
Maximum cycles/applied cycles
Maximum safe speed/operating speed.

NOTE: FOS is deterministic. Rational assessment of the risks

associated with a particular design. Data are statistical and
there is a need to use Probabilistic approach.
3/17/2015

26

Random variables: Friction, Load, Strength, Dimensions, environment, .

Variation in Material Strength (MPa)

Material
Range
(AISI, rolled)
1080

865 - 975

1095

Mean

St. Deviation

920

18.33

865 - 1070

967.5

34.17

1030

495 - 610

522.5

19.17

1040

565 - 690

627.5

20.83

1050

650 - 800

725.0

25.00

1060

725 - 900

812.5

29.17

3/17/2015

27

Cumulative
probability!!

Probability
density function

s =

f (S ) =

s
s i i

N 1

s 2

1 S S

2 s

Sigma, two sigma, three sigma.

coefficient of variation (COV)..

0.25 unacceptable

f (S ) dS = 1

3/17/2015

Mean value

worst value

28

Probabilistic value

Probability
density function
Ex: Measured ultimate tensile
strength data of nine
specimen are: 433 MPa,
444, 454, 457, 470, 476,
481, 493, and 510 MPa.
Find the values of mean
and std. dev. Assuming
normal distribution find the
probability density
function.

3/17/2015

s =

s
s i i

N 1

s = 468 . 67 MPa
s = 24 . 34 MPa
f (S

)=

1
24 . 34

1 S 468 . 67

2
24 . 34

f (S ) dS

=1

29

4.59,4.34,4.5796,4.50, 4.582,4.58474.5948

EX. NOMINAL SHAFT DIA.

NUMBER OF SPECIMEN

4.5mm
34
4.58mm
0.0097

d
d

1 di d

1
2
f (d ) =
e
d 2

3/17/2015

di

d
i
N

d =
N 1

6
4.5294
0.0987

NOTE: Variation in
stress level occurs due
to variation in
geometric dimensions.
30

Prob: A steel bar is subjected to compressive load. Statistics of load are

(6500, 420) N. Statistics of area are (0.64, 0.06) m2. Estimate the
statistics of stress.

P
=
A
Standard

Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical

Design, Edward B. Haugen, 1980.
deviation

2
=

of stress

2
+
A

2
P

1/ 2

Ans: (10156, 1156.4) Pa.

3/17/2015

31

FoS vs Statistical Design

Deterministic. Lack of information.
Conceptual design
Based on availability of data. Find the
mean and standard-deviation values
of dependent variables. Actual
design.
Q = Sy
Q = Sy

or

Q = S
y

Q = s2 + 2
y

3/17/2015

32

Ex : Strength and Stress of a tensile bar are :

S y = (270, 32 ) MPa

&

= (184,15) MPa
f (Q ) =

R = 1-0.0075 ????
2.43
1 z2 2
Pf =
e
dz

Q 2

1 Q Q

2 Q

Let normal variable

Q Q
Z =

3/17/2015
Ref:
Probabilistic Mechanical Design, Edward B. Haugen, 1980.

33

Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical Design,

Edward B. Haugen, 1980.
ALGEBRAIC
FUNCTIONS

Q=C
Q = Cx
Q=C+x

MEAN

C
Cx
C + x

STD. DEVIATION

0
C x

Q = x y

x y

x2 + y2

Q = xy
Q=x y

x y

y2 x 2 + x2 y 2

x y

y2 x 2 + x2 y 2 y2

Q =1 x
3/17/2015

1 x

x x2
34

Example: Tie-rod forged steel component.

DIA.=(30,
1.2) mm
STRENGTH 300 MPa to 540 MPa
LOAD 30000 9600 N
?? FACTOR OF SAFETY
a. BASED ON MEAN VALUE
P = 30000 N ;..... A =
S = 420 MPa
P
= 42.4328 MPa
A
SF = 9.9

(30)2 = 707 mm 2

b. BASED ON Worst Case

AMIN =
PMAX

(26.4)2 = 547.4 mm 2

4
= 39600 N

S MIN = 300 MPa

APPLIED STRESS

39600
= 72.342 MPa
547.4
300
SFMIN =
4.15
72.342

c. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

(P , ) = (30000; 3200)N
(S , ) = (420; 40) MPa
(d , ) = (30; 1.2)mm

A=

(30)2 = 707 mm 2

P
= = 42.4328 MPa
A
Q = 420 42.4328 = 377.5672 MPa

Standard

deviation

of stress

2
+
d

2
P

= 4 . 5262 + ( 2 . 83 * 1 . 2 )
2

2 1/ 2

Q = 40 2 + 5.66 2 = 40.4
Z=

0 377.5672
= 9.3457
40.4

1/ 2

= 5 . 66

2
P2

8P
2
d
= 2 +
3

A
d

1/ 2

Ex: Consider a structural member with S( s = 40 , 6 )

subjected to a static load that develops a stress
( = 30 , 8 ). Find the SAFETY of member.
Mean value approach, FOS = 40/30. 100% SAFE
Worst case approach, FOS = 22/54. 40% SAFE

Sy 0
Q0
Q = 40 30 = 10
Q =10,Q =10
3/17/2015

= 30 s = 40
= 8 s = 6

Q = 6 2 + 82 = 10

38

Q = 40 30 = 10
Q = 6 2 + 82 = 10

Normal variable Z =
at Q = 0

Z =

Q Q
sQ

0 10
= 1
10

Reducing
standard
deviation !!

In the present case Probability of failure is 0.1587 & reliability is

.8413.
Selecting stronger material (mean value of strength = 50 units)!!!!..
CALCULATE Reliability

Z-Table
provides
probability
of failure

3/17/2015

40

Useful
3/17/2015

41

Ex: A round 1018 steel rod having yield strength (540, 40) MPa
is subjected to tensile load (220, 18) kN. Determine the
diameter of rod reliability of 0.999 (z = -3.09).

Given s = 540 MPa ; s = 40 MPa

220000
18000
=
MPa ; =
MPa
2
2
/4d
/4d
Z =

Q Q

;R=

1
2

Z0

Q
where Z 0 =
Q

1
Z2
2

dZ

880000
Q = 540
d2
72000
2

Q = 40 +
2
d

Assuming
st. dev. Of
d is zero

72000
880000

3.09 40 +
= 540
2
2

d
d

3/17/2015

d = 26 mm
42

Example: Stress developed in a machine element is given by:

= P / 4kd 3

)(

4 L12 + 3L22

Given P = (1500, 50) N, Strength = (129, 3) MPa, L1=(150, 3)

mm, L2=(100, 2) mm. Assume std. dev. of d is 1.5% mean
value of d. k = 0.003811.
Determine distribution of d if the maximum probability
of machine-element-failure is 0.001
2

n
xi2
Standard deviation of a complex function is expressed by : = i =1
xi
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
L2
L1 +
=
P +
d +
d
P

L2
L1

1/ 2

Statistically independent

2
2
2
22724 2

2
e
13635
4
170430
85216
2
2
2
(0.003) +
0.015 d +
(50 ) +
=
(0.002 )
3
4
3
3
d

d
d
d

1
= 3 [1.291e12 + 41830 + 261420 + 29047]1/ 2

1136200

d3

43

1/ 2

= ( P / 4k d3 ) 4 L21 + 3 L22
=

34087000

d3

Z = 3.09 =

0 129e6 34087000 d3

1136200
2

3e6 +
3

d
2

1136.2
11031
(3000) + 3 = 41748 3
d
d
d = 0.06686 m
2

d = 0.001 m

Calculating FOS
=
Strength/stress
FOS
=129/114=1.13
2

Probabilistic Approach to Design

Conventional design follows Deterministic
Approach by disregarding statistical nature of
Material properties
Component dimensions
Externally applied load

Deterministic design considers uncertainties by

Applying Factor of safety
Considering absolute worst case

There is a growing trend toward using a

probabilistic approach to better quantify
uncertainty and thereby increase reliability

Failure of Machine Element

There are only two ways in which an element
fails:
Obsolescence
Loss of function

Element losses its utility due to:

Change in important dimension due to wear.
Change in dimension due to yielding (distortion)
Breakage (fracture).
Jamming (friction)
3/17/2015

46

Yielding (distortion)
Wear

Fracture

3/17/2015

Jamming

47

Design of Components before

Minor II

Shafts
Keys
Couplings
Bearings

These components are employed to separate rotating/sliding

elements from stationary/ relatively-stationary elements.
3/17/2015

48

Bearing Classification

AntiFriction !!
Misnomer

Rolling Element
Bearings
Rotation is always easier than linear motion.
Low friction & moderate lubricant requirements
are two important advantages of rolling bearings.

If you can buy it, dont make it!

Bearing selection.

Bearing Terminology
Four main components ?

Roller
Needle roller

Cylindrical Roller Bearing

Higher coefficient
of friction because
of small diameter
rollers and rubbing
action against
each other

= ( Z / 4.37).Wmax

Fr

ball

Fr

roller

= ( Z / 4.06).Wmax

Outer ring or Cup

Cage

Radial (Load) Bearing (s)

Inner ring
or Cone

Thrust (Load) Bearing (s)

Combined (Load) Bearing (s)

Ball

Cylindrical roller

Spherical roller

Angular contact ball

Ball

Tapered roller

Cylindrical roller

Spherical
roller

Rolling Element Bearings

Load Direction

Misalignment
Capacity

Radial Axial

Both

High

Deep groove ball

Cylindrical Roller

Some
types

Needle

Taper Roller

Self Aligning Ball

Self Aligning
Spherical Roller

Med

Low

y
y
y

Angular contact
ball

Thrust ball/roller

Equivalent load: P = V X Fr + Y Fa

y
y

Equivalent Dynamic Load

Equivalent load: P = V X Fr + Y Fa

Assuming rotation of inner ring

P = Fr
when Fa / Fr e
P = X Fr + Y Fa

when Fa / Fr > e

Rotation factor

Radial factor

Fr Applied radial load

Y

Thrust factor

Fa Applied thrust load

e is a dimensionless
ratio, indicating axial
load lower than a
certain limit does not
affect total load

Value of e depends on arrangement & static load

capacity (CO ) of bearing
3/17/2015

56

http://www.skf.com/group/products/bearings-units-housings/ball-bearings/deepgroove-ball-bearings/single-row-deep-groove-ball-bearings/single-row/index.html

Basic Dynamic Load Rating: C

Radial load (thrust load for thrust bearings) which a group
of identical bearings with stationary outer rings can
theoretically endure one million revolutions of inner ring.
Static Load Rating: C0
Radial load causing permanent deflection greater than
0.01% of ball dia.

Bearing type

Inner ring

Single row

Double row

Rotating

Stationary

Fa/VFr > e

Fa/VFr e

Fa/VFr > e

Deep
groove
ball
bearing

Fa/C0

.014
.028
.056
.084
.11
.17
.28
.42
.56

1.2

0.56

2.30
1.99
1.71
1.55
1.45
1.31
1.15
1.04
1.00

0.56

2.30
1.99
1.71
1.55
1.45
1.31
1.15
1.04
1.00

.19
.22
.26
.28
.3
.34
.38
.42
.44

Angular
contact
ball
bearing

20
25
30
35
40

1.2

.43
.41
.39
.37
.35

1.0
.87
.76
.66
.57

1.09
.92
.78
.66
.55

.70
.67
.63
.60
.57

1.63
1.44
1.24
1.07
.93

.57
.68
.80
.95
1.14

.4

.4
cot

.42
cot

.65

.65
cot

1.5
tan

Self
aligning
ball
bearing

Important points
Bearing lubrication: Oil/Grease Permissible speed
Cage- to avoid sliding & collision
Full complement bearing . Slow speed rigidity

Bearing selection. For given shaft dia

Rotating ring (interference) non-rotating
(transition). Rotation factor !!!
Bearing life .. Dynamic load capacity Applied
load (3 to 10%).
Equivalent load: X & Y factors depend upon
bearing type.
3/17/2015

59

Bearing Life

3/17/2015

60

Lundberg Palmgren Approach

In ideal case, bearings fail by surface-fatigue.
Dynamic load rating (catalogue C0 reading) is the load which
90% (reliability=0.9) of a group of identical bearings will
sustain to the minimum of 106 cycles.

Failure
Factor
probability (%) a1

(C ) 10

a=3

for ball bearings

10
a=
3

= P L = P L2 = P L3
a
1 1

a
2

a
3

for roller bearings

C
Bearing life in hours =
P

10
5
4
3
2
1

1000,000

60 Speed

1
0.62
0.53
0.44
0.33
0.21

Example:
Radial load = 2 224 N,
Speed = 1500 rpm
Desired life= 8 hours/day, 5 day/weeks for 5 years, Shock factor
= 1.5. For shaft dia of 25 mm.

C
C
C

> 2224*1.5*(10400*1500*60/106)1/a
> 32, 633 N for BALL BEARINGS
> 25, 978 N
for ROLLER BEARINGS

http://www.skf.com/portal/skf/home/products?newlink=first&lang=en

3/17/2015

In order of increasing outside bearing diameter

63

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

RSH Sheet steel reinforced contact seal of acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) on

one side of the bearing.
L stand for low friction.

3/17/2015

64

Suffix

61804

3/17/2015

61804-2Z

61804-2RS1

65

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

(DGBB): Both rings possess

Seals: Often made of elastic

rubber. Bearings sealed on both

sides are grease filled and in
deep grooves. Bearing can
normal working conditions the
support high radial forces as
well as some axial forces. There grease filling lasts the entire
service life of the bearings.
are single-row & double row
DGBB. Widely used in industry.

Cage/Separator: Ensures
uniform spacing and prevents
mutual contact of rolling
elements.

Shield: Profiles sheet steel

discs pressed into the grooves
of outer ring and forming gaptype seals with the inner-ring
shoulders.

Angular Contact Ball Bearing

(ACBB): Raceways are so

arranged that forces are

transmitted from one raceway to
other under certain contactangle between line of action of
the force & radial planes. Due to
CA, ACBB are better suited to
sustain high axial loads than
DGBB.
66

3/17/2015

67

Designation

International Organization for Standardization

Each rolling bearing is designed by a code that clearly indicates

construction, dimensions, tolerances and bearing clearance.

Instrument
Ball
3/17/2015
bearing

Multiply by 5 to get bore in mm

d<10mm 618/8 (d=8mm)
d>500 mm 511/530 (d=530mm)

00 = 10mm
01= 12mm
02 = 15mm
03 = 17mm

68

0 Double row angular contact ball bearings

1 Self-aligning ball bearings
2 Spherical roller bearings
3 Taper roller bearings
4 Double row deep groove ball bearings
5 Thrust ball bearings
6 Single row deep groove ball bearings
7 Single row angular contact ball bearings
8 Cylindrical roller thrust bearings
HK needle roller bearings with open ends
K Needle roller and cage thrust assemblies
N Cylindrical roller bearings
A second and sometimes a third letter are used to identify the
configuration of the flanges, e.g. NJ, NU, NUP; double or multi-row
cylindrical roller bearing designations always start with NN.
QJ Four-point contact ball bearings
3/17/2015

69

Example: Assume radial and axial loads on a bearing are

7500N and 4500N respectively. Rotating shaft dia = 70
mm. Select suitable single row deep groove ball bearing.
Bearing type

Deep
Fa/C0
groove .014
ball
.028
bearing
.056
.084
.11
.17
.28
.42
.56

Inner
ring

Single row

Rotating

Fa/VFr > e

0.56

2.30
1.99
1.71
1.55
1.45
1.31
1.15
1.04
1.00

0.0662
0.1452

.19
.22
.26
.28
.3
.34
.38
.42
.44

Fa/Fr = 0.6; Fa/C0=4500/31000 X = 0.56, Y= 1.37; P=10365

3/17/2015

Fa/C0=4500/68000 X = 0.56, Y= 1.65; P=11625

70

0.03 C P 0.1C
Life consideration

(C ) 10

a=3

for ball bearings

10
a=
3

= P1a L1 = P2a L2 = P3a L3

for roller bearings

C
Bearing life in hours =
P

6014
10365
39700
937

1000,000

60 Speed

6314
11625
111000
14509

Example: Assume radial and axial loads on a bearing are 7500N and
4500N respectively. Shaft dia = 70 mm. Select a deep groove ball
bearing. Consider shaft rotates at 1000 rpm and expected

bearing life = 3000 hours

3/17/2015

71

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

72

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

73

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

74

Pressed brass
cage

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

E indicates reinforced ball set. TN9 indicates injection molded snap type cage of glass fibre
reinforced polyamide

75

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

76

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

77

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

3/17/2015

78

3/17/2015

79

3/17/2015

80

single row angular contact ball bearings

double row (O, X, Tandem) angular contact ball bearings

four-point contact ball bearings
In SKF catalogue contact angle =40 is designated by suffix B.
Similarly contact angles of 25 and 30 are designated with suffixes
AC and A respectively.

Tandem arrangement

Back to back

Face to face

Bearing
type

Single row

()
Angular
contact
ball
bearing
Self
aligning
ball
bearing

20
25
30
35
40

Double row

Fa/VFr > e Fa/VFr e Fa/VFr > e

X
Y
X Y
X
Y

.43
.41
.39
.37
.35

1.0
.87
.76
.66
.57

1.09
.92
.78
.66
.55

.70
.67
.63
.60
.57

1.63
1.44
1.24
1.07
.93

.57
.68
.80
.95
1.14

.4

.4
cot

.42
cot

.65

.65
cot

1.5
tan

Example: A radial load of 3000N combined with thrust load

of 2500N is to be carried on a 6214 ball bearing for shaft
rotating at 1000 rpm. Determine equivalent radial load to be
used for calculating fatigue life. Compare life of 6214
bearing with that for a 7214 (nominal contact angle 30).
Step 1: C0 for 6214 is 45kN and 7214 is 60 kN. C for
6214 is 63.7 kN and 7214 is 71.5 kN
Step 2: Fa/VFr > e
Bearing type
Deep groove ball
bearing
Angular contact ball
bearing

Single row, Fa/VFr > e

Fa/C0

.056

0.56

1.71

.26

30

.39

.76

0.8

Fr

Fa

Deep groove ball bearing

3000

0.56

1.71

2500

Angular contact ball bearing

3000

0.39

0.76

2500

Step 3: Radial load for 6214 bearing is 5955N & for 7214
bearing radial load is 3070.

Step 4: Life for 6214 will be 7192 hours and for

7214, life=124,420 Hours
3

C 1000,000
Bearing life in hours =
P 60 Speed

Appropriate selection of bearing.

Equivalent load under Variable

Loading
Bearing operates at
1000 rpm, applied
load of 500 N for 100
hours, then bearing
operates at 1200 rpm,
250 N for 250
hours.
In such situation it is
advisable to find an
equivalent load using

P L + P L2 + P L3 + ... a

P =
L1 + L2 + L3 + ...

a = 3 for ball bearings

10
a=
for roller bearings
3
L1, L2 , L3 ,... Number of rotations
a
1 1

a
2

a
3

IF L = expected life, then

P L + P L2 + P L3 + ... L

P =
(L1 + L2 + L3 + ...) L

a
1 1

a
2

a
3

P = P f + P f 2 + P f + ...
a
1 1

a
2

a
3 3

Question 1: A single row cylindrical roller bearing N 205 ECP

is subjected to pure radial load of 2800 N and rotational speed =
1500 rpm. Assuming bearing is subjected to light shocks.
Estimate the bearing life for reliability = 0.99.

Question 2a: Select a suitable deep groove ball bearing for a

shaft of 30 mm dia rotating at 2000 rpm. Bearing needs to
support a radial load of 2000 N and axial load of 400 N.
Minimum desirable bearing life is 5000 Hours.
2b: Will the selected bearing be able to survive for more than
10,000 Hours? Justify your answer.

3/17/2015

88

Shafts
Example: A hollow shaft must
carry torque of 3400 N.m at
shearing stress of 55 MPa. Assume
di=0.65 do. Calculate value of
outside diameter.
ANS: 72.6 mm

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89

Torsion of circular shaft

Stress in a circular shaft of uniform cross
section loaded at the ends by Torque T,

r =

G r1
L

max
or,

T r 16 T
=
=
J
d3

max

16 T d o
=
d o4 d i4

3/17/2015

)
90

Torsion of circular shaft

Example: Design a shaft
so that angular
deformation should not
exceed 1 in a length of
1.8 m. Permissible shear
stress = 83 MPa and
modulus of rigidity = 77
GPa.
ANS: d=222.34 mm
NOTE: Design of shaft consists of determining correct shaft
diameter from strength and rigidity considerations.
3/17/2015

91

A complete shaft design has much interdependence on the

design of the components:
Steps size; Threads; Loading; etc.

Stress & Strength

Deflection & Stiffness
Vibration
localized

3/17/2015

In shaft design, usual practice is

locate the critical areas, size these
to meet The strength requirements,
and then Size the rest of the shaft
to meet Requirements of shaftsupported element, manufacturing steps,
or mass criterion.

92

Maximum static stress

2

Often shafts carry

combined loads of
bending and
torque.
max

max

or max
or max

= + + 2
2
2
2

or max
or max

32 M 16 T
32 M
+

=
+
3
3
3

2 d
2 d d
16
2
2
(
)
(
)
M
M
T
=
+
+

d 3

3/17/2015

= + 2
2
32 M 16 T

+
=
3
3

2 d d
16
2
2
(
)
(
)
M
T
=
+
d3

Maximum shear stress theory

Maximum normal stress theory

Stress Concentration ????

93

Design of shafts for fluctuating loads

Ta r
Tm r
a = K fs
m = K fsm
J
J
where K fs and K fsm are torsional fatigue stress concentration factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuatin g moment

Ma r
Mm r
a = K f
m = K fm
I
I
where K f and K fm are bending fatigue stress concentrat ion factors.
If shaft is subjected to fluctuating axial load

a _ axial = K t

Fa
A

m _ axial = K t

Fm
A

Theory of failure ???? Distortion energy (von-Mises) theory

3/17/2015

Design for fluctuating bending,

fluctuating axial & fluctuating torsion
von - Mises stresses

a =
m =

( a + a _ axial )2 + 3 a2
( m + m _ axial )2 + 3 m2

von - Mises stresses

2

K f M a r K t Fa
K fsTa r
+ 3

a =
+
A
I
J
2

K fsmTm r
K fm M m r K t Fm

+ 3
m =
+
I
A

3/17/2015

95

Goodman Line Criterion

'
a

'
m

1
+
=
S e Sut N

? N 1

N 2

a' + m' S ys

where
2

K fsTa r
K f M a r K t Fa

+ 3
a =
+
A
J
I
2

K fsmTm r
K fm M m r K t Fm

+ 3
m =
+
I
A

3/17/2015

or

Static failure ?
Fatigue failure ?

96

Example: Assume D=42mm, d=

28mm, fillet radius =2.8mm, M =
142.4 N.m, T= 124.3 N.m, Sut =
735 MPa, Sy=574 MPa, required
reliability =99%.

Find stress concentration factors

Find endurance limit and factors reducing value of
endurance limit - Find endurance strength
Use Goodman criterion, Find factor of safety.
Check safety against yielding

3/17/2015

97

r 2.8
=
= 0.1
d 28
D 42
=
= 1.5
d 28

K f = K fm = 1.68

3/17/2015

98

r 2.8
=
= 0.1
d 28
D 42
=
= 1.5
d 28

K fs = K fsm = 1.38

3/17/2015

99

For Steel Se = 0.5 Sut

Se = 0.45 Sut

bending

Se = 0.29 Sut

Torsion

Axial

Probability of
survival, %

Reliability
factor, kr

99

0.814

Se = 0.5 Sut = 367.5 MPa

K finish = a(Sut in MPa ) = 0.787
b

Finishing
method

Constant a Exponent b

Machined or cold drawn

K size = 1.24 d 0.107

K size = 1.24 (28)

0.107

3/17/2015

4.51

-0.265

2.79 d 51 mm
= 0.870

S e = 367.5 * 0.787 * 0.870 * 0.814

S e = 205 MPa

100

Goodman Line Criterion

'
a

'
m

1
+
=
S e Sut N

where
2

K f M ar
K f M ar

2
+ 0 + 3 (0 ) =
a =
I
I

K fsmTm r
K fsmTm r
2
= 3

m = (0 + 0) + 3
J

a' + m' S ys
3/17/2015

Design (ASME method) for fully

reversed bending and steady torsion
Introduce a factor of safety, N f
2

N f a + N f m = 1
S e
S ys

Sy
we know S ys =
3
2

a
m

Nf
+ 3 N f S = 1
S
e
y

substitute expressions for a & m for solid shaft

2

32 M a

Nf Kf
3

d S e

16 Tm

+ 3 N f K fsm
=1
3

d Sy

1
26

M
32
16 Tm
a

3/17/2015

d = Nf Kf
+ 3 N f K fsm

S e
S y

102

Factor of safety = N f
2

a
m
N f
+ N f
=1
S e
S ys

m
=1
+ 3 N f
N f

S
S
e
y

N f = 1.73

Example: Design a shaft that must transmit 2 hp at 1725 rpm. Shaft is loaded
with a spur gear and a sheave. Assume stress concentration for 2.25 for step
radii in bending, 1.57 for step radii in torsion, and 2.5 at keyways. Assume
corrected endurance strength = 50 MPa and yield strength is 150 MPa.
Ref: Machine Design:
An Integrated
Approach.. R. L. Norton

Fg

Fr

M A = R2 b + Fg p + Fs q = 0 R2 = 0.4 Fg 1.35 Fs
F =R1 + Fg + R2 + Fs = 0
3/17/2015

R1 = 0.6 Fg + 0.35 Fs

104

R2 x = 0.4 (40) 1.35(162 ) R2 x = 234.7 N

R2 y = 0.4 ( 110 ) 1.35(0 ) R2 y = 44 N

R1x = 0.6(40 ) + 0.35(162) R1x = 32.7 N

R1 y = 0.6( 110 ) + 0.35(0) R1 y = 66 N

Fg

Fr

3/17/2015

105

M xzB = 1.2426 N .m
M xzC = 7.2329 N .m
M xzD = 1.0769 N .m
M yzB = 2.508 N .m
M yzC = 0.088 N .m
M yzD = 0.088 N .m

Moment function in xz plane at various sections

M xz = R1x z 01 + Fgx z 501 + R2 x z 1271 + Fsx z 1721
M xz = (32.7 ) z 01 + (40 ) z 501 + ( 234.7 ) z 1271 + (162 ) z 1721

Moment function in yz plane at various sections

M yz = R1 y z 01 + Fgy z 501 + R2 y z 1271 + Fsy z 1721
M yz = (66 ) z 01 + ( 110) z 501 + (44) z 1271
Calculate moment

M B = 2.7989; M C = 7.2334; M D = 1.0805

Using ASMEmethod
1
26

16 Tm
M
32
B

+ 3 N f K fsm
d1 = N f K f

Se
S y

1
26

M
32
16 Tm
C

+ 3 N f K fsm
d2 = N f K f

S e
S y

1
26

16 Tm
M
32
D

+ 3 N f K fsm
d 3 = N f K f

S e
S y

ANS: d1=11.7 mm

2 * 746
2 (1725)
60

Tm = 8.3 N .m
Tm =

d2=15.0 mm
d3=09.8 mm
As per available drawing d1>d2.
Therefore select d3=10mm,
d2=17mm, and d1=20 mm.

Corrected endurance
strength !!
107

Design for fluctuating bending &

fluctuating torsion
Using factor of safety N f in Goodman line
1 a m
=
+
N f Se Sut
32 N
f
d =

3/17/2015

(K

f M a ) + 0.75 (K fsTa )
2

Se

(K

2
2
)
(
)
+
M
K
T
0
.
75

fm
m
fsm m

Sut

1
3

108

Example: Design a shaft to support attachments shown in Figure. Torque &

moment on shaft are both varying with time in repeated fashion, i.e., their
alternating & mean components are of equal magnitude. Mean & alternating
components of torque are both 17 N.m. There is no axial loads. Assume stress
concentration for 2.25 for step radii in bending, 1.57 for step radii in torsion, and
2.5 at keyways. Assume corrected endurance strength = 50 MPa and ultimate
strength is 250 MPa.

3/17/2015

109

 32
d =

(K f M )

[(

d = 0.0063 K f M

1
3

1
1
+ 0.75 K fsT +

S
S
ut
e

)]

+ 0.75 K fsT

2 1/ 6

M B = 2.8 N .m
M C = 7.3 N .m
M D = 1.1 N .m
T = 17 N .m
S e = 50 MPa
S ut = 250 MPa
Nf = 2

ANS: d1=28.6 mm
d2=30.2 mm
d3=28.3 mm
As per available drawing d1>d2.
Therefore select d3=29mm,
d2=31 mm, and d1=33 mm.
3/17/2015

110

Deflection/Stiffness consideration
Critical speed Unstable shaft.
t = t4
t4 > t1
t = t1
t=0

3/17/2015

111

Equilibrium
This image cannot currently be display ed.

Shaft rotates slightly off of its true centerline. Such

rotor deflection is referred to as mode shape.
First/Second mode.

Speed at which shaft is unstable Critical.

Continuous increase in deflection without upper
bound.
3/17/2015

112

Critical Speed of Shaft

Speed at which shaft is unstable.
Continuous increase in deflection without upper
bound.
Tranmissibility as function of
4
3.5

Tramissibility

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
0

3/17/2015

5
Frequency ratio

113

10

Transmissibility
Ratio (T) of output to input.
T is function of operating frequency.
T > 1 Amplification. Max amplification
when forcing frequency () and natural
frequency of system (n) coincides.
T < 1 Isolation (i.e. passenger
compartment from automobile chassis).
Minimize natural frequency of system.

Often transmissibility is referred as Q

factor.
3/17/2015

114

Critical Speed of
Shaft
m &x& + c x& + kx = F0 sin( t )
Estimation of critical speed helps to decide
maximum operating speed.
Rate of increase in amplitude estimates the
allowable time to shoot the speed above critical
speed.

Tramissibility

Tranmissibility as function of
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1

Frequency of
external force to
Natural frequency
of system.

0.5 >
> 1.42
n / d
0

3/17/2015

.2

.4

.6

.8

Frequency ratio

1.2

1.4
115

Estimating Natural Frequency

k xi = W

m &x& = F = W k ( xi + x )
x = X sin ( t )

assume

m n2 x = k x
k
n =
m
1
fn =
2
3/17/2015

k
m

1
fd =
2

k c

m 2m

116

Damped Natural Frequency

m &x& + c x& + kx = 0

kx

C dx/dt

assume x = e st
s1, 2

s1, 2

c
=

2m

c
k

2m m

c
k c

=
i

2m
m 2m

3/17/2015

1
fd =
2

k c

m 2m

117

harmonic function

How to estimate
Transmissibility ?

1
.75
.5
.25
0
-.25
-.5
-.75
-1

Force and displacement

.02

.04

.06

.08

.1

m &x& + c x& + kx = F0 sin( t )

.12

.14

.16

.18

time

x = X sin ( t )
X = amplitude
= phase angle

m ( 2 X sin ( t )) + c ( X cos( t )) + k ( X sin ( t )) = F0 sin( t )

F0
(k m )sin( t ) + c cos( t ) = X sin( t )
2

F0 = X
3/17/2015

(k m ) + (c )
2 2

T=

(kX )2 + (cX )2
F0

(k )2 + (c )2
(k m 2 )2 + (c )2

T=
X

118

.2

How to estimate
Transmissibility ?
F0 = X

kx

C dx/dt

(k m ) + (c )
2 2

Ratio (T) of output to input.

T=

(kX )2 + (cX )2
F0

(k )2 + (c )2
2 2
(k m ) + (c )2

T=
X

3/17/2015

T=

c
1+

m 2 c
1 +

k
k

119

Mathematical Model
of Transmissibility
T=

c 2 m k
1 +
cc k

1 2
n
2

T=

c 2 m k
+
cc k

c
1 + 2
cc

c
1 2 + 2
n cc
2

1 + (2 )

T=

(1 ) + (2 )
2 2

c
3/17/2015
=
n
cc

120

 = 0.5

.5

1.5

2.5

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
.9
.8
.7
3.5 .6
.5
.4
.3

Tramissibility

Tramissibility

= 0.1
5.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
.5
0

Frequency ratio

.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

2.5

3.5

Frequency ratio
=1
1.2
= 1.5

1.1

.9

1.05

.8

.7

.95

.6
.5

.5

1.5

Frequency ratio

2.5

Tramissibility

Tramissibility

1.1

.9
.85
3.5 .8
.75
.7

.5

1.5

Frequency ratio

3/17/2015

121

Tranmissibility as function of
4
3.5

Tramissibility

3
2.5
2

Robust design ???

1.5

Vibration free design ????

1
.5
0

10

Frequency ratio

3/17/2015

122

Question: Determine the natural frequency of mass M

on the end of a cantilever beam (length L) of
negligible mass
Deflection of cantilever beam under
a concentrated load P
3

PL
P
=
=
3E I k

1
fn =
2

k
M

1
fn =
2

3E I
L3 M

3/17/2015

123

Question: Determine the natural frequency of mass M

on the end of a simply supported beam (length L) of
negligible mass
Deflection of simply supported beam under
a concentrated load P
3

PL
P
=
=
48 E I k

1
fn =
2

k
M

1
fn =
2

48 E I
4
fn =
3
2
L M

3/17/2015

Four times !!!!

3E I
L3 M
124

Dunkerley equation
Estimates fundamental critical speed of shaft
carrying a number of components (gears, pulley,
coupling, etc.)
Estimate critical speed of each individual subsystem
by direct formula.
To obtain critical speed of shaft-system, combine
individual frequencies using following equation.
1
1
1
1 1 = natural speed if only mass 1 exists

2
cr

2
1

3/17/2015

2
2

+ ... +

n2

2 = natural speed if only mass 2 exists

n = natural speed if only mass n exists
125

200

Disk 3

200

Disk 2

200

Disk 1

Ex: Assume shaft (negligible mass, dia =40mm)

shown in Fig. is made of steel with E=207 GPa. Mass
of each disk is 13.5 kg. Estimate fundamental
frequency of system.

200

Disk 1 and Disk 3 have same mass and are symmetrically

placed, therefore natural frequency of disk 1 and disk 3
will be same.
Find natural frequencies of Disk 1 & Disk 2
3/17/2015

126

Natural frequency of Disk 2 can be estimated using

P L3
P
=
=
48 E I k

fn =

1
2

1
fn =
2

k
M
48 E I
4
fn =
3
2
L M

3E I
L3 M

Natural frequency of Disk 1 can be estimated using

P 600
P
(
0
.
2
^
3
)
+
3
*
(
0
.
2
^
3
)

2
*
(
0
.
2
^
2
)
*
0
.
8

(
0
.
2
^
4
)
/(
0
.
8
)
=

6 E I 800
k
a

fn = 255.1
3/17/2015

P
x =
6E I

l
b 3
a3 x
3
2
x x a + 3ax 2alx

l
l

Using Dunkerley equation

1

cr2

12

22

32

1 = natural speed if only Disk 1

2 = natural speed if only Disk 2
3 = natural speed if only Disk 3

1
2
1
= 2+ 2
2
f cr
f1
f2

3/17/2015

128

Question
A simply supported 25-mm diameter
(E=207 GPa, Specific weight = 75
kN/m^3) uniform steel shaft is 600 mm
long.
Find the lowest critical speed of the shaft.
If aim is to double the critical speed, find
the new diameter.
What will be the critical speed if the shaft
length is reduced from 600mm to 400 mm.
3/17/2015

129

Shafts are meant to transmit power through sheave

(pulley: Flat, V), gear (spur, helical, bevel, etc.),
sprocket, etc. Shaft is positioned on supports (bearings,
etc.).
Key joint (flat key, taper pin), coupling, or interference
fit is required to mount required elements on the shaft.
3/17/2015

130

Keys:

Key Joint

ASME defines a key demountable element which when

assembled into keyways, provides a positive means for
transmitting torque between shaft and hub.

Keyways

Square

Rectangular

Gibhead
taper

131

 Key:
Primary function: Transmit torque from
shaft to hub of mating element and viceversa.
Prevent relative rotation between shaft &
joining element.

Keyway:
A recess or slot on shaft and/or hub to
accommodate key.
Keyway results in stress concentration
(initial value ~ 2.5) in shaft and hub.
3/17/2015

132

Flat Key Assembly

NOTE: Key is inexpensive and relatively
easy to replace if keyway is undamaged.
Therefore relatively softer compared to
keyway material (having lesser strength)
is used for the key.

Ductile failure

Two modes of failures:

1. Shear Failure (AS = w.l)

Fatigue failure
2. Crushing/Bearing Failure
(Abearing=(h/2.l) static failure

Parallel or taper
key
Assumptions:
Axis, shear force at top/bottom/sides,
3/17/2015
133
turning couple, uniform contact

Failure of KEY
3/17/2015

Rounding of corners
134

Standard keys
Shaft diameter
(mm)

Key width* Height

(mm*mm)

8<d10

3*3

10<d 12

4*4

12<d 17

5*5

17<d 22

6*6

22<d 30

8*7

30<d 38

10*8

38<d 44

12*8

44<d 50

14*9

50<d 58

16*10

58<d 65

18*11

65<d 75

20*12

75<d 85

22*14

85<d 95

25*14

NOTES: Parallel key is

placed with half of its
height in the shaft and
half in hub.
Parallel keys are
machined with
negative tolerances.
Key-fit (backlash
impact & high stresses)
can be of concern when
torque loading is
alternating from
positive to negative
each cycle.
Length of key should not
be too long otherwise
twisting of key must be
accounted.

Sizing of KEY based on Shaft size

135
(30 to 40) Remaining variable
LENGTH

Area subject to compressive force Ac =

h
l
2

Torque
=
Radius

Area subject to shear force As = w l

Example: Design a key for fixing a
gear on a shaft of 25mm diameter.
Shaft transmits 15 kW power at 720
rpm to the gear. Assume yield
strength of key material is 150 MPa.

Referring
to Table of
standard
keys, width
of key =
8mm and
height is 7
mm.

136

Torque
=
Radius
Example: Design a key for fixing a
gear on a shaft of 25mm diameter.
Shaft transmits 15 kW power at 720
rpm to the gear. Assume yield
strength of key material is 150 MPa.

Referring
to Table of
standard
keys, width
of key =
7mm and
height is 8
mm.

137

Example: Design a key to transmit 475 N.m torque from the shaft to
hub. Shaft diameter is 50 mm. Assume yield strength of key material is
100 MPa.

Referring to Table of standard

keys, width of key = 14mm
and height is 9 mm.
Tangential force =
475/(0.5*0.05)=19000 N
Length to avoid crushing
failure:
19000/(100*0.5*9)=42.2 mm
Length to avoid shear failure:
23.5 mm
Area subject to compressive force Ac =

h
l
2

Area subject to shear force As = w l

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138

Keeping width of key = 09mm and height is 14 mm.

Length to avoid crushing failure: 19000/(100*0.5*14)=27.15
mm
Length to avoid shear failure: 36.6 mm

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139

Two keys at 90 phase Kennedy Key

Key-fit (backlash impact & high
stresses) can be of concern when
torque loading is alternating from
positive to negative each cycle.
Decrease in torque

50%

Increase in area

41.4%

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140

Splines
Keys integral part of shaft.
Required to allow axial movement
between shaft & hub (i.e. gear shifting
mechanism).

Spline area A
A = 0.5*(D-d)*L*N

Torque arm Rm
Rm=0.25*(D+d)
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c =

Torque
Torque _ Arm * Area

c =

T
0.25 ( D + d ) * 0.5 * ( D d ) * L * N
141

Stress concentration in Keyways

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142

Splines: (number of splines* minor diameter *

outside diameter)

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143

Ex: A Standard medium duty

splined connection (10*72*82)
is used for the gear and shaft
assembly to transmit 30 kW at
300 rpm. Permissible
compressive stress is 100 MPa.
Find minimum length of hub
and force required for shifting
the gear. Assume =0.03.
c =
L=

T
0.25 ( D + d ) * 0.5 * ( D d ) * L * N

30 *1000 /( 2 * * 300 / 60)

0.125 * (82 2 72 2 ) *10 6 *10 * (100 *106 )

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144

Couplings
Coupling is an element (a device)
that joins two rotating shafts to each
other.

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145

Couplings
Most common application is joining 2-shafts
of 2-separately (modular) built or purchased
units so that a new assembly can be formed
Motor-pump
Motor-gearbox

Oldhams coupling

(parallel offset shafts),

Hookes coupling

(shafts having

intersecting axes) and

rigid/flexible
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parallel coupling

146

Objectives of coupling are:

Should be capable of transmitting torque
from driving shaft to driven shaft.
Should keep two shafts in proper
alignment.
Should be easy to assemble and
disassemble.
Maintain zero relative motion between
parallel shafts Sleeve coupling

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147

Design of Sleeve coupling

Also known as Muff coupling and box
coupling.
+ve drive
Uses sunk key, grab-screw or Low power
Fluctuating
interference fit.
torque
In practice

For

Torsional shear
stress
Iterations!!
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D = (2 d + 13) mm
d 70 mm
L = 3. 5 d

16 T D
=
D4 d 4

Stress
concentration?

148

Example: Design a muff coupling to connect two steel shafts

transmitting 25 kW power at 360 rpm. Maximum allowable
compression/tensile stresses in shaft and key are 100 MPa. Coupling
is made of grey cast iron, which should not be stressed beyond 35
MPa (tensile strength).

Torque, T =

25000
T = 663.15 N .m
360
2

60

16 T
Shaft diameter d =

(
)
.
577
*
100
6
e

d = 38.8 mm or d = 40 mm

Standard keys
Shaft diameter (mm)

Key width* Height (mm)

38<d 44

12*8

44<d 50

14*9

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Choosing
key of 12*8
mm.
149

Minimum value of outer diameter of coupling

is = Shaft dia + height of key
Dmin = 40+8 48 mm.

D = (2 d + 13) mm D = 93 mm
as d < 70 mm
L = 3.5 d
L = 140 mm

16 T D
shear stress =
= 4.52 MPa
4
4
(D Dmin )
Coupling is safe

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150