CHAPTER 5 SYLLOGISMS ‘A syllogism is an argument containing three statements: two premises and one conclusion, A. categorical syllogismis a syllogism made up of categorical propositions and containing three terms, each appearing in two propositions. 5.1 STANDARD FoRM A categorical syllogism contains exactly three general terms. The major term of a syllogism is the con- clusion’s predicate. The minor term is the conclusion’s subject. The middle term appears in both premises. (Because the rest of this chapter deals only with categorical syllogisms, we drop the adjective and speak simply of syllogisms.) Each premise contains the middle term and one other. The major ‘premise contains the major term; the minor premise contains the minor term. A syllogism is in standard form if itis stated in this form: ‘Major premise ‘Minor premise Conclusion Asyllogism's mood is a list of three letters signifying the form of the major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. (Recall that A stands for universal affirmative; I, particular affirmative; E, universal nega- tive; and O, particular negative.) ‘The figure of a syllogism depends on the placement of its middle term. This chart summarizes the figures according to the position of the middle term, M, in standard form (where P is the major, and S the minor, term): FIRST FIGURE, SECOND FIGURE Major premise M P P M Minor premise s M s M Conclusion s P s P THIRD FIGURE FOURTH FIGURE, Major premise M P P M Minor premise M s M s Conclusion s P s Pp One of the oldest but least illuminating ways of telling whether a syllogism is valid is to memorize the valid forms. On a modern interpretation, only 15 are valid. On an Aristotelian interpretation, 24 are. (Those valid only on an Aristotleian interpretation are in italics.) | |S.A STANDARD Form 49 VaLip Moops First figure AAA, EAE, AIL, EIO, AAI, EAQ Fourth figure ABE, IAI, EAO, EIO, AEO, AAI Second figure EAE, AEE, EIO, AOO, EAO, AEO Third figure AAI, FAO, TAL, ATT, OAO, EIO SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS For each of the syllogisms in the problem set for section 5.2, (1) state its major, minor, and middle terms; (2) state its figure and mood; and (3) say whether it is valid, using the chart of valid moods. 1, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: Ist. Mood: AAA. Valid. 2. Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: Ist. Mood: AU. Valid. 4. Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G, Figure: Ist. Mood: IAL NOT Valid. 5. Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: Ist. Mood: OAO. NOT Valid. 7, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 2nd. Mood: AAA. NOT Valid. 8, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 2nd. Mood: AO, Valid. 10. Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G, Figure: 2nd. Mood: EOI. NOT Valid. 11. Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 2nd. Mood: II. NOT Valid. 13, Major: H; Minor: E; Middle: G. Figure: 2nd. Mood: OBO. NOT Valid. 14, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 3rd, Mood: AAA. NOT Valid. 16, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 3rd. Mood: EAE. NOT Valid. 17. Major: H; Minor; F; Middle: G. Figure: 3rd. Mood: EIO. Valid. 19, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 3rd. Mood: OAO. Valid. 20, Major: H; Minor: F; Middle: G. Figure: 3rd. Mood: OBO. NOT Valid. 22. Major: H Minor: . Figure: 4th. Mood: AEE. Valid. 23. Major: H; Minor: . Figure: 4th, Mood: All. NOT Valid. 25. Major: H; Minor: . Figure: 4th, Mood: IAL. Valid. 26, No L are B; All U are B; -. No U are L. (L: liar; B: believable; U: upright man.) Figure: 2nd. Mood: EAE. Valid. 28. Some W are G; All W are M; Some M are G. (W: wicked man; G: man with great wealth; ‘M: miserable.) Figure: 3rd, Mood: IAI. Valid. 29, No F are E; Some F are $; Some S are not E. (F: folly; E: eloquent; : thing expressed syllo- gistically.) Figure: 3rd. Mood: EIO. Valid. 31. All E are T; No T are F; No F are E. (E: evil of this life; T transitory evil; F: evil to be feared.) Figure: 4th. Mood: AEE. Valid. 32, Some F are'f All Tare I; Some I are F. (F: fool; one who speaks the truth; I: one who de- serves to be imitated.) Figure: 4th. Mood: IAI. Valid, 34, No R are W; Some P are R; Some P are not W. (R: thing followed by a just regret; W: thing to be wished for; P: pleasure.) Figure: Ist. Mood: EIO. Valid. 35. All L are M; All R are L; All R are M. (L: one who lets those he should support die of hunger; ‘M: murderer;50 CHaPrmRS SvitocisMs 5.2 VENN DIAGRAMS ‘We begin evaluating a syllogism by constructing a diagram showing a circle for each term: ‘Second, we label each circle with a term, Third, we diagram the syllogism’s premises, beginning with universal premises. AILF are G. No Fare G. ‘We can represent Some F are G, on a diagram with three circles, in this fashion: Similarly, we can represent Some F are not Gas follows.5.2 VENNDixcrams SI ‘The X here means that we do not know whether any Fs are H. We know only that some Fs are not G. In both cases, the X crosses the circle for the term not present in the proposition being represented, It in- dicates that something is in the larger region made up of both areas into which it extends. After diagramming both premises, we check to see whether the diagram guarantees the truth of the conclusion. If it does, the syllogism is valid, If it does not, the argument form is not valid. An X strad- dling a line between unshaded regions is a sure sign of invalidity. ‘To summarize the Venn diagram method: 1. Construct a diagram consisting of three intersecting circles. 2. Label each circle with a term. 3. Diagram the premises, starting with universal propositions, if there are any. (If both premises are particular, the syllogism is invalid.) 5. Check to see whether the diagram guarantees the truth of the conclusion. If it does, the syllogism is valid. Ifnot, it is not valid. SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS 1, AllGareH, All F are G. ANF are H. Valid 2. AllG are H. Some Fare G. :. Some F are H. Valid 4, Some G are H. All Fare G. :. Some F are H. Not valid52 CuarreRS SyLLocisMs 5. Some G are not H. All Fare G. Some F are not H. 7, All Hare G. AIF are G. All Fare H. 8 AllHareG. Some F are not G. Some F are not H. 10. No Hare G. ‘Some F are not G. Some F are H. AL. Some Hare G. Some F are G. ©. Some F are H. Not valid Not valid Valid Not valid Not valid13. Some H are not G. No Fare G. ‘Some F are not H. 14, All Gare H. AllGare F. All Fare H. 16. No Gare H. AllG are F, "No F are H. 17, No Gare H. Some G are F. ‘Some F are not H. 19. Some G are not H. AllG are F. ‘Some F are not H. Not valid Not valid Not valid Valid Valid 52 VENNDicRAMS 53|Faee | 54 CuarrerS Sviiocisms 20. Some G are not H. No Gare R ‘Some F are not H. Not valid 3 22, All Hare G. No Gare F. No F are H. Valid 23, All Hare G. | Some Gare F. Some F are H. Not valid, 25. Some H are G. AllGare F, Some F are H. Valid ) 26. No L are B; All U are B; ». No U are L. (L: liar; B: believable; U: upright man.) Valid.29. 31 32. 8. Some W are 52. Vann DiacRams i All W are M; Some M are G. (W: wicked man; G: man with great wealth; M: miserable.) Valid. 38 No F are E; Some F are S; Some are not B. (F: folly; E: eloquent; S: thing expressed syllo- sistically.) Valid. AILE are T; No T are F; No F are E. (E: evil of this life; I: transitory evil; F: evil to be feared.) Valid. Some F are Tj All T are I; Some I are F. (F: fool; 7: one who speaks the truth; serves to be imitated.) Valid. ‘one who de-56 CHAPTERS SLLocisMS 34, NoR are W; Some P are R; Some P are not W. (R: thing followed by a just regret; W: thing to be wished for; P: pleasure.) Valid, 35. All L are M; All R are L; All R are M. (L: one who lets those he should support die of hunger: ‘M: murderer; R: one who is rich but does not give alms in time of public need.) Valid. 5.3 DIsTRIBUTION Another method involves applying rules for validity. A syllogism is valid, on this method, if it obeys all the rules. The key notion behind the rules for validity is distribution. A proposition distributes a term oc- curring in it if and only if its trath depends on the entire extension of the term. In general, a categorical proposition distributes a term if it asserts of every member of the term's extension that it is included in or excluded from the other term’s extension. ‘A proposition’s quantity determines the distribution of its subject term. Universal propositions have distributed subjects; particular propositions have undistributed subjects. A proposition’s quality deter- mines the distribution of its predicate term. Negative propositions have distributed predicate terms, while affirmative propositions have undistributed predicate terms. To summarize (D: Distributed; U: Undistributed): Universal Affirmative: All FP are oe Particular Affirmative: Some FU are. Gu Universal Negative: No PD are oe Particular Negative: Some FU arenot oe SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS 1. AILEP are GY. 2. No FP are GP. 4, Some FU are not GP. 5. Every [player on the team]? is (thinking about becoming a free agent]? 7. [Barbara hasn't told]> somebody she ought to have told]¥.54 RULESFORVauprry 57 8. Nofbody]P [saw where Joe went]. 10. [The cats have hidden my socks] some{where I haven't looked)P. 11. [I met]¥ a few [friends]” for dinner. 13, Many [of the students] [failed the midterm)”, 14, Most [of her friends} were [there]. 16, At most two [countries] [will vote against us). 17, [Kim talks to}? hardly any[body in her family. 5.4 RULEs FoR VALIDITY ‘There are five rules for validity that any valid syllogism must satisfy: 1, The middle term must be distributed at least once. 2. No term may be distributed in the conclusion if not distributed in the premises. 3. Atleast one premise must be affirmative. 4, If premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative. 5. If both premises are universal, the conclusion must be universal. Ifa syllogism conforms to all five rules, it is valid. SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS 1. AIL GP are HU. AIL PP are GU, All PP are HU, Valid. 2. ALG? are HY. No FP are GP, Some EU are not HP. Not valid; violates rule 2 (illicit major). 4, No GP are HP. AILEP are GU. No F? are HP. Valid. 5, No GP are HP, ‘Some FU are GU, . Some FU are not HP, Valid 7. ALP are GY, No FP are GP. No F? are HP. Valid. 8. ANLHP are GU. No FP are GP. ». Some FY are not HP. | Not valid; violates rule 5. (Valid on the Aristotelian interpretation.)10. 1 13, 14, 16. 12. 19, 20. 22. 23. CuarrmeS Syitocisms No H? are GP. All BP are GU. ‘Some FU are not HP. Not valid; violates rule 5. (Valid on the Aristotelian interpretation.) No HP are GP, Some FU are not GP. ‘Some FY are not HP. Not valid; violates rule 3. Some HY are not GP. Some FU are GU, ‘Some FU are not HP, Not valid; violates rule 2 (illicit major). ALG? are HY, Some GY are FY, Some FY are HU, Valid, No GP are HP. No GP are FD, No FP are HP. Not valid; violates rule 3. Some GU are HY. ALG? are FU, Some FU are HY, Valid. Some GY are not HP, AGP are FU, Some FU are not HP, Valid. ‘Some GY are not HP. No GP are FP, Some FU are HY. Not valid; violates rules 3 and 4. AILHP are GU. ‘Some GU are not F?, . Some FU are not HP. Not valid; violates rule 1 (undistributed middle). No HP are GP, AI GP are FY, Some FU are not HP. Not valid; violates rule 5, (Valid on the Aristotelian interpretation.)54 RULESFORVAUDIY 59 25. Some H? are GY. ‘Some GY are not FP, Some FU are not HP, Not valid; violates rule 1 (undistributed middle). 26. AUP are A. All Aare E. Some Pare B. (P: one of these pictures; A: thing I admire; E: thing I wish to examine thoroughly) Not valid; violates rule 5. (Valid on the Aristotelian interpretation.) 28. No Sare L. All L are. No Sare (S: song of his; 29. Some C are L. All Care M. Some M are L. (C:candle; L: thing that gives very little light; M: thing meant to give light.) Valid, 31. NoLareP. No Rare I AILR are P. G: ill-managed business; P: profitable; R: railway.) Not valid; violates rules 3 and 4. 32, All Ware U. No P are U. No Pare W. (W: wasp; P: puppy; U: unfriendly.) Valid. 34, No Fare P. Some D are not P. Some D are not F. thing that lasts an hour; T: tedious.) Not valid; violates rule 2 (illicit major). : duck.) Not valid; violates rule 3. 35. AllEareE, Some P are not F. :. Some P are not E. (E: eagle; P: pig; F: thing that can fly.) Valid. 37. To show that the conclusion of every valid second figure syllogism is negative, its enough to note that the middle term is predicate of both premises in second figure. But, by rule 1, the middle must be distributed at least once. So, at Ieast one premise must be negative. By rule 4, the conclusion must be negative as well 38. To show that every valid syllogism with a particular affirmative conclusion has exactly one particular affirmative premise, assume we have a valid syllogism with a particular affirmative conclusion, By rule 4, since the conclusion is affirmative, both premises must be affirmative. ‘Thus both premises have undistributed predicates. By rule 1, the middle term must be distrib- uted at least once, so one premise, at least, must have a distributed subject and thus be univer- sal. The other must be particular; if it were universal, the syllogism would violate rule 5. So, the syllogism must have exactly one particular affirmative premise.40. 41. 43. Guprer5 Syttocisms ‘To show that the only valid syllogism with a universal affirmative conclusion is in first figure, with mood AAA, suppose we have a valid syllogism with a universal affirmative conclusion. By rule 4, both premises must be affirmative: u u Dou The minor term is distributed in the conclusion, so it must be distributed in the minor premise as well-meaning that the middle term must be the predicate of the minor premise: u D___U (middle) DU By rule 1, the middle term must be distributed at least once. Since it is undistributed in the minor premise, it must be distributed in the major, and, so, be the subject term: (middie) DU D__U (middle) DU This is first figure, mood AAA. ‘To show that every valid syllogism whose minor premise is particular negative is in second figure, suppose we have a valid syllogism with a particular negative minor premise. Since a premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative, by rule 4; the other premise must be affirmative, by rule 3. So, the pattem of distribution must be vu aD D Since the major term is distributed in the conclusion, it must be distributed in the major premise, by rule 2, meaning that the middle term must be the prediicate of the major premise: DU (middle) up D Since the middle term must be distributed at least once, by rule 1, the middle term must also be the predicate of the minor premise, making the syllogism second figure (mood AOO—the minor term must be undistributed in the conclusion, since it is undistributed in the minor premise). ‘To show that the only valid syllogism with an affirmative conclusion in the fourth figure has mood IAI, assume that we have a valid fourth figure syllogism with an affirmative conclusion. By rule 4, both premises must be affirmative. The distribution pattern is thus: U (middle) (middle) u U By rule 1, the middle term must be distributed at least once, so the minor premise must be uni- versal: U (middle) (middie) u U ‘The minor term is undistributed in the minor premise, so, by rule 2, it must be undistributed in the conclusion as well:SS Repucrion 61 U (middle) (middle) D__U uu ‘The major premise must be particular; otherwise the syllogism would violate rule 5, So, the dis- tribution pattern must be UU (middle) (middle) u uu which is mood IAL 44, To show that every valid syllogism with a particular conclusion has one particular premise, assume we have a valid syllogism with a particular conclusion. By rule 5, it must have at least ‘one particular premise; if both premises were universal, the conclusion would have to be universal. In fact, it must have exactly one particular premise, Suppose it had two. Then the pattern of distribution of terms would have to be u u u ‘Now the middle term must be distributed at least once, by rule 1. So the predicate of one premise maust be distributed, but that means the premise is negative. By rule 4, the conclusion must be negative as well. So, the pattern of distribution must be one of UD (middle) u uv U__D (middle) uD uD And, by rule 3, the other premise must be affirmative. So, we have one of UD (middle) vou uu U__D (middle) uD uD with the middle being the only distributed term. But this is impossible; both violate rule 2, for the major term is then distributed in the conclusion but not in the major premise. 5.5 REDUCTION Aristotle developed the method of reduction to show syllogisms to be valid. ‘The method constitutes the first natural deduction system: a technique for establishing validity by constructing proofs. A natural deduction system is a set of rules of inference, which allow us to deduce propositions from other propositions. Proofs are extended arguments. Proofs show that the conclusion is true if the as- sumptions are true, A proofin a natural deduction system is a series of lines. On each line appears a categorical proposi- tion. Each proposition in a proof (a) is an assumption or (b) derives from propositions on previously es- tablished lines by a rule of inference. In the system of this chapter, the last line of a proof is its conclusion; the proof proves that proposition from the assumptions. Each line of a proof, then, looks like this: PROOF LINES ‘Number Proposition Justification The rules of inference in this chapter allow us to derive propositions in a proof if other propositions of certain kinds occupy already-established lines. The most important distinction between rules, however,62 CuariERs Svitocisms is between those that work only in one direction and those that work in both directions. Rules working, in one direction are rules of implication. Those that work in both directions are rules of replacement (or equivalence). They are also sometimes called invertible, for they rely on the equivalence of propositions. Aristotle showed that all valid syllogisms reduce to first-figure syllogisms. We take just two forms of the syllogism as fundamental: BARBARA Dar All Mare P. All Mare P. All S are M. Some S are M. All Sare P. Some S are P, We take these as basic rules of implication and abbreviate them with the letters B and D in giving justi- ications: BARBARA Darw a. All Mare P, a All M are P. All S are M. m. ‘Some S are M. PB All SareP, B, n,m P Some S are P. D,n,m Lines derived by these rules have justifications consisting of B or D and a line number, ‘We adopt two rules of equivalence, which we have already seen in chapter 4: CONVERSION SomeFareG. < SomeGareR Gn No Fare G. = NoGarek. Gn OBVERSION No Fare G. All FarenonG. On Some FarenotG. SomeFarenonG. 0,n ‘Lines derived by these rules have justifications consisting of C (or O) and a line number. Finally, on the Aristotelian interpretation only, another rule of implication allows the derivation of some syllogistic forms rejected as invalid on the modern interpretation. Recall that the Aristotelian in- terpretation assumes that terms have nonempty extensions and counts universal propositions as imply- ing corresponding particular propositions. SUBALTERNATION n, AllFareG. m SomeFareG. Sn This rule holds only on the Aristotelian interpretation, SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS Using reduction, show that the following are valid. If any are valid only on the Aristotelian interpre- tation, say so. 1.1, AllMareP, 2. Some Mare S. Ie 3. Some S are M. C2 4, Some S are P. D,1,310, te 13, 14, 55 Repucrion 63 1. NoMareP, 2. AllSare M 12. No S are P. 3. All Mare nonP. Ot 4, AlS are nonP. B,3,2 5. NoSareP. 0.4 1, NoMareP. 2, Some S are M. J. Some S are not P, 3. AIM are nonP. Ot 4. Some $ are nonP. D,3,2 5. Some S are not P. 0,4 1. Some M are P. 2. allMareS. 1: Some S are P. 3. Some P are M. Gt 4, Some Pare S. D,2,3 5. Some S are P. G4 1, NoPareM. 2. Some $ are M. 12, Some § are not P. 3. No Mare P. Gt 4, All Mare nonP. 0,3 5. Some $ are nonP. D,4,2 6. Some S are not P. 05 1. NoPareM. 2. AllSare M. 1:.No Sare P. 3. NoMareP. Gt 4, All Mare nonP. 0,3 5. All Sare nonP. B42 6. NoSareP, os 1, No MareP. 2. AllMareS. J. Some $ are not P. 3, Some Mare S. 8.2 4, Some S are M. 3 5. All Mare nonP. 1 6. Some $ are nonP. D,5,4 7, Some S are not P. 0,6 (his is valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) 1. Some Mare not P. 2. AllMareS. 1. Some S are not P. 3. Some M are nonP. On 4, Some nonP are M. C3 5. Some nonP are S. D,2,4 6. Some S are nonP. cs 7. Some $ are not P. 0,6 1. AllRareC. 2. Some Hare R. 1, Some Hare C. 3. Some Hare C. D,1,2 (R: one who does not remember the past; C: one condemned to repeat the past; H: one who fails to study history.) 1. AllRarel. 2. Alllare W. J, Some W are R, 3. Some R areI. 81 4, Some Rare W. D,2,3 5. Some Ware R. c4 (This is valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) (R¢ act of reflection; I: thing with potential for increasing self-knowledge; W: thing worth doing.)16. 17. 19, 20. 22, 23, 2s. CuarreRS SytLocisms No Mere H. All U are M. All Mare noni. Some U are M. Some U are nonH. . Some U are not H. Sea eEE 0,5 (This is valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) (M: moral action; H: act done from hate; U: act that maximizes utility.) No Tare. Some T are F Some F are T. All Tare nonl. Some F are nonl. ‘Some F are not I. govsere No P are M. All Mare W. ‘Some M are W. ‘Some W are M. No Mare P. All M are nonP. ‘Some W are nonP. ‘Some W are not P. SN OURYNE & thought; I: thing independent of the movements of matter; F: product of human freedom.) (This is valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) (P: product of human imagination and toi thing worth only the value assigned to it by the market; W: thing worth exactly what someone else will pay for it.) 1. All Ware M. 2. AllP are W. 3. Some P are W. 4. Some P are M. Je, Some P are M. 8,2 Di13 (This is valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) (W: thing that can be willed as universal law; M: moral duty; P: keeping of a promise.) 1. NoGarenonH. 2. NoFareH. Jo. No Fare G. 3. All F are noni. 0,2 4. NononH are G. Gl 5. AllnonH are nonG. 04 6. AILF are nonG, B53 7. NoFareG. 0,6 1, NoHarenonG. 2. NoGareF. J. AILF are nonH. 3. NoFareG. ©,2 4. NononG are H. Gt 5. All Fare nonG. 0,3 6. AllnonG are nonH. 0,4 7. AILF are non, B65 1. NoFareH. 2. NoFarenonG. 1. Some non are G. 3. All Fare nonlH, 0,1 4. Some F are noni. 8,3 5. Some nonH are F. C4 6. All Fare G. 0,2 7. Some nonH are G. D,6,5 (Valid only on the Aristotelian interpretation.)28. 29. 31. 32. 34, 35, 55 Repucon 65 AIlG are nonH. 2. NoGareF. 1. Some nonF are not H. 3. AlLG are nonF, 0,2 4, Some Gare non, 83 5. Some nonF are G. ca , 6 Soe Sea oe ee Pe ‘Some nonF are not H. 0.6 (vata only on the Aristotelian interpretation.) 1, All Hare G. 2. Some nonG are 1, Some F are non. 3. Some F are nonG, G2 4. No Hare nonG. O14 5. NononG are H. ca 6. AllnonG are nonH. 0,5 7. Some F are nonH. D,6,3 1, NoHareG. 2. NononG are nonF. J:.No H are nonF, 3. AllHare nonG. Ot 4, AllnonG are F, 0,2 5. All Hare F B43 6. No Hare nonk. 05 1. allDare, 2. Some nonTT are nonV. 7, Some nonV are nonD. 3. Some nonV are nonT. G2 4, No D are nonT. ot 5. NononT are D. G4 6. AllnonT are nonD. 0,5 7. SomenonVarenonD. _—D, 6,3 (Ei sport shown on television; V: sport that appeals to viewers; D: sport Don likes.) 1. AllnonR are nonU. 2. Some Care U. 1, Some Care R, 3. NononR are U. O14 4, No Uare nonR. 3 5. AllUareR, 0,4 6 Some CareR, D,5,2 (C: students in this class; R: one who read this section carefully; U: one who understands this problem.) 1, Some non are not C. 2. Allnonl are R. 1, Some I are not C, 3. Nononl are nonR. 0,2 4, NononR are nonl. C3 5. All nonR are I. 0.4 6. Some non are nonC. O14 7, Some nonC are nonR. 6 8, Some nonC are I. D,5,7 9. Some [are nonC. cs 10, Some I are not C. 0,9 (R: one who remembers the past; C: one condemned to repeat the past; I: ignorant.) 1, NoFare0. 2. NononO are R. fo Rare F Je Ne AllF are non0, O41 0,266 Cuaprer 5S SytLocisMs 5. AllF are nonR. B43 6. NoFareR. 0,5 (F- filial and fraternal person; O: one who likes to offend his/her superiors; R: one who likes to stir up rebellion.) 37. 1. No Sare nonH. 2. AllHareR. f2.No S are nonR. 3. All S are H. 0,1 4, allSareR. N,2,3 5. No SarenonR. 0,4 (S: son of mine; H: honest; R: one who is treated with respect.) 38. 1. No Mare nonS. 2. NononM are E. 12, No non are E. 3. NononS are M. Gt 4, All nonS are nonM. 0,3 5. AllnonM are nonE. 0,2 6. Allnon$ are nonE. B,5,4 7. NononSareE. 0,6 (M: miser; S: selfish; E: one who saves eggshells.) 40. 1. NononP are B. 2. NoSareP, /:.No S are B. 3. All S are nonP. 0,2 4, AllnonP are nonB. ot 5. all S are nonB. B43 6. NoSareB. 0,5 wrobable story; B: thing easily believed; S: one of his stories.) 41, 1. No Ware. 2. NononC are P. 1 3. All Ware nonC. 9, 4, AllnonC are nonP. 0, 5. All W are nonP, B, 6 NoWareP. 9, (W: wheelbarrow; C: comfortable; 43. 1. NoBareC. 2. NononCareS. 1-.NoBareS. 3. All Bare nonC. Ot 4. AillnonC are nonS, 0,2 5 AUBarenons B43 No Bare S. 0.5 & one of my boys; C: clever; S: one who could solve this problem.) 44. 1. NoBareL. 2. Some Bare not C. 1, Some non are not C. 3. Some Bare nonC. 0,2 4, Some nonC are B. C3 5. AllBare nonl. 0,1 6. Some non€ are nonL. D,5,4 7. Some nonl. are non. C6 8. Some nonL are not C. 0,7 (B: one of my boys; L: learned; C: choristers.)