Pragmatics 7 Irony

The statement is literally true, but it is connected with a presupposition [you are a light
smoker] which is false.

1. Origin of the term

The term originally referred to dishonest behaviour : in Ancient Greek (eirnea) =
"dissimulation - the ironical character in a classical Greek literature (in Platos writings
and in Greek comedies) might be someone who avoids answering questions directly or
someone who is a hypocrite, smb who hides his own merits behaviour in which one hides
the truth and pokes fun at anothers ignorance
2. The classical analysis of irony
According to the traditional analysis of irony, irony is a a figure of speech. Generally,
figures of speech involve the substitution of one term for another. A figurative term replaces
a literal one [e.g. in metaphors or metonymy]
(1)

a.Sam is filthy -> Sam is a pig.

b. The current president received a lot of indirect support from Hollywood.

- substitution is allowed because there is a certain relation between the senses of the two
terms. [pigs are by stereotypical definition filthy, Hollywood stands for the American film
industry]
According to the traditional account, in ironic utterance, the literal meaning is the opposite of
what is the intended meaning. In a way, we substitute the literal meaning of the sentence with
its opposite (2):

b. Would you like seconds? (to a guest who has eaten too much at your party)
The intended illocutionary force is not interrogative, but rather a humorous comment.
c. I think he is upset! [about someone who is so angry he might smash something]
ironical understatement not the opposite term, but a much weaker one is used.
d. Pleasure and action make the hours seem short. (William Shakespeare; Othello, said
during a boring class)
ironical quotation used to express the speakers attitude to a situation, not to suggest that
the statement is false.
In ironical utterances , the literal meaning is usually positive and the intended meaning is
usually negative. We are more likely to say (4) meaning (5) rather than the other way around.
(4)

Understatement is not always ironic though it can be used to minimize praise of self,
avoiding one kind of impoliteness:
(5)

(2)
a. You are a great athlete! [said to someone who has tripped and landed on the floor]
Intended meaning: You have very poor motor control!
b. You really must buy me one of these! (when seeing some ugly dresses in a shop]
Intended meaning:....

The traditional analysis of irony does not cover all the data. There are examples of ironic
statements that do not correspond to the definition in such examples, the intended meaning
is not really the opposite of the literal meaning.
(3)

a. I really appreciate light smokers [to a chain smoker]

a.
b.
c.

Were rather proud of our sons talent for music.

Actually Im rather good at crossward puzzles.
That wasnt such a bad meal that I cooked.

Despite the fact that irony usually expresses criticism, it is often felt to be less threatening
than open criticism:
(6)

c. The houses are well-looked after around here! (in a really run-down area)
Intended meaning:

a. Such wonderful weather!

b. Such horrible weather!

a.
b.

You have a natural instinct for driving straight into potholes!

You are a terrible driver!

Verbal irony is thus related to politeness speakers are ironic because they want to observe
another key principle of conversation, namely the Principle of Politeness Be Polite.
If you must cause offence, at least do so in a way which doesnt overtly conflict with the PP
[Politeness Principle], but allows the hearer to arrive at the offensive point of your remark
indirectly, by way of implicature" (Leech 1990: 82)

- verbal irony is usually meant to cause amusement [decreasing social distance and the threat
to face] it might be considered a positive politeness strategy for redressing the threat posed
by criticism
- verbal irony is less threatening for the positive face of the interlocutor than bald on record
criticism because it always contains some positive element [an element of praise] (see 6a)
which is taken in by the Hearer (Gibbs and Colston 2007: 12)

Because it was difficult to define figurative meaning and reconstruct the process through
which it was derived, Grice replaced figurative meaning with conversationally implicated
meaning transferring the problem from semantics to pragmatics (Sperber & Wilson 1981:
296)
3.1. Grices approach to verbal irony

Verbal irony is often understood as such due to facial expression, gestures and intonation
without them it is not often perceived.

Irony can be explained within the framework proposed by Paul Grice a purely pragmatic
account (Sperber & Wilson 1981: 296)

The interpretation of an utterance as ironic will depend on the external circumstances of the
utterance, on what participants have said in the context.

In Grices view, irony is a case of conversational implicature, generated by the speakers

flouting of the Quality Maxim (Grice 1975: 46).

(7)
What lovely weather! - uttered over the phone, it will not necessarily be perceived
as ironic (for instance, if the person at the other end of the line doesnt know what the
weather has been like.

By flouting the Quality Maxim, the speaker implicates the opposite of what is said. The
ironical speaker says something he does not believe to be true while having no intention to
tell a lie.

Irony is sometimes distinguished from sarcasm irony is meant to be more humorous, while
sarcasm is meant to be insulting and to convey scorn (Linder 2010: 122)

Thus, the hearer is compelled to look for an additional meaning, which, in Grices view, is
some obviously related proposition.The most obviously related proposition is the
contradictory of the one he purports to be putting forward (Grice 1975: 53).

Sarcasm slower rhythm of speech and lower pitch

(8)

a.
b.
power of speech
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Sometimes I need what only you can provide: your absence.

The trouble with her is that she lacks the power of conversation but not the
Is it time for your medication or mine?
Im trying to imagine you with a personality.
Earth is full. Go home.
Whatever kind of look you were going for, you missed.
"I never forget a face, but in your case I'll be glad to make an exception."

3. Modern theories of irony

The pragmatic approach to the study of figures of speech argues that figurative meaning
is in fact speaker meaning - the meaning that a speaker intends an utterance to have when he
produces it.
Speaker meaning usually includes the literal meaning of the sentence, it may be identical to
the literal meaning, but for indirect speech acts, it extends well beyond it.
In performing an indirect speech act the Speaker simultaneously means what he says - the
literal meaning - and also more than he says - the conversationally implicit meaning

(9) [A is building a house. B has come to help A. However, for two hours, B has been doing
nothing but drinking beer and playing with the dog.
A: Youre a big help!
According to Grices theory, A utters something untrue, thus failing to observe the quality
maxim. At the same time, the implied meaning of As utterance is the opposite of what is
said, namely that B is no help at all.
As to the processing of this ironical remark, the model proposed by Grice is as it follows.
- A says <B is a big help>;
- This is obviously not true since B hasnt done anything all day.
- A seems to be breaking the maxim of quality. There is no reason to suppose that A is doing
this because he wants to deceive us. He is probably cooperative, and flouted the maxim of
quality because he wants us to draw an implicature.
- The most obvious implicature, given Bs behaviour, is that <B is no help at all>.
In this framework there are thus 3 stages in the interpretation of irony:
(a) processing the literal meaning of a sentence
(b) rejecting the literal meaning on pragmatic grounds
(c) reinterpreting the sentence

(10)

Alan: Are you going to Paul's party?

Cindy: I don't like parties. [Cindy is a party animal]

was awful, but also to express an opinion, not about the party, but about the proposition in
(11a) for instance, It was ridiculous to expect the party to be wonderful!
(12)

Sperber and Wilson (1986) claim that the processing of irony is not distinct from that of the
literal meaning of an utterance and that ironic meaning is arrived at directly, without the
mediation of a rejected interpretation.

It seems to be raining! (two people are caught in a storm)

-

In Further Notes on Logic and Conversation (1978) Grice extends the definition of irony
seen as a conversational implicature. Grice claims that irony is a way of pretending and,
consequently, of adopting an attitude towards a state of affairs.
To be ironical is among other things, to pretend and while one wants the pretence to be
recognized as such, to announce it as pretence would spoil the effect (Grice 1978:125).
The claim that irony equally expresses an attitude on the part of the speaker significantly
broadens the scope of irony.

(13)

this doesnt express the opposite of what the speaker thinks, it just expresses LESS
than what he thinks! the fact that the proposition is true is patently obvious
The utterance itself is emphasized not the situation, and the speaker dissociates
himself from it.
Im glad we didnt bring an umbrella.

- in this example, the classical theory is applicable, because the speaker does not believe
what he says. Perhaps this utterance echoes an earlier piece of advice Dont bother to take
an umbrella. By repeating this advice in the pouring rain, the Speaker makes fun of its
futility.
(14) Did you remember to water the flowers?

Thus, in example (9) Speaker A expresses an attitude of indignation, while actually implying
the opposite of what he says. At the same time, A pretends to be speaking in somebody elses
voice, namely somebody who appreciates the help B is offering.

Q: Does Grices theory conform to the classical notion that irony involves meaning the
opposite of what is literally said?
3.2. Sperber & Wilson (1986) counterarguments against the classical and Grices
theories of irony

This is a question, so it is difficult to say what its opposite could be. The question is
ironical because it is irrelevant the speaker is not interested in the answer, he
wants to emphasize how pointless the question itself is. So the message of the
question is the Speakers the attitude to it. It is not a real request for information.

In examples (11a, 12, 13, 14) the Speaker is expressing a belief about his utterance, rather
than by means of it.
Compare (11-14) above with (15) below:

Sperber and Wilson argue that the traditional definition of irony is flawed. Since according to
the traditional definition an ironic utterance communicates a proposition which could have
been conveyed through a literal utterance, the ironical utterance in (11a) would be
pragmatically equivalent to its literal counterpart in (11b):
(11)

a. What a wonderful party! [the party is very boring]

b. What an awful party!.

Yet, the two utterances differ as to the speakers motivation and the attitude conveyed.
Moreover, the effects on the hearer by each of the utterances are likely to be very different.
If the speaker wanted to say (11b) why not say so directly? What is the point of the indirect
approach? What difference is there between saying What a wonderful party ironically and
What an awful party ironically?...maybe the speaker intended not only to say that the party

(15)

a.
b.
c.
d.

What awful weather!

It seems to be thundering!
Im sorry we didnt bother to bring an umbrella.
Did you remeber to bring in the washing?

The utterances in (15) do not express the Speakers attitude to the utterance, but to the
weather, the rain, etc. They are not ironical.
Sperber & Wilson see irony as an example of echoic use of language. The Speaker conveys
a certain attitude to the proposition echoed.
To understand the term echoic we have to understand first the distinction between the use
of a linguistic expression and the mention of a linguistic expression.

(20)

A: Im tired.
B: Youre tired. And what do you think I am?

3.3. The use-mention distinction

Implicature:...
The use-mention distinction is used to explain the difference between (11-14) and (15).
Use of an expression = actually using it in a sentence, we think about its sense, not the
expression itself
Mention of an expression = referring to the expression itself
(16)

a. These examples are rare and marginal.

b. Marginal is a technical term.

(17)

a. What a shame!
b. Dont just say What a shame; Do something!
-

The expressions used in (a) are mentioned/echoed in the sentences in (b)

Consider the dialogues:

(17)
(18)

BUT irony has no obligatory formal features, sometimes even ironic intonation is missing.
Sometimes what is mentioned is not a proposition expressed by an utterance, but a thought
imputed by the speaker to the hearer.
(22)

A: I think, you should leave now! [A thinks B is drunk]

B: I understand you. Yes, I am very drunk. A glass of wine was enough!

Implicature: ....

A: Where can I buy pretzels?

B: Where can you buy pretzels? At Barneys, of course.

For the hearer understanding this utterance means realizing that it is an instance of ironical
mention rather than use and recognizing the Speakers attitude to the proposition mentioned.

Doolittle: Listen here, Governor. You and me is men of the world, aint we?
Higgins: Oh! Men of the world, are we? Youd better go, Mrs Pearce! (GB Shaw,
Pygmalion]

Implicature:...

A: Ive got a toothache.

B: Oh, youve got a toothache. Open your mouth, and lets have a look!

(19)

(21)
Darcy: You take an eager interest in that gentlemans concerns, said Darcy in a
less tranquil tone, and with a heightened colour.
Elizabeth: Who that knows what his misfortunes have been can help feeling an
interest in him?
Darcy: His misfortunes! repeated Darcy contemptuously, yes, his misfortunes
have been great indeed.

The propositions used by Speaker A are mentioned/echoed in the responses given

by Speaker B.
The echoed sentences are not reported speech it would be pointless, since the
utterance has just been made, to try and inform smb about the respective utterance
They are meant to indicate that the utterance has been heard and understood.

3.4. Irony as echoic mention Sperber & Wilson (1981)

Sometimes the speaker may echo a remark in such a way as to suggest that he finds it false,
inappropriate or irrelevant tone : doubtful, scornful, disapproving reflects the Speakers
attitude to the proposition.

Ironical utterances often involve a switch in style of register. For examples it is quite
common to show that ones utterance is ironical by changing to a more pompous or formal
style:
(23)

A: Thats done it youve broken the vase. I hope youre satisfied my lady.

The Speaker is echoing an imagined utterance or opinion the speaker is echoing the sort of
deferential remark that he implies the hearer is expecting.
An ironical remark will have as a natural target the originators, real or imagined, of the
utterances or opinions being echoed.
(24)
(25)

Yeah, he plays by the rules! [if he is a cheat]

The targets are all those who claim or think that he plays by the rules
What lovely weather!

-no particular target, if no one in particular has made this prediction!

Playful remarks used to scold others contribute to reinforcing ingroup solidarity.

When the speaker echoes himseld the irony is self-directed:

Addressing a friend who has made a complete pig of himself at the latest party only enhances
familiarity and straightforwardness which are permissible among ingroup members.

(26)

I am clever, arent I? [after breaking a plate]

(31) Delighted to see you again, Mr. Exquisite Manners!

There is a strange asymmetry in the uses of irony: one is more likely to say "How clever" to
imply "how stupid" than the other way round.
The traditional theory of meaning inversion does not explain this phenomenon, because it
should work in both directions. In Sperber & Wilsons approach it is explained. Standards of
behaviour (i.e. good things) are culturally defined, frequently invoked, thus they are available
for echoic mention.

Activities: Comment upon and translate the following ironical statements below:
A magazine column entitled Hollywood Gossip comprises the following piece of news that
informed the reader on Leonardo Di Caprios latest Hollywood payment for his film:
(1) After cashing almost 12,000,000 for his latest film The Beach, Leo will have a hard
time spending it oneverything he can think of. (OK, October 1999:14)

On the other hand, critical judgements are particular to a given individual, are less frequently
mentioned. It is possible to say ironically of a failure: That was a great success since it is
normal to hope for success. However, to say of a success that it was a failure, the speaker
must be able to refer back to prior perhaps exaggerated doubts or fears.

(2) In an interview with Sarah Jessica Parker, who has come to attend the VH-1 Fashion
Awards, the reporter cannot refrain from reminding her of the latest news on her anorexic
tendencies, to which she replied:

3.5. The pretence theory of irony

Who me? Eating disorder? Compared to the people here, I consider myself huuuuuge.
(Cosmopolitan, February 1998: 13)

Ironical utterances "allude to expectations or norms that have been violated" (KumonNakamura et al. 2007: 60).
(27) Thanks for holding the door. (uttered to a person who just slammed the door in your
face)
(28) How old did you say you were? (uttered to an adult person behaving in a very childish
way)
-a huge difference between reality and what the norms or the expectations are the speaker
pretends not to see the reality, he pretends to be ignorant, but the intention is for the hearer to
see through the pretence and understand the speakers real attitude.
Both the speaker and the hearer might pretend to live in an ideal world where the norms or
expectations previously entertained havent been violated:
(29) A and B consider whether to go to a party or not. Finally they decide to go, but the party
is very boring.
A: "Im so glad we decided to come."
B: "We would have missed a lot."
Irony does not necessarily involve criticism it might also be a sign of affection:
(30)

I love you, you idiot!

(3) Previous to the conversation, Blanche has been drinking his whisky. Her sister, Stella,
offered her the drink and she drank two glasses. When she left, Blanche poured herself
another three glasses and put the bottle back on the shelf, hoping that nobody might notice.
By the amount of alcohol she is able to drink in a very short period of time, it is clear that she
has a drinking problem, although she chooses to deny it.
Stanley: Liquor goes fast in hot weather. (U1) [He holds the bottle to the light to observe its
depletion] Have a shot? (U2)
Blanche: No, I -rarely touch it. (U3)
Stanley: Some people rarely touch it, but it touches them often. (U4)
Blanche: [faintly] Ha-ha. (U5) [Tennessee Williams, A Streetcar Named Desire]
(4) Stanley is blind with rage, because he suspects that Blanche is responsible for the loss of
her parents estate. He ravages the contents of Blanches trunk in search of some papers that
were to prove how the estate had been lost. The trunk contains only clothes and jewelry.
Blanche: It looks like my trunk has exploded. (U1)
Stanley: Me and Stella were helping you unpack. (U2)
Blanche: You certainly did a fast and thorough job of it! (U3)
Stanley: It looks like you raided some stylish shops in Paris. (U4)
Blanche: Ha-ha! Yes, clothes are my passion! (U5)
Stanley: What does it cost for a string of fur-pieces like that? (U6)

Blanche: Why, those were a tribute from an admirer of mine! (U7)

Stanley: He must have had a lot of admiration! (U8)