E x p e r i m e n t I V : Michelson

Interferometer

2015/04/27
:

Abstract
The Michelson interferometer is the most common configuration for optical
interferometry and was invented by Albert Abraham Michelson. An interference pattern
is produced by splitting a beam of light into two paths, bouncing the beams back and
recombining them. The different paths may be of different lengths or be composed of
different materials to create alternating interference fringes on a back detector.
Michelson, along with Edward Morley, used this interferometer for the famous MichelsonMorley experiment (1887) in which this interferometer was used to show the constancy
of the speed of light across multiple inertial frames, which removed the conceptual need
for a luminiferous aether to provide a rest frame for light.

Introduction

The Michelson interferometer uses light interference to measure distances in units of the
wavelength of light from a particular source. It was developed by Albert Michelson and
used, in 1893, to measure the standard meter in units of the wavelength of the red line
in the cadmium spectrum. It is also known for its use in demonstrating the non-existence
of an electromagnetic wave-carrying \aether". Contemporary uses include precision
mechanical measurements and fourier transform spectroscopy. In this laboratory, we will
use a Michelson interferometer to (a) measure the wavelength of light from a Ne-He
laser, (b) measure the index of refraction of air, and (c) study the interference of linearly
polarized light beams.

How the Interferometer Works

A simplifed version of the Michelson interferometer is shown in Figure 1. The basic idea is
to split a beam of light into two beams; delay one with respect to the other, and then
recombine them to observe their interference.

Light from a monochromatic source is directed at a \half-silvered" mirror i.e. a mirror with
a very thin metallic coating. Approximately half the light intensity is reected down to
Mirror 1 and half transmitted, so it strikes Mirror 2. The light reected by these mirrors
goes back to the half-silvered mirror, and half the intensity of each beam then goes
upward to an observation device, in our case just a screen. If the light source is a point
source, we can easily _nd its images made by the combination of mirrors. This is shown
in Figure 2. The image of a point source is located behind" the mirror, at the same
perpendicular distance as the object.

In this case, A is the image of the source made by the half-silvered mirror. B is the image
of A made my Mirror 1. C is the image of the source, for rays transmitted by the halfsilvered mirror, made by Mirror 2, and D is the image of C made by the half-silvered

mirror. If the distances between the half-silvered mirror and Mirror 1 and between the
halfsilvered mirror and Mirror 2 are the same, then images B and D overlap.
But now suppose the Mirror 2 is closer, by a distance d, to the half-silvered mirror than
Mirror 1, then C becomes C0 and D becomes D0, which is a distance 2d closer. The
observer then sees two point sources of light, separated by a distance 2d. There will be
interference of these sources; it will be constructive interference if
m=2 d
where m is 0 or a positive integer, and is the wavelength of the light.
The two light sources emit light over an angular range. (In this experiment a lens is used
to make the laser beam diverge.) A point on the observation screen, at an angle with
respect to the sources, will be at constructive interference if
m=2 d cos
The geometry of this is illustrated in Figure 3 The resulting image on the observation
screen will be a series of concentric, circular bright and dark rings. As Mirror 2 is moved,
the fringes will change from bright to dark etc.

Division-of-Wavefront Interferometry
In the last lab, you saw that coherent (single-wavelength) light from point sources two
different locations in an optical beam could be combined after having traveled along two
different paths. The recombined light exhibited sinusoidal fringes whose spatial
frequency depended on the difference in angle of the light beams when recombined. The
regular variation in relative phase of the light beams resulted in constructive interference
(when the relative phase difference is 2n, where n is an integer) and destructive
interference where the relative phase difference is 2n + . The centers of the bright
fringes occur where the optical paths differ by an integer multiple of 0.

Division-of-Wavefront Interferometry via Youngs Two-Slit Experiment. The period of the

intensity fringes at the observation plane is D =L/d .

Division-of-Amplitude Interferometry

This laboratory will introduce a second class of interferometer where the amplitude of
the light is separated into two (or more) parts at the same point in space via partial
reflection by a beamsplitter. The beamsplitter is the light-dividing element in several
types of interferometers. This lab will demostrate the action of the Michelson
interferometer for both coherent light from a laser and for white light (with some luck!).
Coherence of a Light Source If two points within the same beam of light exhibit a
consistent and measurable phase difference, then the light at the two points is said to be
coherent, and thus the light at these two locations may be combined to create
interference. The ease with which fringes can be created and viewed is determined by
the coherence of the source. The coherence length is the difference in distance travelled
by two beams of light such that they generate detectable interference when recombined.
The coherence time is the time period that elapses between the passage of these two
points that can just interfere:
coherence = c tcoherence
The coherence time (obviously) has dimensions of time (units of seconds). Light emitted
by a laser spans a very narrow range of wavelengths, and may be approximated as
emitting a single wavelength 0. The temporal bandwidth of a light source is the range
of emitted temporal frequency.
V =VmaxVmin
c
c

min max
maxmin
c .(
)
max . min
If the optical phase difference is an integer multiple of 2 (equivalent to saying that the
optical path difference is an integer multiple of 0), then the light will combine in

phase and the interference is constructive; if the optical phase difference is an oddinteger multiple of , then the light combines out of phase to estructively interfere. The
Michelson interferometer pictured above uses a collimated laser source (more properly
called a Twyman-Green interferometer), the two beams are positioned so that all points
of light are recombined with their exact duplicate in the other path except for (possibly)
a time delay if the optical paths are different). If the optical phase difference of the two
beams is 2n radians, where n is an integer, then the light at all points recombines in
phase and the field should be uniformly bright. If the optical phase difference is (2n +
1) radians, then light at all points recombines out of phase and the field should be
uniformly dark.
If the collimated light in one path is tilted relative to the other before recombining,
then the optical phase difference of the recombined beams varies linearly across the
field in exactly the same fashion as the Youngs two-slit experiment described in the
handout for the last laboratory. In other words, the two beams travel with different
wavevectors k1 and k2 that produce the linear variation in optical phase difference. With
the Michelson, we have the additional degree of freedom that allows us to change the
optical path difference of the light at the center. As shown in the figure, if the optical
path difference at the center of the observation screen is 0, then the two beams combine
in phase at that point. If one path is lengthened so that the optical phase difference at
the center is radians, then the light combines out of phase to produce a dark fringe
at the center.

Interference of Expanding Spherical Waves The strict definition of a Michelson

interferometer assumes that the light is an expanding spherical wave from the source,
which may be modeled by deleting the collimating lens. If optical path difference is zero
(same path length in both arms of the interferometer), then the light recombines in
phase at all points to produce a uniformly bright field, as shown on the left. However, in
general the optical path lengths differ so that the light from the two sources combine at
the center with a different phase difference, as shown on the right.

Thus the optical path difference varies more quickly at the edges of the observation
plane than at the center, so the fringe period varies with position. In the figure, the light
waves recombine in phase at the centger of the observation plane, but the period of
the fringes decreases with increasing distance from the center.

Experimental Methods

1. (Do ahead of the lab, if possible) Consider the use of the Michelson interferometer
with a point source of light (expanding spherical waves) where one mirror is
tilted and the path lengths are equal. Redraw the optical configuration of the
Michelson interferometer to show the separation of the effective point sources

due to the optical path difference in the two arms. The spherical wavefronts
generated by the images of the point source in the two arms interfere to produce
the fringes. Explain the shape of the fringes seen at the output.
2. (Do ahead of the lab, if possible) Repeat for the case of a point source where the
two mirrors are aligned so that the beams are not tilted. Again, the spherical
wavefronts generated by the images of the point source in the two arms interfere
to produce the fringes. Explain the shape of the fringes seen at the output.
3. In the first part of the lab, use a lens to expand the laser beam into a spherical
wave. Themirrors generate images of the source of the spherical wave, and the
resulting spherical wave-5fronts superpose. The squared magnitude of the spatial
modulation of the superpostion is the visible fringe pattern. The drawings below
give an idea of the form of the fringes that will be visible for various configurations
of the two mirrors when used with spherical waves.
4. Once you have obtained circular fringes that are approximately centered, move the
translatable mirror to increase or decrease the optical path difference. (be sure
that you know which!). Note the direction that the fringes move; in other words, do
they appear from or disappear into the center? Explain.
5. Note that fringes also are produced at the input end of the interferometer. How do
they differ from those at the output end?
6. Place polaroid filters in each path and note the effect on the interference pattern
as the relative polarizations of the beams are changed. Also try the same
experiment with /4 plates, /2 plates, and the circular polarizer.
7. Place a piece of plastic wrap in one arm of the interferometer. Describe and explain
its effect.
8. Place a spherical lens (best if the focal length f is very long) in the beam at the
input end and note the effect on the fringes. Repeat with the lens in one arm.
9. Put a source of heat in or under one of the arms of the interferometer; your hand
will work (if you are warmblooded!), but a more intense source such as a soldering
iron works better. Note the effect.
10. The wavefronts in the second part of the lab should be approximately planar; use
a second lens to generate collimated light. See if you can generate a pattern that
is all white or all black, in other words, the pattern is a single bright or dark fringe.
When you have generated the dark fringe, try the experiment with the heat source
in one arm again.

Discussion
1. In step 6, why do you need to adjust the reflector M2 forward or backward to find
the interference pattern in the middle of the circle?

2 E cos cos wt kx
2
Because

R 2 E cos
2
So,

cos 1
2
So if
You can see most clearly the pattern, and step 6 to change

the optical path difference, that is changing the cos ( / 2), to facilitate the
observation of interference fringes.
2. By changing the wavelength of the incident light, what kind of change will the
interference pattern have?
(1)If increase, the formula is also known to increase d, then move the same
distance when the number of m values will decrease, while the width will be
widened Obscure bright, more conducive to observation.
(2)If less, then with (1) the opposite situation.
(3)If the sudden change in wavelength, the central design and will not
immediately show constructive interference or destructive interference,
because the decision to constructive interference or destructive interference
is the optical path difference. (D = mor (m-1 / 2) )
3. Think about the distance d between S1 and S2 in Figure 2, the distance between
S2 and the projection screen is L, at x = 0 is there is interference as depicted with
a bright fringe. Please calculate the bright fringes of 1, 2, 3,...n from the center of
the circle and set is xi (i = 1, 2, 3,...n), and calculate xi +1- xi.

l l1 l 2 d cos d

2 dx

2m

L
2d

L
L
x i 1 x i

d
d

xi i

4. What other kinds of interferometer are they? Please describe.

a. Fabry-Perot interferometer (etalon)
Fabry-Perot interferometers that cannot be scanned are called etalons.
Schematic of a Fabry-Perot etalon

Transmission through a Fabry-Perot interferometer as a function of wavelength

The varying transmission function of an etalon is caused by interference

between the multiple reflections of light between the two reflecting surfaces.
Constructive interference occurs if the transmitted beams are in phase, and this
corresponds to a high-transmission peak of the etalon. If the transmitted beams
are out-of-phase, destructive interference occurs and this corresponds to a
transmission minimum. Whether the multiply-reflected beams are in-phase or
not depends on the wavelength () of the light (in vacuum), the angle the light
travels through the etalon (), the thickness of the etalon () and the refractive
index of the material between the reflecting surfaces (n).
The phase difference between each succeeding reflection is given by :[3]

If both surfaces have a reflectance R, the transmittance function of the etalon is

given by:

where

is the coefficient of finesse.

The transmission of an etalon as a function of wavelength. A high-finesse etalon

(red line) shows sharper peaks and lower transmission minima than a lowfinesse etalon (blue).
Maximum transmission (Te = 1) occurs when the optical path length difference
(2nl cos ) between each transmitted beam is an integer multiple of the
wavelength. In the absence of absorption, the reflectance of the etalon Re is the
complement of the transmittance, such that Te + Re = 1. The maximum
reflectivity is given by:

and this occurs when the path-length difference is equal to half an odd multiple
of the wavelength.
The wavelength separation between adjacent transmission peaks is called the
free spectral range (FSR) of the etalon, , and is given by:

where 0 is the central wavelength of the nearest transmission peak. The FSR is
related to the full-width half-maximum, , of any one transmission band by a
quantity known as the finesse:

.
This is commonly approximated (for R > 0.5) by

Etalons with high finesse show sharper transmission peaks with lower minimum
transmission coefficients.
A FabryProt interferometer differs from a FabryProt etalon in the fact that
the distance between the plates can be tuned in order to change the
wavelengths at which transmission peaks occur in the interferometer. Due to
the angle dependence of the transmission, the peaks can also be shifted by
rotating the etalon with respect to the beam.

FabryProt interferometers or etalons are used in optical modems,

spectroscopy, lasers, and astronomy.
A related device is the GiresTournois etalon.
Detailed analysis

Two beams are shown in the diagram at the right, one of which (T0) is
transmitted through the etalon, and the other of which (T1) is reflected twice
before being transmitted. At each reflection, the amplitude is reduced by R
and the phase is shifted by , while at each transmission through an interface
the amplitude is reduced by T. Assuming no absorption, conservation of
energy requires T + R = 1. Define n as the index of refraction inside the etalon,
and n0 as the index of refraction outside the etalon. Using phasors to represent
the amplitude of the radiation, the amplitude at point a is unity. The amplitude
at point b will then be

where k = 2n / is the wave number inside the etalon and is the vacuum
wavelength. At point c the amplitude will be
The total amplitude of both beams will be the sum of the amplitudes of the two
beams measured along a line perpendicular to the direction of the beam. The
amplitude at point b can therefore be added to an amplitude T1 equal in
magnitude to the amplitude at point c, but has been retarded in phase by an
amount k0 0 where k0 = 2n0 / is the wave number outside of the etalon.
Thus:

where 0 is seen to be:

Neglecting the 2 phase change due to the two reflections, the phase difference
between the two beams is

The relationship between and 0 is given by Snell's law:

So that the phase difference may be written
To within a constant multiplicative phase factor, the amplitude of the mth
transmitted beam can be written as
The total transmitted beam is the sum of all individual beams

The series is a geometric series whose sum can be expressed analytically. The
amplitude can be rewritten as

The intensity of the beam will be just

and, since the incident beam was
assumed to have an intensity of unity, this will also give the transmission
function:

b. Michelson interferometer
Schematic of a Michelson interferometer

c. Mach-Zender interferometer design

Schematic of a Mach-Zender interferometer

A collimated beam is split by a half-silvered mirror. The two resulting beams (the "sample beam"
and the "reference beam") are each reflected by a mirror. The two beams then pass a second halfsilvered mirror and enter two detectors ("detector 1" and "detector 2"). It is important that the fullysilvered and half-silvered surfaces of all mirrors, except the last, face the inbound beam, and that the
half-silvered surface of the last mirror faces the outbound beam exiting in the same orientation as the
original collimated beam. That is, if the original beam is horizontal, the half-silvered surface of the
last mirror should face the horizontally outbound beam.
It is important to consider that the medium of a mirror is what lies behind it;
that is, if a glass substrate has its half-silvered or fully-silvered surface facing
the inbound beam, then the inbound beam travels through air and is reflected
off the surface of a glass medium. If, however, the half-silvered or fully-silvered
surface faces away from the inbound beam, then the inbound beam travels
through glass and is reflecting off the surface of an air medium.
The following rules apply to phase shifts due to material:

Reflection or refraction at the surface of a medium with a lower refractive

index causes no phase shift.

Reflection at the surface of a medium with a higher refractive index causes a

phase shift of half of a wavelength.

The speed of light is slower in media with an index of refraction greater than
that of a vacuum, which is 1. Specifically, its speed is:
, where c is the
speed of light in vacuum and n is the index of refraction. This causes a phase
shift proportional to n * length traveled.

Given the above rules, mirrors, including half-silvered mirrors, have the
following properties:

A wavelength phase shift occurs upon reflection from the front of a mirror,
since the medium behind the mirror (glass) has a higher refractive index
than the medium the light is traveling in (air).

If k is the constant phase shift incurred by passing through a glass plate on

which a mirror resides, a total of 2k phase shift occurs when reflecting off the
rear of a mirror. This is because light traveling toward the rear of a mirror will
enter the glass plate, incurring k phase shift, and then reflect off the mirror
with no additional phase shift since only air is now behind the mirror, and

travel again back through the glass plate incurring an additional k phase
shift.
d. Jamin interferometer
The Jamin interferometer is a type of interferometer, related to the MachZehnder interferometer. It was developed in 1856 by the French physicist Jules
Jamin.
The interferometer is made up of two mirrors, made of the thickest glass
possible. The Fresnel reflection from the first surface of the mirror acts as a
beam splitter. The incident light is split into two rays, parallel to each other and
displaced by an amount depending on the thickness of the mirror. The rays are
recombined at the second mirror, and ultimately imaged onto a screen.
If a phase-shifting element is added to one arm of the interferometer, then the
displacement it causes can be determined by simply counting the interference
fringes (e.g., the minima).
The Jamin interferometer allows very exact measurements of the refractive
index and dispersion of gases; a transparent pressure chamber can be
positioned in the instrument. The phase shift due to changes in pressure is quite
easy to measure.
5. In the experiment, we often need to measure the electromagnetic wavelength.
Now assume we have an X-ray, with wavelength of 1 to 2, how do we find its
true wavelength value? How do you measure a wavelength of a 1-2cm wave?
Because the two are not the visible wavelength range, can not be used to measure the interference
fringes
(1) x-ray wavelengths can be measured Bragg diffraction experiments 2d sin = n can find the
(2) because the wavelength of microwave comparison, we used the method to measured standing wave:
a. move the reflector until the receiver detects the signal for the largest (small), note the distance
between reflector and generator l1
b. the reflector and then later moved to have the greatest (small) signal, note the time interval l2
6. How do you prove that (ether) does not exist?
If light travels through ether, its speed must change in both the perpendicular and longitudinal
direction due the ether drag (like a boat moving on water). Since the velocity of light is now
changed in two directions, the wavelength must change (v = frequency wavelength), so we can
compute the interference pattern of the two sources by simple calculation and hence the new
fringe width or distance between two maximas, and they should have changed. But the result
from Michelson experiment shows that there was no change or shift in the two maximas and the
result was same as in static conditions, therefore light traveled with same velocity in both
directions, which proves that ether does not exist.

Error Analysis
1. Assistants have first warned, interference graph, are susceptible to vibration to change, so who I am very
careful when conducting experiments, lightly touching the table, immediately redo.
2. The most likely error is that the data is the number of eyes, because wheel was pulled, so can only be used to
control knob, is very inconvenient and not science, and eyes to identify first and last When unable to obtain the
correct value, because we pay attention to changes that were dark times, but no way to note the degree of
change, for example, how much is the radius of a circle extended to the whole, this record is very prone to error.

3. The experimental results of magnitude small unit of measurement tools for the relative under very rough, not
a kind of electronic display micrometers, how did not see it?
4. A simple calculation, if we miss a brightness variation of each is 101 times as 100 times, then:

0.0314 10 2
101
1.74
4
Error: 6.328 10

Error of about 1% more, the experiment shows that when the glasses to look at very carefully.